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Steel Structures 6 (2006) 393-407 www.kssc.or.kr

Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete

Composite Bridges: State of the Art

Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi1,* and Airong Chen2

1PhD Candidate, Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Professor, Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Abstract

This research presents the current state of the art in steel-concrete composite structures. The focus is on steel beam–concretedeck connections and the effects of their interaction. First, analysis and design methods of composite bridge structures,connections between components, the reliability and life cycle of bridges, new concrete-steel bridge system forms, and thedevelopment of alternative materials used in composite bridges were reviewed with some potential applications. The conceptualideas on new forms of connectors and the application of hollow core slab decks in composite bridge structures were alsopresented.

Keywords: Bridge, Composite bridge, Connector, Conceptual, Perfobond connector, Voided slab modeling.

1. Introduction

The design and construction of bridges have evolved

for the past thousands of years at different rates. The

extensive use of the automobile and the development of

modern highway networks increased the rate of construction

of different types of bridges and necessitated the further

development of the exact science of bridge construction.

The evolution of bridges is the result of a combination of

developments in construction materials, structural forms,

and design and analysis methods. Composite structures

were introduced to serve as a highly competitive type of

bridge comparable to common types of bridges such as

concrete and prestressed concrete bridges due to their

reduced weight and quick and cost-effective erection.

(Hayward, 1988), (Ansourian, 1988), (Haensel, 1998) and

(Saul, 1998) The use of steel-concrete composite decks as

part of other types of bridges such as cable-stayed bridge

types were also conducted and adopted as an alternative

solution (Reis and Pedro, 2004), (Combault and Teyssandier,

2005). Composite bridges may also be used in constructing

concrete bridges to elevate the structure from the ground

level, whereas steel girders can support formwork and

reinforcement (Collin and Lundmark, 2002). Extensive

investigation in recent decades in countries such as the

USA, France, Brazil, Japan, China, and all over the world

focused on the development of steel-concrete composite

bridges, their design and analysis methods, creation of

new types of connections, the enhancement of bridge

reliability, and the use of alternative forms and materials,

such as Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) and Inorganic

Phosphate Cement (IPC) to form new types of hybrid

bridges, (Galambos, 2000), (Brozzetti, 2000), (Batista

and Ghavami, 2005), (Nakamura, 1998), (Nakamura et

al., 2002), (Wan et al., 2005) and (Roover et al., 2002).

As the state of the art in the development of the hybrid

bridge with special attention to composite steel-concrete

bridges, it can be seen that the direction being taken by

research studies focuses on: (1) analysis and design

methods of composite bridge structures; (2) connections

between composite bridge components (steel girder-

concrete deck connection); (3) performance of composite

bridges with the overall structure life (reliability and life

cycle of bridges); (4) establishment of new concrete-steel

bridge systems; and (5) the development of alternative

materials to be used in composite bridges.

2. Analysis and Design of Composite Bridge Structures

There are two existing types of composite bridges,

namely I-girder and Box-girder composite bridges, as

shown in Fig. 1. The methods of analysis for both types

of composite bridges have two main categories: (1)

adoptive and analytical method to calculate structural

stress; (2) computation of a response of a section to

different load histories using numerical methods, such as

the finite element method, as well as the design methods

depending on the use of numerical methods or adopting

the method stated by country-specific building codes,

*Corresponding authorTel: +86-13524823687; Tel: +86-21-65983116-5204E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Technical Article

394 Suhaib Yahya Kasim Al-Darzi and Airong Chen

which mainly depend on experiments. Nowadays, several

codes are available to support the design of composite

bridges, such as Chinese Code (GBJ, 1988), AISC

Specification, and AASHTO-LRFD. (Chinese code, GBJ.,

1988), (AISC Specification, 2005), (AISC Commentary,

2005b), (FHWA/NHI, 2003) (AASHTO, 1994), (Salmon

and Johanson, 1990) and (Chen and Duan, 2000) However,

the development of design and analytical methods of

composite bridges comprised the development of numerical

and analytical models that usually accompanied experimental

tests, with the aim of obtaining the best simulation and

the most accurate results. There is the Guyon-Massonnet

method, stated by Guyon (1949), Massonnet (1950), and

Morice and Little (1956), and other methods with a wide

application range and yield good results in many

configurations including composite superstructures

(Ansourian, 1988), (Betti and Gjelsvik, 1996), and (Lee,

2005). The applicability and accuracy of the finite-element

method makes it more attractive as a design and analysis

tool for composite bridge structures (Buckner and Viest,

1988).

