Teaching, Learning & Assessment2009

Conditions of LearningDefinition of LearningThe process of LearningFactors influencing LearningConditions for LearningLearningTheories of Learning

Why consider learning theories?Teaching and learning activities can be

designed and implemented to take principles of learning into account.

Also, it is interesting to think about individual differences among learners and to work towards including activities that have variety and interest for all the learners in educational programs.

Summary of Learning Theories Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory:Based on a hierarchy of intellectual skills

organized according to complexity that can be used to identify prerequisites necessary to facilitate learning at each level.

Instruction can be made more efficient by following a sequence of nine instructional events defined by the intellectual skills that the learner is required to learn for the specific task at hand.

Holistic learning theoryLearner viewed as a whole – a

physical, emotional, social and spiritual being with limitless potential.

The underlying holistic principle is that a complex organism functions most effectively when all its component parts are themselves functioning and co-operating effectively.

Learning - an interaction between four distinct modes of psychological being: feeling, imaginal, thinking and practical.

How applicable is this to the university T-L environment?

Holistic learning theory (Cont.)Feeling is presented as our fundamental mode,

rather than thinking. The significance of this alternative orientation is

that the crucial requirement for each learner is to establish a relationship with their total learning situation which is intimate, resonant and positive (i.e. in the feeling mode).

Only when this is firmly in place is it considered that the learner will be free to tap fully into the other three modes of the learning model, viz. imaginal, thinking and practical.

Constructivist TheoryRefers to the idea that learners construct

knowledge for themselves---each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning---as he or she learns.

Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind.

The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold:1) we have to focus on the learner in thinking about

learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught): 2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning

attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory: Learning is an active process in which

learners construct new ideas based upon their current knowledge.

Instruction can be made more efficient by providing a careful sequencing of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already know and go beyond the information they have been given to discover the key principles by themselves.

Other Learning TheoriesBandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance

of observing and modeling the behaviors and attitudes of others. Instruction can be made more efficient by modeling desired behaviors of functional value to learners and by providing situations which allow learners to use or practice that behavior to improve retention.

Carroll’s Minimalist Theory advises that course designers must minimize instructional materials that obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity. Instruction can be made more efficient when the amount of reading is minimized and learners are allowed to fill in the gaps themselves.

Vygostky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development reasons that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Instruction can be made more efficient when learners engage in activities within a supportive environment and receive guidance mediated by appropriate tools.

Reinforcement theorySkinner believed that behaviour is a function of its

consequences. The learner will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follows the behaviour. Negative reinforcement also strengthen a behaviour (e.g. when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behaviour).

Competency Based Training is based on this theory, and although it is useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication tables and those work skills that require a great deal of practice, higher order learning is not involved.

Facilitation theory (the humanist approach)

Carl Rogers and others have developed the theory of facilitative learning. The basic premise of this theory is that learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, that is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by external factors (Laird 1985.)

Other characteristics of this theory include:a belief that human beings have a natural eagerness to

learn, there is some resistance to, and unpleasant consequences

of, giving up what is currently held to be true, the most significant learning involves changing one's

concept of oneself.

Facilitation theory (Cont.)Facilitative teachers are: less protective of their constructs and beliefs than

other teachers, more able to listen to learners, especially to their

feelings, inclined to pay as much attention to their relationship

with learners as to the content of the course, apt to accept feedback, both positive and negative

and to use it as constructive insight into themselves and their behaviour.

Facilitation theory (Cont.)Learners: are encouraged to take responsibility for their own

learning, provide much of the input for the learning which

occurs through their insights and experiences, are encouraged to consider that the most valuable

evaluation is self-evaluation and that learning needs to focus on factors that contribute to solving significant problems or achieving significant results.

Experiential Learning theoryKolb proposed a four-stage learning process with

a model that is often referred to in describing experiential learning (McGill & Beaty, 1995).

The process can begin at any of the stages and is continuous, i.e. there is no limit to the number of cycles you can make in a learning situation.

This theory asserts that without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes.

Differences in learning styles Honey & Mumford (1986, cited in McGill &

Beaty 1995, p.177) building on Kolb's work, identified four learning styles: Activist (enjoys the experience itself), Reflector (spends a great deal of time and

effort reflecting) Theorist (good at making connections and

abstracting ideas from experience) Pragmatist (enjoys the planning stage)

Action Learning (AL)Pioneered by Professor Reg Revans and

developed worldwide over the last 50 years, it provides a well-tried method of accelerating learning which enables people to handle difficult situations more effectively.

AL involves working on real problems, focusing on learning and actually implementing solutions.

It is a form of learning by doing.

Action Learning (Cont.)AL was founded on the principle that it creates

conditions in a tight learning community such that real people are obliged to tackle real problems in real time: ·         small stable group ('Set') of about six 'comrades in

adversity' working in a regular social process ·         learn from and with each other to take observable

action ·         target the reality of the 'mess' at field level ·         problems are complex and have no identifiable solution ·         issues have significance and risk for the participants ·         proceed by conjecture and refutation ·         exchange advice, criticism and support ·         activities lead to examination of the problem(s) and the

self ·         learning is both defined and accidental

Action Learning (Cont.)AL is a process of inquiry, beginning with the experience

of not knowing 'what to do next', and finding that answers are not available through current expertise.

When expertise fails to provide an answer, collaborative inquiry with fellow learners who are undergoing the same questioning experience is always available.

To be effective, this partnership in learning needs to be both supportive and at the same time challenging, deeply caring yet questioning.

Such partnerships actually create themselves when different people with different ideas engage whole-heartedly with each other to resolve each others' problems.

Adult Learning (Andragogy)Malcolm Knowles (1978, 1990) is the theorist who

brought the concept of adult learning to the fore. He has argued that adulthood has arrived when

people behave in adult ways and believe themselves to be adults. Then they should be treated as adults.

He thought that adult learning was special in a number of ways.

Andragogy (Cont.)Characteristics of Adult Learners:Adult learners bring a great deal of experience to the

learning environment. Educators can use this as a resource.

Adults expect to have a high degree of influence on what they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated.

The active participation of learners should be encouraged in designing and implementing educational programs.

Adults need to be able to see applications for new learning. Adult learners expect to have a high degree of influence on

how learning will be evaluated. Adults expect their responses to be acted upon when asked

for feedback on the progress of the program.

ReferencesKnowles, M.S. 1990. The Adult Learner: a

Neglected Species 4th edition. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division

McGill, I & Beaty, L. 1995. Action Learning, second edition: a guide for professional, management and educational development. London: Kogan Page.

http://www.jwelford.demon.co.uk/brainwaremap/holist.html. Accessed on 02/03/2009.

http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/theories.html#holistic. Accessed on 02/03/2009.