con ten tsdspace.lzuu.lt/bitstream/1/6417/1/70402.pdfpart two social psychological perspectives 49...
TRANSCRIPT
Con ten ts
Preface v
Part One WHA T IS SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY? 1
The Domain of SocialPsychology 3
Some Problems of Interest to SocialPsychology 4Case 1. Questioning the Witnesses 4
Social Inffuences on Memory 5Applying Social Psychology 5
Case 2. Why Did He Do lt? Attributions toOthers and to Oneself 5
GausaIAttributions 5Thinking about Ourselves 6
Case 3. How the United States BecameEnmeshed in Vietnam 6
Thinking and Decision Making 6Steteotypes 7
Case 4. Changes in Stereotypes, Opinions,and A ttitudes 7
Case 5. Cults, Conformity, and Persuasion 8joining and Gonforming to Groups 9Persuasion and Leadership 10
Case 6. Does Familiarity Breed Contempt?The Development of Liking and the Changeof Attitudes 10
Case 7. Criminal Violence and Handguns 10Deiinition, Aim, and Gauses of Aggression II
What Social Psychology Is 12Dehnition and Focus 12Emphasis on Theories 13Theories and How to Evaluate Them 14Theoretical Perspectives 15
Theoretical Perspectives in the History ofSocial Psychology 16
Some Philosophical and SociologicalPrecursors 16Social Psychology Gets Under Way 18Social Psychology from the Late 1920s to WorldWar JI 19Social Psychology after World War JI 20
Summary 21
Research Methods inSocial Psychology 25
Social Psychology as Science 26The Quest for Assurance 26Testing the Validity of Hypotheses 26Relying on Authorities 26Common Sense as a Source of Knowledge 27Distorted Perceptions 28The 1mportance of Replication 29The Hypothesis Test 30
Formulating the Investigation 30Selecting the Problem 30Discovery through Research 32Operationalizing the Concepts 33
Designing the Investigation 33Correlational Research 33Experiments 35Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments 37
Sampling 39The Literary Digest Poli: A Classic Case of
Unrepresentative Sampling 39Achieving Representativeness 39
Some Possible Problems with Experiments 40Generalizing 41Experimental Artifacts 411mplications 43
Some Ethicallssues in ExperimentalResearch 43
Deceptions 43Summary 45
CONTENTS
Part Two SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES 49
Social Motivation 51Seeking a Desired Payoff 52
Wanting What We Can Get 52Expectancy- Value Analyses 52
Choosing Alternatives 53Examples of Expectancy- Value Analyses 53
Equityand What People Think TheyDeserve 53
Equity in the Economic Area 541nvestments That Count 54
Comparing Outcomes 56Reference Groups as Comparison Standards 56Comparisons, Expecietions, and Fairness 58
The Valued Self 60Wanting a Favorable Standing 60Selt-Presentation 61
Impression Management 61Selt-Consistency: To Thine Own Seit Be
True 62Self-Awareness 62Consequences of Self-Focused Attention 63
Cognitive Dissonance 64Wanting Consistent Cognitions 64Leter Revision: Threat to the Self 64Conditions Facilitating Dissonance 65
egative Reflection on the Self 66Is the Dissonance Reaction only a Self-Presentation? 67The Pervasiveness of Dissonance 68
The Controlling, Effective Self 68Control over Outcomes 68
Control over Unpleasant Events 68Control over Rewsrds 70
Personal Control and Behavior 71Perceived Locus of Rewards 71Self-EHicacy 72
The Desire for Control 72The 1llusion of Control 72
Self-Knowledge 74Social Comparisons 74Similar in What Way? 75
Summary 76
Social Cognition 79
Gategories and Schemas 80The Categorization Process 80Schemas Guiding Understanding andMemory 83Holding on to Schemas: When Belief CreatesReality 86
Gausai Judgments 91Attribution Theory 91Attribution Rules 94Analysis of a Single Incident: Psychologist Ratherthan Statistician 96Attributional Biases: The Individual as ImperfectScientist 96Attributions in Self-perception 99
Limited Rationality 103Sslience, Attention, and Availability in CausalJudgments 103Optimizing and Satisficing 105Judgmental Biases in Probsbiliiy Estimates 106
Summary 109
Unreasoned Behavior 113