2.1. Load-carrying capacity of composite steel-

concrete bridges

The load-carrying capacity of composite bridges is an

important factor that affects the overall and nonlinear

bridge behaviors, which were investigated using different

finite-element models such as ADINA code (Thimmhardy

et al., 1995), the ABAQUS software, (Thevendran et al.,

1999), and FORTRAN languages, (Fu et al., 2003) and

by developing different models and using different types

of elements (Adeli and Zhang, 1995), (Zhang and Aktad,

1997), (Nowak and Szerszen, 1998), (Barth, 1998),

(Bradford et al., 2001), (Topkaya and Williamson, 2003),

(Dall’Asta and Zona, 2002), (Dall’Asta and Zona, 2004),

(Chung and Sotelino, 2005). The stiffness and capacity of

steel-concrete composite beams were also investigated

through analytical means (Nie et al., 2005). The effects of

secondary elements such as barriers, sidewalks, and

diaphragms on increasing the load-carrying capacity of

girder bridges were also investigated, with an aim to

evaluate the potential benefit of secondary elements in the

system reliability of girder bridges (Eamon and Nowak,

2004) and (Eamon and Nowak, 2005). The research studies

aimed at providing a better understanding of bridge

behavior and developing good and efficient methods for

getting the most accurate results.

2.2. Steel girder-concrete deck interaction (Composite

action)

The interaction between steel girder and concrete deck

slab was investigated considering the effect of partial and

full interaction, developed from the horizontal shear force

at the interface between the steel beam and concrete slab,

on the composite bridge’s behavior, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3,

aiming to investigate the maximum flexural capacity and

performance of bridges (Oehlers et al., 1997), (Earls and

Shah, 2002) and (Nie and Cai, 2003). Different finite-

element models were used such as beam element (Ayoub

and Filippou, 2000). The short- and long-term behavior

of composite bridges was also considered (Zhou et al.,

2004), (Fragiacomo et al., 2004), (Liang et al., 2005).

2.3. The effect of concrete flange width on composite

bridge behavior

In composite steel-concrete bridges, different types of

steel can be used in girders, such as carbon steel, high-

strength low-alloy steel, heat-treated low-alloy steel and

high-strength heat-treated alloy steel. The designs were

mainly based on steel properties such as girder shapes,

thickness, yield stress of steel (Fy), tensile strength of

steel (Fu), and modulus of elasticity (Es). The reinforced

concrete bridge decks’ compressive strength (fc') also

affects the design in terms of reinforcement properties in

Figure 1. Typical components of composite bridges (Chenand Duan, 2000).

Figure 2. Development of shear forces during compositeaction (Menkulasi, 2002).

Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges: State of the Art 395

addition to the concrete modulus of elasticity EC. (Salmon

and Johanson, 1990). The transformed area of concrete is

usually used to calculate the composite section properties

using the ratio (n = ES/EC). The concrete modulus of

elasticity EC can be calculated according to the ACI Code,

(ACI Committee 318, 1999), or according to AISC

specifications LRFD approximate formula (AISC

Specification, 2005). The width of top flanges comprised

the concrete slab and top steel beam flange known as

effective width (bE), Fig. 4, depends on the equivalent

area carrying the compression force. The practical

simplifications of the effective width for design purposes

are given by several codes such as: AISC Specification

(LRFD-I3.1 and ASD-I1), AASHTO LRFD, British

Specification (BS5400), Canadian Specification, Chinese

Code (GBJ 1988), Japanese Specification, EU (Eurocode4),

which mainly depends on span length (Chiewanichakorn

et al., 2004a).

