conflict transformation a multidimentional task

8/11/2019 Conflict Transformation a Multidimentional Task

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Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management - Edited version Aug 2004 (First launch Mar 200!

Conflict "ransformation#

A Multi-$imensional "as%

&ugh Miall

htt'#)) )*+e rghof-hand+oo%*net

* ,ntroduction 2

2* "heories of Conflict "ransformation 2

,s "here a "heor of Conflict "ransformation.

Contri+utions to "heories of Conflict "ransformation

From a "heor of Conflict to a "heor of Conflict-in-Conte/t

* 1ractices of Conflict Resolution 2

Actors of Conflict "ransformation

Coordination and Multi-"rac% $i'lomac

Assessing the ,m'act of 1ractice

4* Conclusion 2

3* Reference and FurtherReading
http://www.berghof-handbook.net/http://www.berghof-handbook.net/http://www.berghof-handbook.net/http://www.berghof-handbook.net/


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&ugh Miall

Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management

Conflict "ransformation#A Multi-$imensional "as%

&ugh Miall

* ,ntroduction5hat is the state-of-the-art in conflict transformation theor. $oes a theor of conflict

transformation alread e/ist6 and if so6 )hat are its main foundations. Can 'ractitioners rel on this

theor to guide their 'ractice. Can analsts ma%e use of it to understand the dnamics of conflict

and to assess the effects of interventions.

"his 'a'er aims to identif )hat is distinctive a+out conflict transformation theor and

'ractice6 as )ell as to identif its %e dimensions* 5e need such a theor of conflict transformation

if )e are to have an ade7uate +asis for the analsis of conflicts6 as )ell as for devising a''ro'riate

res'onses to them and evaluating the effects of these res'onses* "he 'a'er argues that such theories

need to +e continuall ad8usted in res'onse to the changing nature of conflicts6 and that current

theories must +e ada'ted in order to ta%e 'ro'er account of the glo+alisation of conflicts and conflict

interventions*

"he first section of the article distinguishes conflict transformation theor from theories

of conflict management and conflict resolution* ,t e/'lores some of the 'rinci'al conflict

transformation a''roaches in more detail6 and then as%s )hether the add u' to a coherent +od of

theor* Follo)ing this6 it suggests a shift from theories of conflict to theories of conflict-in-context6

arguing that in the conte/t of glo+alisation our analses of conflict must give 'ro'er consideration

to the social6 regional and international conte/t* 5e need to consider +oth the factors that 'romote

'eace+uilding and those that e/acer+ate conflict at these different levels over an e/tended time'eriod from +efore the out+rea% of violent conflict to )ell after its resolution* 5ithin this +roader

setting6 this section thus attem'ts to e/tend 9altung:s and A;ar:s theories of conflict formation to

theories of conflict transformation* ,t also 'ro'oses a frame)or% of five t'es of conflict

transformation6 )hich should +e useful as a +asis for 'lanning and assessing interventions in

conflicts*

"he second section of the article discusses current develo'ments in conflict

transformation 'ractice as the have occurred in the four 'rinci'al %inds of 'ractice < that of

governmental and intergovernmental re'resentatives6 of develo'ment agencies6 of non-

governmental organisations (=9>s!6 and of local 'arties and grou's )ithin the conflict setting* "he

issues involved in coordinating initiatives +et)een these different grou's are also discussed*

"he final section of the 'a'er discusses conflict transformation as a 'otential seed forchange6 re7uiring change +oth in the 'eace+uilder as )ell as in the societ in conflict*

2* "heories of Conflict "ransformation2* ,s "here a "heor of Conflict "ransformation.

At the ver least6 the foundations of a theor of conflict transformation have no) +een

laid* =evertheless it is also true that a )ide variet of theoretical a''roaches are in use among

different schools of thought and 'ractice in the field* "hese theories reflect +oth differing 'aradigms

and different t'es of intervenors (state and non-state6 internal and e/ternal!* $ifferent authors and

2


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&ugh Miall

Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management



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'ractitioners use +asic conce'ts and terms in inconsistent )as* ,n 'articular6 it is not clear )hether

the term conflict transformation is intended to descri+e the field +roadl6 and thus +e snonmous

)ith conflict management and conflict resolution6 or )hether conflict transformation instead is

characterised + distinct elements that can +e differentiated from the other t)o a''roaches*

, )ill argue here for the latter# a distinctive theor of conflict transformation is indeedemerging* =evertheless , note also that this ne) theor dra)s on man of the familiar conce'ts

of conflict management and conflict resolution6 and that it also rests on the same tradition of

theorising a+out conflict* ,t is +est vie)ed not as a )holl ne) a''roach6 +ut rather as a re-

conce'tualisation of the field in order to ma%e it more relevant to contem'orar conflicts*