Nonthoughtful Influences 114We Know Nat What We Do-Sometimes 114The Effect of Repeated Exposure onAttitudes 114The Formation and Operation ofAssociations 116
A Look at Emotions 120Cognitive Shaping of Emotion Arousal 120
Emotions as Netwoiks 122Affect and Consistency J 24
Routines in Thought and Action 125Thinking Only When Necessary 125Social Scripts 126Scripts and Mindlessness 127Social Rules and Ethnomethodology J 28
Summary 129
Part Three BASIC TOPICS INSOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 133
PERSON PERCEPTION 135
David L. Hamilton
A Gonceptual Framework for UnderstandingPerson Perception 136
The Information Available J 36Cognitive Structures 137Cognitive Processing 137Representations in Memory 137Subsequent Use of Information 138
Schemas in Person Perception 138Influence of Schemas on Attention 138Influence of Schemas on Interpretation J 39Influence of Schemas on What Information IsProcessed and Retained 139Influence of Schemas on Organization ofInformation in Memory 142Influence of Schemas on InferenceProcesses 142Influence of Schemas on Behavior 14 3Influence of Schemas on Person Perception:Summary 145
Impression Formation 145Development of First Impressions: Asch's
Work 145Organizing the Information 145Influence of "Central" Traits J 46Interaction of Information J 46
CONTENTS
Person Memory 147Organization in Memory 147Processing Information about Several Persons:Persons as Organizing Units 148
Information Integration in Judgments ofOthers 149
Anderson 's Approach 149Differential Weighting of Information 150
Attribution Processes in PersonPerception 154
Correspondent Inference Theory 155The Fundamental Attribution Etroi 157Attributions of Actors and Observers 158Effect of Salience on Person Perception 160
Summary 161
Attitudes and Action 165
Importance of Attitudes 166Inconsistencies between Attitudes andBehavior 166Attitudes Do Matter-Sometimes 166
Definition of Attitude 168Types of Definitions 168Attitude as Feeling 168Attitudes and Opinions 168
Operation of Attitudes 169Reasoned Reactions 169
Expected Benefits 169The Fishbein-Ajzen Theory of ReasonedAction 170Activating Intentions 172
Affective Reactions 173Feeling-Driven Behevior 173Cognitive Consistency 173Balance Theory 175Amount of Thought 177Dissonance Theory 177
When Attitudes Predict Behavior 178A Classic Failure 178
Activate the Attitude 178Sufliciently Strong Feelings 178
CONTENTS
Types of Attitudes and Accessibility 180Relevance and Specificity 182
Attitude Relevance 182Measure Attitudes at the Appropriate Level ofSpecificity 183
Summary 183
Persuasion and AttitudeChange
Changed Attitudes Can Change BehaviorRoutes to Attitude Change 188The Role of Thoughts in Attitude Change 189
People Do Nat Always Think: The Importanceof Involvement 189Differences between the Broadcast and the PrintMedia 190Active Thinkers: Cognitive Responses asMediators of Persuasion 193Communicetot's Credibility and CognitiveResponses 194
Feelings and Attitude Change 195Pleasant Feelings Smooth the Way 195Cognitive Dissonance and A ttitude
Change 195Deviating from One's Attitudes 195Attitude-Discrepant Communications 196Nonobvious Results: Persuasiveness of theUnattractive Communicator 197Dissonance and Decisions 197
Involuntary Processes in Attitude Formationand Change 199
Associative Factors in Attitude Development andChange 199More Exposure and the Effects ofRepetition 200
Resistance to Persuasion 201Indications of Resistance 201
Selective Exposure 201To Be Forewarned Is to Be Forearmed 203
Reactance and Threats to One' sFreedom 203Reactance Theory 203Implications: Doa't Push Too Hard 205
Summary 205
187188
Social Influence:Conformity, Compliance,and Obedience 209
Types of Influence 210Conformity 211The Asch Experiments 211
The Original Research 211Leiet Investigations 213
Analyzing Conformity 214Factors Influencing Normative Social
Influence 214Deviation May Be Dangerous 214Power 215
Factors Affecting Informationallnfluence 219Consensus and the Social Definition ofReality 219The Sherif Experiment 220Affecting "Reelity" by Altering the ApparentConsensus 220