Finite-element modeling was used to define steel-

concrete composite bridge girder flange width, which was

conducted employing an investigation of nonlinear finite-

element analysis modeling, using ABAQUS software,

developing effective slab width definition for determining

the effective slab width for steel-concrete composite bridge

girders (Chiewanichakorn et al., 2004a), (Chiewanichakorn

et al., 2004b). A numerical comparison between the

effective flange width provisions in the USA, Britain,

Canada, Japan, and European Committee was also conducted

(Ahn, 2004). The evaluation of effective width in elastic

and plastic analysis of steel-concrete composite beams

was also performed through experimental tests, investigating

both cases of sagging and hogging bending moments

presenting a simple modification of Eurocode 4 (Amadio

et al., 2004). The shear-resisting mechanisms and the

strength of composite beams was also investigated using

static loading tests considering the shear span aspect

ratio, width and thickness of concrete flanges, and the

theories concerning elasticity and plasticity. The vertical

shear that the steel beam resisted was calculated based on

strain measurements, finding that the concrete flange

could sustain 33-56% of the total ultimate shear applied

to composite beam specimens. The shear strength equations

that considered shear contributions of both steel beam

and concrete flange were included (Nie et al., 2004).

2.4. The load distribution on composite steel-concrete

bridges

The effect of inelastic force distribution in longitudinal

and transverse directions with inelastic deformations,

reactions, and moments, on composite bridge behavior

was examined by grillage analysis (Bakht and Jaeger,

1992) (Barker et al., 1996), and by field test, showing that

bridge systems have a significant ability to redistribute

force effects (Barker, 1999). The finite-element modeling,

using SAP90 and ICES-STRUDL programs is also

performed, investigating wheel-load distribution factor

comparing with AASHTO and experiments yielding

similar load distribution factors (Mabsout et al., 1997).

The “axial force effective width” was then introduced as

a parameter that affects load distribution, which differs

from the “bending effective width” (Cai et al., 1998). The

finite-element method using the ABAQUS software was

also used in deducing expressions for moment and

deflecting distribution factors (Sennah and Kennedy,

1999). The shear distribution characteristics under dead

load and under AASHTO live loadings on multiple steel

box-girder bridges were also investigated (Sennah et al.,

2003). The finite-element model, ABAQUS software, was

used in the analysis of bridge prototypes with various

geometries, and AASHTO truck loading conditions,

investigating distribution of flexural stresses, deflection,

shears, and reactions (Samaan et al., 2002). The effect of

non-uniform torsion, load distribution factors, and

location of access hatches on the behavior and design of

composite curved box-girder bridges accounted through

developing a grillage model computer program (El-Tawil

and Okeil, 2002).

Figure 3. Strain variation in composite beam. (a) Nointeraction. (b) Partial interaction. (c) Composite interaction(Salmon and Johnson, 1990).

Figure 4. Effective width bE of steel-concrete composite

beams.


2.5. The continuity of composite steel-concrete bridge

The continuity of composite bridges was also investigated,

comparing with conditions with simple support. The

continuity has many advantages such as: higher span-to-

depth ratio, less deflection, and higher stiffness. The

finite-element analysis method, ANSYS software, laboratory

and field tests were used to investigate the performance

of continuous-span composite bridges (El-Arabaty et al.,

1996). The finite element, ABAQUS software, and

experimental tests were also performed to investigate

both the skew and continuity influence on longitudinal

moments in girders (Ebeido and Kennedy, 1996) and

(Lääne and Lebet, 2005). A model of steel and concrete

composite beams subjected to negative bending was

presented, accounting for nonlinear structural behavior on

negative bending moment regions using a numerical

procedure, (Manfredi et al., 1999), analytical and experimental

procedures. (Barker et al., 2000), (Fabbrocino et al.,

2000) and (Fabbrocino et al., 2002). The three-dimensional

finite element model was used to investigate composite

beams in combined bending and shear accounting for

geometric and material nonlinearity (Liang et al., 2004).

The slip effect with negative bending was also investigated

(Nie et al., 2004). Studies were also performed for

longitudinal prestress in continuous composite bridges to

estimate their behavior in the elastic and plastic range

(Shim and Chang, 2003), (Ryu et al., 2004), (Ryu and

Chang, 2005) and (Shiming, 2005).

