Geodournal 20.4/1990 431

Conference on International Boundaries and Boundary Conflict Resolution, University of Durham 15--17 July 1989

Blake, Gerald, Dr., University of Durham, Department of Geography, South Road, Durham DHI 3LE, England

The establishment of an International Boundaries Research Unit at Durham University in January 1989 was given an enthu- siastic welcome from specialists concerned with international boundaries all over the world. Their response was a great encouragement to Archive Research and the University of Durham who are co-partners in the venture. IBRU's first con- fefence was held in Durham from 14-17 September 1989, attended by 70 participants from 23 countries. Twenty four papers were presented, over half of which were concerned with maritime boundaries. According to Robert Smith approximately 118 maritime boundaries have been formally agreed so far worldwide; at least another 296 thus remain to be settled. As cases brought before the International Court have shown, mari- time boundary disputes can be immensely complicated, and difficult to resolve. Lewis Alexander examined one reason for this difficulty in the abandonment of the principle of equidistance for "equitable principles". Even the delineation of straight baselines can be a controversial matter, and the process could be further complicated by future sea level changes. Victor Prescott and Eric Bird suggested the application of Article 7 (2) of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea as a possible solution. Small wonder then, that there is considerable demand for scholarly analysis and commentary upon maritime boundary questions, and for ideas and information on specific cases. Even the United States, with its longstanding interest in ocean boundary-making has only fixed a proportion of its 30 potential boundaries (Robert Smith). One remaining dispute is with Canada over the Dixon Entrance, which was analysed in David Nowell's contribution. Douglas Day's paper on The Saint Pierre and Miquelon bondary also involves Canada, whose dispute with France has now gone to arbitration. The results, due in 1991, could affect the future treatment of distant islands under international law. David Freestone's paper on the Eastern Caribbean illustrated the considerable number of unsettled boundary questions, several of them associated with dependent territories. Geoffrey Marston outlined some of the legal complications of the United Kingdom's colonial legacy resulting from submarine boundaries established for several dependent territories under statutory powers. Commander Chris Carleton also mentioned United Kingdom dependent territories and United Kingdom maritime boundary agreements with neighbouring states, while reviewing the work of the U K Territorial Waters officer. Clive Symmons discussed the most recent of these agreements, the 1988 Anglo-Irish Agreement in detail. Another successfully resolved boundary conflict (Chile- Argentina, 1984) was described by Hernan Santis-Arenas. Gian Piero Francalanci and Tullio Scovazzi illustrated a different kind of maritime boundary between Italy and Malta, where a de facto arrangement appears to operate satisfactorily. Two regions where agreement is less likely to be reached are in the Aegean, discussed by Brian Beeley in his historic review of the Turkish- Greek boundary, and around the Spratly Islands to which almost every state bordering the South China Sea lays partial claim, a dispute described by Bradford Thomas. If delimitation ever became possible, the resultant pattern in the South China Sea might be as complex as the network of boundaries in the South Pacific, where Hanns Buchholz described some dubious

interpretations of the 1982 UN Convention, and the seabed boundaries of the pioneer investors. It is doubtful whether these mid-ocean states have given much thought to the need to protect their coastal waters against the kind of threats which were outlined by Ewan Anderson in his paper.

Since the IBRU conference was held in September 1989 international land boundaries have featured prominently in the media. Arguably, boundary stories have featured in the head- lines more often than at any time since World War II. The opening of the Berlin wall has been followed by calls for peoples divided by boundaries to be re-united in Europe, the Middle East, and elsewhere. But even before these momentous events, which no doubt drove many people to dust down their old school atlases, land boundaries were firmly on the agenda of the IBRU conference. The topics covered exemplified several areas for fruitful enquiry into land boundary questions. George Joff~ argued the necessity for understanding Islamic concepts of sovereignty when examining boundary problems in North Africa where the colonial powers superimposed the boundary system. Moshe Brawer graphically illustrated the implications of a superimposed boundary in his case study of the 1949-67 Green Line boundaries of Israel, thoughtlessly dividing village lands and resources. By contrast, Gideon Biger showed that the boundaries of Palestine were drawn up rather carefully over a period of five to ten years, some consideration being given to geographical realities. The historic evolution of land boundaries can be crucial to understanding contemporary problems. Richard Schofield for example showed that the British government once favoured a mid-channel boundary along the Shatt al-Arab, as opposed to a boundary along the Iranian bank. Similarly, the origins of the Dnrand Line of 1893 between India and Afghanistan were discussed by Mohammed Siddiai, shedding light on modern problems along the Afghanistan- Pakistan boundary. R. C. Sharma similarly discussed India's international boundary problems and provision for their management. Arun Dalvi examined the division of the Kurdish people by international boundaries, and speculated about the shape of a theoretical Kurdish state. Michel Foucher took the historic view a stage further, arguing that attention should be paid to geopolitical circumstances and the objectives of those responsible at the time of delimitation; for 38 per cent of the world's boundaries the responsible powers were Britain and France. According to Frederick Hyde-Chambers the British sent secret agents into Tibet in the nineteenth century to survey boundaries which were not British creations.

One major aspect of land boundary studies deserving far more attention is their affect on everyday life. Dusan Simko's paper on the Franco-Swiss border is a rare case-study which identifies the unexpected interdependence of rural communities on either side of the divide. Jeremy Carver's paper on the practi- calities of boundary dispute resolution examined the long and complex process of dispute resolution from a practicing inter- national lawyer's viewpoint, stressing the importance of detailed historic, legal, and technical research at all stages. This practical paper was admirably supplemented by Anthony Asiwaju's dis- cussion of the role of national boundary commissions in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. The processes of dispute resolution for land and maritime boundaries and the management of land boundaries once in place, could provide important themes for future conferences. Whatever theme is chosen for IBRU's next con- ference, it is hoped to bring together a similar range of experts as gathered in Durham; lawyers, surveyors, cartographers, geographers, government officials, historians, journalists, and representatives of the hydrocarbon industry. Clearly there is much to gain from such encounters, and geographers have much to offer.