Certain crucial changes in the nature of conflict call for such a re-conce'tualisation* First

of all6 most contem'orar violent conflicts are asmmetric6 mar%ed + ine7ualities of 'o)er and

status* ?econd (see contri+ution of $an ?mith in this volume!6 man contem'orar conflicts are

'rotracted6 crossing re'eatedl into and out of violence and thus defing cclical or +ell-sha'ed

models of conflict 'hases* "hirdl6 'rotracted conflicts )ar' the societies6 economies and regions in

)hich the are situated6 creating com'le/ emergencies fuelled on the one hand + local struggles and

on the other + glo+al factors such as the arms trade and su''ort for regimes or re+els + outside

states* "he com'le/it of these situations contrasts star%l )ith the relative sim'licit of the core

theories )e can find in conflict resolution6 es'eciall those advocating )in-)in outcomes in t)o-

'art contests*

,t is hel'ful to distinguish three se'arate schools )ithin this overall field (see contri+ution

of Reimann in this volume!6 )hile at the same time recogni;ing the significant areas of overla'

+et)een them* All three not onl articulate varing a''roaches to conflict intervention6 +ut also

reflect different conce'tualisations of conflict*

Conflict management theorists see violent conflicts as an ineradica+le conse7uence of

differences of values and interests )ithin and +et)een communities* "he 'ro'ensit to violence

arises from e/isting institutions and historical relationshi's6 as )ell as from the esta+lisheddistri+ution of 'o)er* Resolving such conflicts is vie)ed as unrealistic# the +est that can +e done is

to manage and contain them6 and occasionall to reach a historic com'romise in )hich violence

ma +e laid aside and normal 'olitics resumed* Conflict management is the art of a''ro'riate

intervention to achieve 'olitical settlements6 'articularl + those 'o)erful actors having the 'o)er

and resources to +ring 'ressure on the conflicting 'arties in order to induce them to settle* ,t is also

the art of designing a''ro'riate institutions to guide the inevita+le conflict into a''ro'riate

channels* ,n the )ords of Bloomfield and Reill#

Conflict management is the positive and constructive handling of difference and

divergence. Rather than advocating methods for removing conflict, [it] addresses the more

realistic question of managing conflict: how to deal with it in a constructive way, how to

ring opposing sides together in a cooperative process, how to design a practical,achievale, cooperative system for the constructive management of difference

!"loomfield and Reilly

#$$%, #%&.

Conflict resolution theorists6 in contrast6 re8ect this 'o)er 'olitical vie) of conflict6

arguing instead that in communal and identit conflicts6 'eo'le cannot com'romise on their

fundamental needs* &o)ever6 the argue that it is 'ossi+le to transcend conflicts if 'arties can +e

hel'ed to e/'lore6 analse6 7uestion and reframe their 'ositions and interests* Conflict resolution

therefore em'hasises intervention + s%illed +ut 'o)erless third-'arties )or%ing unofficiall )ith

the 'arties to foster ne) thin%ing and ne) relationshi's* "he see% to e/'lore )hat the roots of the

conflict reall are and to identif creative solutions that the 'arties ma have missed in their

commitment to entrenched 'ositions* Conflict resolution is a+out ho) 'arties can move from ;ero-



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sum6 destructive 'atterns of conflict to 'ositive-sum constructive outcomes* "he aim is to develo'

@'rocesses of conflict resolution that a''ear to +e acce'ta+le to 'arties in dis'ute6 and effective in

resolving conflict (A;ar and Burton 6 !*

Conflict transformation theorists argue that contem'orar conflicts re7uire more than the

reframing of 'ositions and the identification of )in-)in outcomes* "he ver structure of 'arties andrelationshi's ma +e em+edded in a 'attern of conflictual relationshi's that e/tend +eond the

'articular site of conflict* Conflict transformation is therefore a 'rocess of engaging )ith and

transforming the relationshi's6 interests6 discourses and6 if necessar6 the ver constitution of

societ that su''orts the continuation of violent conflict* Constructive conflict is seen as a vital

agent or catalst for change* 1eo'le )ithin the conflict 'arties6 )ithin the societ or region affected6

and outsiders )ith relevant human and material resources all have com'lementar roles to 'la in

the long-term 'rocess of 'eace+uilding* "his suggests a com'rehensive and )ide-ranging a''roach6

em'hasising su''ort for grou's )ithin the societ in conflict rather than for the mediation of

outsiders* ,t also recogni;es that conflicts are transformed graduall6 through a series of smaller or

larger changes as )ell as s'ecific ste's + means of )hich a variet of actors ma 'la im'ortant

roles* ,n the )ords of Dederach#

Conflict transformation must actively envision, include, respect, and promote the

human and cultural resources from within a given setting. 'his involves a new set of lenses

through which we do not primarily (see) the setting and the people in it as the (prolem) and

the outsider as the (answer). Rather, we understand the long-term goal of transformation as

validating and uilding on people and resources within the setting !*ederach #$$+&.