2.6. The long-term behavior of composite steel-

concrete bridge

The long-term behavior of the concrete deck slab was

investigated with an aim to understand the full behavior of

the composite steel-concrete bridge system. The transverse

cracking in concrete slabs was studied by in-situ

measurements, laboratory tests and numerical simulations,

establishing criteria based on restraint coefficient showing

the most critical tensile stresses and the effects of casting

sequence (Lebet and Ducret, 1998). The creep and shrinkage

effects for composite box girder bridge with sequencing

were investigated by developing a numerical model that

adopted the layer approach, as well as through experiments

and field examinations for actual bridges under construction.

The ultimate shrinkage strain recommended in specifications

significantly differs from actual drying shrinkage rate.

The effect of drying shrinkage in terms of ultimate

shrinkage strain is more important than concrete casting

sequences based on the ACI Code. (Kwak et al., 2000a),

(Kwak et al., 2000b) and (Kwak and Seo, 2000) The

open-grid lightweight deck was investigated, with the aim

to improve design methods through experimental testing

and numerical and analytical means (Huang et al., 2002).

The steel-concrete composite beams’ time-dependent analysis

under service conditions was investigated adopting a

beam model that accounted for slippage at deck-girder

interface and for time-dependent behavior of concrete

(Jurkiewiez et al., 2005).

2.7. The dynamic response of composite steel-concrete

bridges

The dynamic response of composite bridges was

investigated to establish a better understanding of the

dynamic effects of composite steel-concrete bridges. A

three-dimensional dynamic finite element analysis of a

multi-girder steel bridge, both with and without diaphragms,

was performed comparing with field dynamic tests,

developing techniques used to evaluate the function and

effectiveness of diaphragms in transverse distribution of

traffic loads (Tedesco et al., 1995). The finite-element

model, ANSYS software, was used to study the dynamic

response of the composite bridge including parapets and

diaphragms in bridge models. (Barefoot et al., 1997) Modal

analysis and identification ascertaining the characteristics

of composite bridges was performed, concluding that

damage in bridges may be reflected in the changes of

natural frequencies or modes of natural vibration. (Fry’ba

and Pirner, 2001) A damage-estimation method using

ambient vibration data caused by traffic loadings was

presented, identifying operational modal properties,

assessment of damage locations, and severities by

performing an experimental study on bridge model

subjected to vehicle loadings measuring vertical accelerations

while vehicles are running (Yun et al., 2002). The dynamic

impact factors for straight composite concrete deck-steel

girder cellular bridges under AASHTO truck loading was

determined using three-dimensional finite-element models,

ABAQUS software, finding that the truck speed affects

the impact factor of straight bridges. (Zhang et al., 2003)

A finite-element formulation for free-vibration analysis of

horizontally curved steel I-girder bridges, including warping

degree of freedom, was presented. A computer program

using FORTRAN77 language was developed, comparable

with ABAQUS software and applied to investigate the

free vibration characteristics of bridges (Yoon et al.,

2005). A finite-element model was used for damage

detection and long-term health monitoring through the

measurement of ambient vibration for the Qingzhou

cable-stayed bridge over the Ming River (Ren and Peng,

2005).

3. Composite Bridges’ Component Connections

Nowadays, different types of shear connectors are

available, such as (1) stud connectors; (2) channel

connectors; (3) angle connectors; (4) spiral connectors;

(5) tendon (or bent-up bar types) connectors; (6)

perfobond connectors; and (7) T-shape connectors, Fig. 5-

8. Generally, connectors are classified as either rigid or

flexible, depending on the distribution of shear forces and

functions between strength and deformations. Most codes

consider the stud and channel shear connector types in

design simplification, such as Chinese Code (GBJ 1988),

AISC Specification, and AASHTO-LRFD. (Chinese code,

GBJ., 1988), (AISC specification, 2005) and (AASHTO,


1994) Shear connectors are important and their details

were investigated and developed through different

research studies conducted to fully understand the

behavior of bridges under different types of loads, dead

load and live load, which necessitate the development of

different shear connector types. (Zellner, 1988) A new

phenomenological law for the shear connection between

steel girder and concrete slab that considers stiffness and

strength degradation, and a correlation study with available

push-pull tests on shear connectors were performed to

validate the model, applying the steel-concrete composite

frame element (Salari and Spacone, 2001). The strength

of shear connectors, mechanism of failure and basic criteria

used to define shear connector strength was investigated

by analyzing the expressions and recommendations given

by Eurocode 4, given as a commentary on strength of

shear connectors in composite beams (Rankoviæ and

Dreniæ, 2002).

