CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

THEMES OF AMERICAN THEMES OF AMERICAN

POPULAR MUSICPOPULAR MUSIC

Music and IdentityMusic and Identity Race and ethnicityRace and ethnicity

– White fascination with black musicWhite fascination with black music– Relationship between African American and Relationship between African American and

European American musical traditions European American musical traditions – Latin American traditionLatin American tradition

Sexuality and genderSexuality and gender– Stylized images and stereotypes of American men Stylized images and stereotypes of American men – Stylized images and stereotypes of American Stylized images and stereotypes of American

womenwomen– Relationships between men and womenRelationships between men and women– Love and sexLove and sex

Censorship Censorship Nonheterosexual relationshipsNonheterosexual relationships

Music and IdentityMusic and Identity Class distinctionsClass distinctions

– Popular music is full of references to wealth, poverty, Popular music is full of references to wealth, poverty, and the effect of economic matters on the human heart. and the effect of economic matters on the human heart.

Generational identityGenerational identity– Has been crucial to the workings of the American music Has been crucial to the workings of the American music

industryindustry– Twelve- to sixteen-year-old age bracket—patrons of Twelve- to sixteen-year-old age bracket—patrons of

teenybopper acts like the Backstreet Boys, the Spice teenybopper acts like the Backstreet Boys, the Spice Girls, and Britney SpearsGirls, and Britney Spears

– Seventeen- to twenty-five-year-old age bracketSeventeen- to twenty-five-year-old age bracket——important to the industry’s sales of rock, rap, and important to the industry’s sales of rock, rap, and alternative musicalternative music

– Popular music provides a unique window into the Popular music provides a unique window into the changing conceptions of adolescence.changing conceptions of adolescence.

Technology and the Music Technology and the Music BusinessBusiness

Innovations that have changed the way popular Innovations that have changed the way popular music has been produced and disseminated via music has been produced and disseminated via the mass mediathe mass media– Phonograph (1877)Phonograph (1877)– Radio (1922)Radio (1922)– Electric microphone (1925) Electric microphone (1925) – Sound film (1927) Sound film (1927) – Magnetic tape-recording and the long-playing disc Magnetic tape-recording and the long-playing disc

(1940s) (1940s) – FM radio (1950s) FM radio (1950s) – Home video, cable television Home video, cable television – Portable tape playerPortable tape player– Digital recording and the compact discDigital recording and the compact disc

TechnologyTechnology

New technologies have opened up New technologies have opened up creative possibilities for artists.creative possibilities for artists.

Technology has not always been an Technology has not always been an agent of change.agent of change.

Digital technologies have enabled Digital technologies have enabled artists to excavate the musical past artists to excavate the musical past by sampling segments of earlier by sampling segments of earlier performances.performances.

The ADAT The ADAT

Introduced in 1992 by AlesisIntroduced in 1992 by Alesis Became the new standard for digital music Became the new standard for digital music

makingmaking Eight-track digital synthesizer recorder Eight-track digital synthesizer recorder

that could expand to 128 tracks with the that could expand to 128 tracks with the addition of unitsaddition of units

Consumers could set up home studios Consumers could set up home studios inexpensivelyinexpensively

Professionals could use the same Professionals could use the same technology to create highly sophisticated technology to create highly sophisticated digital sound facilities.digital sound facilities.

Pro-ToolsPro-Tools

Music software program designed to Music software program designed to run on personal computersrun on personal computers

Enabled recording engineers and Enabled recording engineers and musicians to control every parameter musicians to control every parameter of musical sound, including not only of musical sound, including not only pitch and tempo but also the quality pitch and tempo but also the quality of a singer’s voice or an of a singer’s voice or an instrumentalist’s timbreinstrumentalist’s timbre

The Music BusinessThe Music Business

Clear ChannelClear Channel– Publicly traded corporation that owns Publicly traded corporation that owns

more than 1,200 radio stations, 39 more than 1,200 radio stations, 39 television stations, 100,000 advertising television stations, 100,000 advertising billboards, and 100 live performance billboards, and 100 live performance venues, enabling them to present more venues, enabling them to present more than 70 percent of all live events than 70 percent of all live events nationwide. nationwide.