Influence of Minority on Majority 224Why Does the Majority Accept New Ideas? 224A Concept of Minority Influence 225
Compliance 227Inducing Compliance 227
The Apparent Support for an Action 227Self-commitment 228Low-Balling 230The Foot-in-the-Dooi Technique 231
Obedience 232Compliance with Authority 232
Succumbing to Power 232Research on Reactions to Legitimate
Authority 234Other 1nvestigations 235
Summary 237
Interpersonal Attraction:Liking and PersonalRelationships 239
The Development of Liking 240Rewards and Liking 241
Liking Those Who Benefit Us 241Qualities of Likable People 242Coopetstion, Competition, and Rewards 243Liking Those Who Like Us 244
Attitude Similarity and Liking 245Correlational Evidence 245Experiments on Attitude Similarity 247The Benelits of Attitude Agreement 248Dissimilarity Can Produce Dislike 248Similarity on Social Characteristics 249
Nonthoughtful Influences 252Mere Exposure 252
Familiarity 252Effects of Social Contact 253
Limitations of Social Contact 256The Complex Effects of RacialDesegregation 256Feciots Limiting the Benefits of SocialContacts 257
Associations with Pleasant Events 258Physical Attractiveness 258
Effects of Physical Attractiveness 259
Personal Relationships 260Close Relationships 260
Characteristics of Close Relationships 260Ftietidships 261Love 263The Role of Feelings in Love 263
The Development of Love 266Proximity and Contact 266The Role of Physical Attractiveness 266A Satisfying Relationship 269
Summary 270
Group Dynamics
Individuais and Group Members 274What a Group Is 274Individual Reactions to Others 276
Social Facilitation 276Social Loafing 278
273
CONTENTS
Groups Are Different from MereAggregations 280
Categorizations into Groups 280Within-Group Influence 280
Ingroup-Outgroup Relations 281Effects of the Ingroup-Outgroup
Distinction 281Automatic Cognitive Processes in GroupRelations 282Favoring the Ingroup over the Outgroup 283
Group Characteristies 285Group Cohesiveness 285
Sources of Cohesiveness 285Consequences of Cohesiveness 286
Group Structure: Differentiation among theMembers 288
Status in the Group 289Communication Channels in the Group 290
Leadership 292Gaining Leadership Status 292Effective Leadership Behavior 294
Leadership Roles 295Effects of Lesdėtship Roles 295Situational Conditions and LeaderEffectiveness 295
Group Performance 297Performance 297Status Bsttiets 298Social Pressures 299
Summary 301
Aggression 305Defining Aggression 307Influences on Unreasoned Aggression 308Instinct Notions of Aggression 308
Two Concepts of an Instinctive Drive towardAggression 308Evaluation of Aggressive Instinct Concepts 309An Alternative Concept of Instincts 309
CONTENTS
Frustration and Aggression 310The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis 310Definition of Frustration 310The Relation between Frustration andAggression 311Factors Affecting the Likelihood That FrustrationWill Lead to Open Aggression 313
Aversively Generated Aggression 315Frustrations as A versive Events 315Reactions to Aversive Events 315Research on A versively GeneratedAggression 316Other Evidence Regarding the Negative Effectsof Aversive Stimulation 317Attributions, Perceived Intentions, andUnpleasantness 318Some Implications: Some Effects of AversiveEvents on Violent Crimes 319
Involuntary Effects of EnvironmentalStimuli 320
Associations with Aversive Conditions 320Associations with Aggression: The Weapon'sEffect 322
Cognitive Processes in AggressiveBehavior 324How Understanding Affects Aggression 324
Understanding the Arousing Incident 324Consistency with Self-conceptions 325The Benefits of Aggression 326Some Unreasoned Effects of PositiveReinforcements 330
Lessening and Controlling Aggression 331Lessening Aggressive Inclinations 331Control of Aggression 332
Summary 335
Helpfulness and Altruism 339The Importance of the Situation 341
Modern Life and Indifference 341Why Help Is Given 342
The Other's Need 345Interpretation of the Situation 345
Bystander's Influence 345Emotion Arousal and Empathy 349