3.1. The effect of shear connector ductility on

composite bridges

The provision of adequate shear connection between

tension and compression-resisting components of composite

flexural members is essential to ensure the robust performance

of such structural members under load. Ductility requirements

were investigated defining ductility in terms of the behavior

of composite cross-sections in consideration of connection

performance suggesting ductility improvement (Patrick

and Bridge, 1988). The moment-curvature relationships

derived were ductile (strain-hardening) or non-ductile

(strain-softening). Geometric properties and limitations of

continuous composite beam were investigated to ensure

sufficient ductility for the development of a plastic design

mechanism of collapse before local and lateral buckling

of steel or compressive failure of concrete. (Kemp, 1988)

Tests on cold-formed beams, joints and frames, with

finite-element analyses were carried out, concluding that

cold-formed components can be used in plastic design, as

they meet the requirements of some connections, especially

with their high ductility and capacity. (Wilkinson, 1999)

and (Hanaor, 2000) Finite-element analyses of composite

beam connected to a concrete slab used to show that the

required level of connection ductility is parasitic on

compliance of the connections. (Sebastian, 2003) Magnitudes

of the affecting maximum slip requirement was identified

suggesting an assessment method with general applications,

enables assessing connection efficiency to the bending

collapse of composite beams as a useful guide at the initial

stage of structure design as no demanding sophisticated

analysis is required (Bullo and Marco, 2004).

3.2. Effect of shear connectors in partial interaction

The connection largely influences the global behavior

of composite bridges and its modeling was a key issue in

the analysis of such types of structures. The effect of

partial restraints on the response of composite beam was

investigated with deformable shear connectors using

distributed spring, accounting for the shear deformation

using displacement- and force-based elements and in

consideration of bond-slip between element components.

(Salari et al., 1998) and (Salari and Spacone, 2001) The

load-slip behavior and shear capacity of composite beam

stud obtained from experimental push-off tests were

simulated using the finite-element model. (Lam and El-

Lobody, 2002) The maximum deflection with partial shear

interaction was calculated suggesting a procedure to

obtain the stiffness value of shear connectors. (Wang,

1998) A structural behavior reliable analysis of composite

beams subjected to sagging moment due to short-term

Figure 5. Structures of stud, channel, spiral and angleshear connectors (Salmon and Johanson, 1990).

Figure 6. Structures of steel tendon, and steel mouldshear connectors (Chinese code GBJ17-88, 1988).

Figure 7. Structures of steel tendon and steel mould shearconnectors types.

Figure 8. Stud, perfobond, and t-shape shear connectorstypes. (Valente and Cruz, 2004).


loads was performed using a numerical procedure introducing

an explicit relationship between slip and interaction force

given by each connector. (Fabbrocino et al., 1999) A

specialized stub element with empirical nonlinear shear

force-slip relationships was used at the concrete slab-steel

beam interface to permit nonlinear finite-element modeling

of either full or partial shear connector action. (Sebastian

and McConnel, 2000) The finite-element model with flexible

shear connection was also presented using displacement

field with the “exact” solution of Newmark’s differential

equation employing only one element per member,

establishing the criterion for partial interaction effects.

(Faella et al., 2002) A procedure to predict the partial-

interaction strain distribution from standard full-

interaction analyses using a magnification factor was

suggested for the investigation of the effect of partial-

interaction endurance. (Seracino et al., 2001) and (Seracino

et al., 2004) The experimental and analytical studies to

simulate partial-interaction behavior using push-out results

for steel-concrete composite members was presented

performing nonlinear structural analysis predicting partial-

interaction behavior of composite members. (Jeong et al.,

2005).