2*2 Contri+utions to "heories of Conflict "ransformation

4

"heorists of conflict transformation dra) on a variet of conce'tual +uilding +loc%s6

some recent6 some older and some +orro)ed from other schools* "he idea of conflict formation)as alread 'resent in the )or% of the Euro'ean structural theorists )ho analsed conflict

formations (e*g* ?enghaas ri''endorf !* 1erha's the most influential )or% to date has

+een that of 9altung (+rought together in 9altung 6 0-2!6 )hich offers a rich +re) of core

conce'ts*

Conflicts6 he suggests6 have +oth life-affirming and life-destroing as'ects* "he form

from contradictions in the structure of societ* "he then +ecome manifest in attitudes and

+ehaviour* >nce formed6 conflicts undergo a variet of transformational 'rocesses# articulation or

dis- articulation6 conscientisation or de-conscientisation6 com'le/ification or sim'lification6

'olarisation or de'olarisation6 escalation or de-escalation (6 0!* "he incom'ati+ilit )hich

arises +et)een 'arties ma +e eliminated + transcending the contradiction6 + com'romise6 +

dee'ening or )idening the conflict structure6 and + associating or dissociating the actors (6!* 9altung6 ri''endorf and others also em'hasise the relationshi' +et)een conflicts and larger

conflicts em+edded in the structure of )orld societ and the )orld econom*

Curle:s )or% (! +uilt on 9altung:s a''roach* &e traces ho) asmmetric

relationshi's can +e transformed6 through a shift from un+alanced to +alanced relationshi's

achieved through a 'rocess of conscientisation6 confrontation6 negotiation and develo'ment*

Dederach too% u' Curle:s ideas6 as did Francis )ho develo's them in her contri+ution to this

hand+oo%* Contri+utions from theorists on non-violence have also +een im'ortant (?har'

5ehr6 Burgess and Burgess 4 Clar% 2000!* A non-violent cam'aign can transform conflict +

detaching the 'ro's sustaining it such as grou's resisting land reform and harnessing them to

su''ort social alternatives (,nternational

Alert 6 226 -!*



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A;ar:s )or% (0! on 'rotracted social conflicts has also had an im'ortant influence

on conflict transformation theor6 + offering an e/'lanation for the 'rotracted 7ualit of

contem'orar conflicts* &e suggests an a''roach that is more a''ro'riatel suited to the

characteristics of contem'orar conflicts in fragile states* &is )or% concentrates on the genesis

and maintenance of 'rotracted conflicts* B develo'ing his theor6 it can also +e used as a theorof conflict transformation*

Figure is dra)n from A;ar:s model of 'rotracted social conflict* ,t is e/tended here to

demonstrate that6 )ith some modification6 A;ar:s model can +e used to ca'ture +oth the formation

and the transformation (or deformation! of this t'e of conflict*

Reading the diagram from left to right6 as in A;ar:s +oo%6 one can trace the formation of

a 'rotracted conflict* ,t arises from the historical conte/t6 and from the denial of +asic human needs

of access6 identit and securit6 as )ell as through the roles 'laed + the state6 international

'olitical and economic lin%ages and the militar in 'olitics* ,f the state and communal grou's

choose su''ression and violent re+ellion as their strategies6 a conflict ma then +ecome destructive*

Reading from right +ac% to left6 destructive conflict then results in a more de'endent and

e/'loitative 'attern of develo'ment6 a distorted 'attern of governance and a militarised form of

'olitics* "his leads to the further denial of +asic needs* "he result is a 'rotracted ccle of

institutional deformation and destructive conflict*

>n the other hand6 if there is sufficient ca'acit in governance and societ6 if 'olitics are

not too militarised6 and if the international environment is su''ortive6 states ma instead choose

accommodation6 and communal grou's ma choose 'olitical forms of confrontation* "his can lead

to a 'attern of constructive conflict that in turn 'romotes legitimate decision-ma%ing ca'acit6

strengthens autonomous develo'ment and sustains civil rather than militar 'olitics* All these are

conducive to the meeting of +asic needs* "he model goes +eond sim'le structural or +ehavioural

e/'lanations and suggests ho) 'atterns of conflict interact )ith the satisfaction of human needs6 the

ade7uac of 'olitical and economic institutions and the choices made + 'olitical actors* ,t alsosuggests ho) different o'tions can lead to +enign or malignant s'irals of conflict*

Garnen argues for a conflict theor +ased on the idea of transformation rather than

settlement6 stressing that it is im'ortant to understand ho) conflicts are transformed in dnamic

terms#

'he ul of conflict theory regards the issues, actors and interests as given and on

that asis maes efforts to find a solution to mitigate or eliminate contradictions etween

them. et the issues, actors and interests change over time as a consequence of the social,

economic and political dynamics of societies !ayrynen #$$#, /&.