Arousal as a Spur to Action 349Empathy 349
Social Norms and Person al Ideals 352Social Norms Prescribing Help 352
The Reciprocity Norm 353The Social Responsibi!ity Norm 354
PersonaI Values and Self-Conceptions 358Personalldeals 358Self-Conceptions and Self-Consistency 358Self-Awareness and Self-Concern 358
PersonaI Responsibility 360One's Responsibility to Aid Others 361The Di!fusion of Responsibility 362
Costs and Feelings 363The Costs of Helpfulness 363
Types of Costs 363Reactance as a Cost of Helping 365
Effects of Feelings on Helpfulness 366Guilt-Edged Helpfulness 366Mood and Magnanimity 369
Summary 371
Sex Differences andSimilarities 375
Margaret Matlin
Interpersonal Communication 376Facial Expression 376Eye Contact 377Personal Space 377Touch 378Talking Patterns 378Individual Di!ferences in Communication
Persuasion and Influence 379Influencing Others 379Being Influenced by Others 380
Helping and Altruism 381
AItruism 381Empathy 382
Aggression 383Factors Influencing Sex Di!ferences 384Sex Roles and Aggression 384Origins of Sex Di!ferences in Aggression 385
Work 386Achievement Motivation and Fear ofSuccess 386Leadership 388Characteristics of Workers 389
Social Cognitions about Gender 390Categorization on the Basis of Sex 390Sex Stereotypes 392Evafuations of Males and Females 393Attributions for Males and Females 394
Summary 395
Part Four APPL YING SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY 399
The Environment andSocial Behavior 401Vernon L. Allen
Behavior-Environment Processes 403Personal Space 403Territoriality 406Crowding 407Privacy 411Interrelations among Processes 413
Architecture, Design, and SocialInteraction 413
Interior Design and theMicro-Environment 414Residences 414Institutions 417Architectural Determinism 418
The City 419Cognitive Maps 419ProsocialBehavior 422
CONTENTS
Crime and Vandalism 422Information Over/oad 424
Summary 426
Social Psychology andTrial by Jury 429
Charlan Jeanne Nemeth
Historical Background and Place in theCommunity 430
History of fury TriaIs 430Cross-Section of the Community 431
Jury Selection 431Operation of fury Selection Procedures 432Sex Diiierences 433Other Demographic Variables: Rsce, Age,Politics, Education 434Predictions from Personality and Attitudes 434
The Credibility of the Facts: EyewitnessTestimony 438
The Unreliability of the Eyewiiness 438The Interrogation Process 440Improving Eyewitness Reports 441
The Jury as a Group 442Conformity to Majority Opinion 442Influence of the Minority 442Acting ConFidently in Choice of Seat 443The Influencial Minority: The Case ofChoa 443
Procedural Changes in Our Jury System 444Allowing for SmalIer furies 444Allowing for Unaninimity 445Empirical Research on Nonunanimity 445Community ConFidence 446
Summary 446
Health Psychology: ASocial PsychologicalPerspective
Howard Leventhal
What Is Health Psychology? 450
449
CONTENTS
The Basic Questions in Health Psychology 450Conceptual Issues in Health Psychology 451
Health Behavior 452The Need for Health Behavior Research 452
Changes in Ptevslence and Incidence ofDisease 452
Approaches to Prevention 454Biomedical Approaches to Prevention 454Behsviotsl Approaches to Prevention 454Risk Factors 454Changing Risk Factors 457Responses to Warnings of Danger 458
Large-Scale Interventions 460Community- Wide Interventions: The Stanford 3Community Program 460The School Model 462
Smoking as a Social PsychologicalProcess 463
Why People Smoke 463Designing Interventions for Smokets'Needs 464
IlIness Behavior 465Components of an IIIness Episode 465
Stages of Jllness Behavior 465Jllness Representation and Jllness Behavior 466
Coping and Adaptation to IIIness 468Emotional Response to Jllness and ltsTreatment 468Cognitive Representation of Jllness andCoping 468Automatic Representations of Jllness andlnvoluntetv Reactions 470Long- Term Adaptation to Chronic Jllness 471
Compliance with Medical Regimens 472Beheviorsl Approaches to Compliance 473Cognitive (Self-Regulation) Approaches toCompliance 473
Summary 475
References 477Name Index 522Subject Index 530