3.3. Fatigue and cyclic load effects on shear connectors

The fatigue and cyclic load has also affected the behavior

of composite steel-concrete bridges by affecting shear on

shear connectors. The behavior of shear connectors under

fatigue and cyclic load was investigated suggesting a fatigue

procedure, which allowed the estimation of strength

reduction of stud shear connectors. (Oehlers, 1995) and

(Oehlers et al., 2000) Direct shear test was used simulating

the actual behavior of studs under reverse cyclic loading.

The load-induced fatigue of welded bridges components

due to primary stress should be considered. (Gattesco and

Giuriani, 1996) and (Nishikawa et al., 1998). The reliability

of stud connectors’ design for fatigue was inconsistent as

real stress ranges were less than those calculated in design.

(Johnson, 2000) Analytical and experimental studies for

the design of shear connection in a precast deck system

were performed investigating the characteristics of shear

connection and fatigue endurance through push tests

estimating bridge behavior using finite-element analysis.

(Shim et al., 2001) Fatigue tests conducted on full-scale

slender plate-girders showed that the levels of minimum

and maximum load used during fatigue testing, weld quality,

shape and magnitude of the initial imperfections, etc.,

have a large influence on fatigue performance (Crocetti,

2003).

3.4. New innovative connectors

An alternate shear connector (AS), shown in Fig. 9,

was developed subjected to static and cyclic loading in

both push-out specimens and composite beam tests,

determining the fatigue strength of ASC. The ASC was

effective in creating full composite action during service

load tests, and no bond failure appeared. (Klaiber et al.,

2000) Static and fatigue tests were also performed on

composite bridge decks with alternative shear connectors

consisted of concrete-filled holes located in the webs of

grid main bars and friction along the web embedded in

the slab, Fig. 10. It was determined that the shear

connection location and not the control fatigue behavior

of deck was involved in positive bending, and no fatigue

cracking of steel grid was observed in negative bending

(Higgins and Mitchell, 2001).

The development and implementation of large stud

diameters were presented, which increased the speed of

bridge construction and future deck replacement, and

reduced the vulnerability to damage of studs and girder

top flange during deck removal. The studs can also be

placed in one row only, over the web centerline, freeing

up most of the top flange width and improving safety

conditions for field workers. (Badie et al., 2002), (Shim

et al., 2004) and (Lee et al., 2005) Results of push tests

with new types of shear connectors, namely Perfobond

connectors were presented obtaining the load capacity of

new shear connectors. It also helped describe the connection

behavior used for shear connection in steel-concrete

composite bridge. (Studnicka et al., 2000), (Valente and

Figure 9. The alternate shear connector (Klaiber et al., 2000).

Figure 10. Unfilled grid deck composite with reinforced-concrete slab using alternative shear connectors (Higginsand Mitchell, 2001).


Cruz, 2004) and (Kim and Jeong, 2005) Horizontal shear

connectors without welding were studied through a steel-

concrete composite beam static bending test, which showed

behavior similar to steel-concrete composite beams with

classical connectors, great ductility, flexural failure mode

(plastic hinge), and low relative movements at steel-concrete

interface (Jurkiewiez and Hottier, 2005).

4. Reliability and Life Cycle of Composite Bridges

The reliability and life cycle of composite bridge designed

by AASHTO’s (LFD) method and LRFD method for

conditions of maximum design load, overloading, and fatigue

load, the ultimate flexural capacity limit state was measured

in terms of reliability index, using Monte Carlo simulations.

The value of the reliability index was a function of

compactness classification, method of design, beam spacing,

span length, and section size. (Tabsh, 1996) The reliability

index of steel girder highway bridges designed by AASHTO

(LRFD) strength limit state was examined based on the

stochastic finite-element method (SFEM), modeling bridges

as a grillage beam systems including basic design variables

such as sectional properties and various dead and live

loads. (Liu, 2002) Frangopol and his co-workers performed

a series of investigations on the reliability of bridges

considering life cycles and maintenance effects on the

total life cost of bridges, investigating and estimating the

reliability of highway bridges using different models.