The InternetThe Internet

Vast concatenation of millions of Vast concatenation of millions of computers linked by a global networkcomputers linked by a global network

MP3—digital file compression system MP3—digital file compression system that enables sound files to be that enables sound files to be compressed to as little as one-twelfth compressed to as little as one-twelfth of their original size of their original size

File Sharing and Free File Sharing and Free DownloadingDownloading

MP3.com MP3.com – Founded in 1997 by Michael RobertsonFounded in 1997 by Michael Robertson– The Recording Industry Association of The Recording Industry Association of

America (RIAA) filed a lawsuit against America (RIAA) filed a lawsuit against MP3.com in 2000. MP3.com was forced MP3.com in 2000. MP3.com was forced to remove all files owned by the to remove all files owned by the corporations.corporations.

NapsterNapster

– Internet-based software program that Internet-based software program that enabled computer users to share and enabled computer users to share and swap filesswap files

– The RIAA filed a suit against Napster, The RIAA filed a suit against Napster, and a court injunction forced it to shut and a court injunction forced it to shut down its operations in February 2001. down its operations in February 2001.

Peer-to-PeerPeer-to-Peer

Peer-to-peer (p2p) file sharing Peer-to-peer (p2p) file sharing networks were established in the networks were established in the wake of Napster’s closure. wake of Napster’s closure. – The services claim exemption from The services claim exemption from

copyright law because there is no copyright law because there is no central server in which music files are central server in which music files are even temporarily stored, and thus no even temporarily stored, and thus no “place” in cyberspace to which an act of “place” in cyberspace to which an act of copyright violation can be traced, apart copyright violation can be traced, apart from the millions of network users.from the millions of network users.

iPodiPod

Introduced in 2001 by Apple ComputerIntroduced in 2001 by Apple Computer Could store up to 1000 songs on its Could store up to 1000 songs on its

internal hard driveinternal hard drive Enabled listeners to create unique libraries Enabled listeners to create unique libraries

of music reflecting their personal tastes of music reflecting their personal tastes ““Podcasting”Podcasting”——method of online audio method of online audio

distribution in which digital sound files are distribution in which digital sound files are uploaded to a website and listeners can uploaded to a website and listeners can automatically download files to portable automatically download files to portable playersplayers

Digital TechnologyDigital Technology

Liberates the content of a recording Liberates the content of a recording from its physical medium from its physical medium – Involves the translation of musical Involves the translation of musical

sound into pure information, encoded in sound into pure information, encoded in streams of ones and zerosstreams of ones and zeros

– Music can be transmitted, reproduced, Music can be transmitted, reproduced, and manipulated in a “virtual” form, free and manipulated in a “virtual” form, free from the constraints of any particular from the constraints of any particular technology.technology.

Centers and PeripheriesCenters and Peripheries

The mainstream and its marginsThe mainstream and its margins– At the beginning of the twenty-first century, it At the beginning of the twenty-first century, it

is becoming increasingly difficult to sustain the is becoming increasingly difficult to sustain the distinction between the mainstream of popular distinction between the mainstream of popular music and its margins. music and its margins.

Two concepts:Two concepts:– There is a musical mainstream and there are There is a musical mainstream and there are

margins, involving cultural and stylistic margins, involving cultural and stylistic distinctions that have grown more and more distinctions that have grown more and more blurry over time.blurry over time.

– The market for popular music has an economic The market for popular music has an economic and institutional center and a periphery. and institutional center and a periphery.

The Mainstream and Its The Mainstream and Its MarginsMargins

In the early twentieth century, these two In the early twentieth century, these two dichotomies fit together neatly. dichotomies fit together neatly.

By the end of the century, the two dichotomies as By the end of the century, the two dichotomies as well as the correlation between them had broken well as the correlation between them had broken down almost completely. down almost completely.

The spread of digital technology seems to be The spread of digital technology seems to be completing a process of total decentralization, as completing a process of total decentralization, as anybody with a computer anywhere can, with anybody with a computer anywhere can, with increasing ease, produce and market his or her increasing ease, produce and market his or her own recordings. own recordings.

The rise of international pop superstars and the The rise of international pop superstars and the emergence of world music as a distinct category emergence of world music as a distinct category suggest that the center-and-periphery concept suggest that the center-and-periphery concept must be recast in truly global terms.must be recast in truly global terms.