(Enright and Frangopol, 1999) The cost-benefit analysis

of reliability-based bridge management decision was

investigated, which was considered as a guide in determining

the optimum strategy in the face of uncertainties and

fiscal constraints, identifying the optimum maintenance

scenario using a computer program called Life-Cycle

Analysis of Deteriorating Structures (LCADS), which

considered the effect of maintenance interventions. It also

identified the maintenance strategy that best balances cost

and reliability index profile over a specified time horizon.

(Frangopol et al., 2001) (Kong and Frangopol, 2003) A

relationship between maintenance intervention cost and

effect of intervention on system reliability was also predicted.

(Kong and Frangopol, 2004) Variability and sensitivity

analyses were used to investigate the characteristics of

input random variables (Kong and Frangopol, 2005).

5. Establishing New Steel-Concrete Bridge Systems Forms

New structural forms of composite steel-concrete bridges

were invented and suggested to be used in the last decades.

Such composite bridges were used in Japan, using concrete-

filled pipes or rolled H-girders that have high strength and

ductility, whereas filled concrete restricts local buckling of

steel plates. (Nakamura et al., 2002) Partially encased

composite I-girder bridges were also investigated by

performing bending and shear tests using analytical

methods to calculate the bending and shear strength of

encased composite girders. (Nakamura and Narita, 2003)

An experimental investigation into the behavior of steel

tube filled with reinforced concrete bridge girder made

composite with an overlying concrete deck, Fig. 11, were

conducted, providing information for the assessment of

various erection scenarios. A moment curvature analysis

was used to predict the ultimate capacity of the system.

(Mossahebi et al., 2005) The concept of voided slab

(hollow core slab) in conjunction with steel beam to form

a type of composite beam or flooring system to be used

in multistory buildings were established through a series

of studies presented using finite-element modeling, ABAQUS

software, with experiments using precast hollow-core floor

slabs, modeling the headed stud shear connectors. The

advantages of using such types of structure with shear

studs, such as in terms of shorter construction duration,

were also discussed along with a presentation of related

experiments. (Lam et al., 2000), (Lam, 2002), (Lam and

Uy, 2003) and (Lam, 2005).

6. Development of New Structural Materials Used in Composite Bridges

The development of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)

material and their usage as a structural member in bridge

construction as lighter, more durable alternatives to steel

and concrete was also investigated using the finite-element

model, examining the bifurcation buckling problem with

various loading and boundary conditions. (Lin et al., 1996)

The analysis and design of FRP composite deck-and-

stringer bridges was presented, developing a simplified

design analysis procedure based on first-order shear

deformation macro-flexibility SDMF orthotropic plate

solution. (Salim et al., 1997) A combined analytical and

experimental study of cellular box decks and wide-flange

I-beam stringer FRP composite bridges was presented

including the design, modeling and experimental and

numerical verification, predicting efficient FRP sections

and simplified design equations for new and replacement

highway bridge system. (Brown, 1998) A study including

testing and analysis of pultruded, hybrid double-web

beam (DWB) developed for use in bridge construction,

Figure 11. Bridge girder consisting of steel tube filledwith reinforced concrete (Mossahebi et al., 2005).


determining the bending modulus, shear stiffness, failure

mode and ultimate capacity. (Schniepp, 2002) Developments

were also presented, emphasizing the aspects of transition,

critical advantages offered by inherent anisotropy of

composites, and efficient designs for such new materials.

(Karbhari, 2004) The fatigue and strength for experimental

qualifications were performed for FRP composite bridge

deck, using hollow glass and carbon FRP tubes. (Kumar

et al., 2004) The bi-directional plate-bending behavior of

a pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRP) bridge

deck system with orthotropic material and system properties

was investigated by full-scale experiments and numerical

modeling. (Keller and Schollmayer, 2004) The structural

behaviors of the GFRP bridge deck system is shown in

Fig. 12 and was also investigated, as well as the development

of finite-element models using ANSYS 7.0 software. The

collected field measurements and laboratory tests concluded

that girder spacing plays a key role in deck performance,

and that the composite structure can sustain higher loads

than the non-composite structure with identical girders,

and the non-composite structure showed more efficient

distribution of deformations on the deck (Wan et al.,

2005).

New materials such as Inorganic Phosphate Cement

(IPC) are also used in the construction of composite bridges

and were presented through an investigation performed

on the applicability of such materials in construction and

the usefulness of such materials in creating a new hybrid

bridge system. The finite-element method was used in the

design process of a modular composite bridge made of

Inorganic Phosphate Cement (IPC) sandwich panels, with

the connections designed with an aim to control the

distribution of stresses in the panels. The conclusion

showed that the result of the design was satisfactory and

could be the basis for the future realization of a prototype

bridge. (Roover et al., 2002) The design and the joining

procedure of pedestrian bridges made of IPC sandwich

panels were also investigated by means of analytical and

numerical tools, showing that in spite of the low stiffness

of the glass fiber-reinforced IPC, the use of IPC still led

to realistic dimensions of the bridge structure (Roover et

al., 2003). An investigation on the development of IPC

for the construction of pedestrian bridges was also

presented, evaluating the numerical modeling and using

the results derived from experiments, establishing a finite

element model predict the behavior of the structure and

for the design of similar structures (Giannopoulos et al.,

2003).

7. Conceptual Design and Analysis of Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges

7.1. Development of new shear connectors

With the aim to enhance the composite performance of

steel-concrete composite bridges, we intend to investigate

new types of connectors with precast hollow core slab

deck as part of our PhD research in Tongji University,

Shanghai, China. The new shapes of perfobond shear

connectors depending on the analysis of horizontal shear

affects the interface between steel and concrete, and the

shape of failure of stud connectors. It is assumed that to

improve the interaction between the steel girder and the

concrete slab of composite steel-concrete bridges, three

shapes of perfobond shear connectors are suggested for

investigation, shown in Fig. 13, namely: (1) allows for

more main and secondary transverse reinforcement to be

passed through the holes of the connectors without

bending, with the top hole distance not greater than the

concrete cover; (2) produces better interaction between

concrete and connectors by increasing the length of

interaction, and increasing the area of concrete inside the

connector; (3) the direction of inclined strips suggesting

better resistance to horizontal shear force considered to

affect on connectors. Experimental investigation will be

performed using push-out tests to produce the resistance

capacity of connectors and bond between connector and

slab. Theoretical investigation will conducted by establishing

a model for the tested specimens using suitable finite-

element software (such as ANSYS); experimental results

Figure 12. The GFRP bridge system: (a) the bridge, (b)cross-section geometry of GFRP panel (Wan et al., 2005).

Figure 13. Types of shear connectors proposed forinvestigation.


will be verified; and the work using the verified finite-

element model will be extended to study the factors

affecting connection behavior and interaction between

concrete slab and steel girder, and using a suitable

statistical method to predict an expression that cover the

strength of the new shapes of shear connectors.

7.2. Using a hollow core slab deck in composite steel-

concrete bridges

As previously mentioned, the hollow core reinforced

concrete slab was tested and used in the composite beam

of a multistory building, while the use of such types of

slabs in composite steel-concrete bridges is still not

widespread. The use of hollow core slab, shown in Fig.

(14), is assumed to produce several advantages, such as:

(1) reduces the weight of concrete (smaller dead load);

(2) establishes more economical bridges by reducing the

quantities of required concrete; (3) reduces the creep and

shrinkage's effects of the concrete slab; (4) uses precast

units connected together at site reduces the erection time.

Connecting such precast units with the steel beam is a

complex task, as it involves several factors such as types

of connectors, support conditions, availability of extra

reinforcement, and it uses a cast in placement slab, and

grouting materials. An experimental and theoretical

investigation is proposed to be conducted on hollow core

slab deck in conjunction with the new shapes of connectors

suggested above, both with simple and fixed support

conditions. Experiments are supposed to include casting a

bridge prototype in the laboratory and testing to failure,

followed by theoretical works including establishing a

model of the tested prototype using suitable finite-element

software (such as ANSYS), verifying by experiments,

and extending it to be used to study the effect of connection

behavior, effective slab width, transverse reinforcement,

slab geometries, and the reliability of the suggested section

and their effect on the construction process.

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