&is a''roach is 'rimaril analtical and theoretical6 +ut is also suggestive of the t'es of

intervention that 'eace+uilders should +e considering (see Garnen !#

H actor transformations < internal changes in 'arties6 or the a''earance of ne) 'artiesH issue transformations < altering the agenda of conflict issues

H rule transformations < changes in the norms or rules governing a conflict

H structural transformations < the entire structure of relationshi's and 'o)er distri+ution in the

conflict is transformed*

Ru'esinghe (36 ! argues for a com'rehensive6 eclectic a''roach to conflict transformation

that em+races multitrac% interventions* &e 'ro'oses +uilding 'eace constituencies at the grassroots

level and across the 'arties at the civil societ level ()here it e/ists!6 and also creating 'eace

alliances )ith an grou's a+le to +ring a+out change6 such as +usiness grou's6 the media and the

militar* &e sees conflict transformation as a +road a''roach incor'orating conflict resolution

training and "rac% , interventions including di'lomatic interventions and 'eace%ee'ing*

3



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Figure # "ransformationof 1rotracted ?ocial Conflicts (ada'ted from A;arBB0!

conte/t needs ca'acit actors conflict

Conte/tual+ac%ground e*g*colonial legac6

multiethnicit6

formation

Acce'tance needsrecognition of

identit I culture

met

unmet

Access needse*g* 'olitical I

economic

1attern ofinternationaleconomic (

'olitical lin%ages

su''ortive

e/'loitative

9overnance I thestate

ca'acit

illegitimacinca'acit

?tate actors

accommodate

su''ress

=ature of conflict

constructive

destructive

?ecurit needs=utrition6 housing6'hsical securit

Role of militar-

civic'olitics

militarised'olitics

Communal 9rou's

confront

violent re+ellion

Dederach:s )or% (! serves as one of the most com'rehensive statements to date of

conflict transformation thin%ing for 'ractitioners* &e sees 'eace+uilding as a long-term

transformation of a )ar sstem into a 'eace sstem6 ins'ired + a 7uest for the values of 'eace

and 8ustice6 truth and merc* "he %e dimensions of this 'rocess are changes in the 'ersonal6

structural6 relational and cultural as'ects of conflict6 +rought a+out over different time-'eriods

(short-6 mid- and long-term! and affecting different sstem levels at different times*

1eace+uilding is thus seen as a structure-'rocess* An a''ro'riate strateg (such as

net)or%ing +et)een mid-level leaders )ith lin%s to 'arties across the conflict! is lin%ed to an

a''ro'riate time-frame (such as concentrating on mid-term ste's to +uild a 'eace constituenc6

)hile at the same time em+racing a vision of the desired future and an a)areness of the current

crisis!* ,n thin%ing a+out structure6 Dederach contri+utes the idea of the 'ramid )ith elite leaders

and decision-ma%ers at the to'6 leaders of social organisations6 churches6 to' 8ournalists in the mid-

level and grassroots communit leaders at the +ase* A com'rehensive 'eace 'rocess should

address com'lementar changes at all these levels*

>ne strength of his model is that it )idens its vie) from the conflict and the conflict

'arties and indicates the sco'e for dra)ing 'eace+uilding resources from the )ider societ* A



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)ea%ness is the limited attention it gives to the autonomous 'rocesses of change that trans'ire

)ithin the 'olitical sstem of the conflict-affected societ*

An im'ortant issue6 raised + Dederach and )idel discussed + the conflict resolution

school in the conte/t of conflict intervention6 is the issue of se7uencing* 5hat t'e of action or

intervention is a''ro'riate6 + )hom6 and at )hat time. 9lasl (2! suggested nine stages ofescalation in conflicts* &e argues that different t'es of intervention might +e a''ro'riate at

different times* Fishers and eashl:s (! contingenc theor +uilt on these foundations* "heir

idea is that the nature of intervention should +e matched to the stage of the conflict* At the earl

stages of conflict6 the suggest that facilitation ma +e a''ro'riate +ut )hen a conflict has reached

a high stage of 'olarisation 'o)er-+ased mediation (or even coercion! is re7uired* Dederach (!

offers another version of a contingenc model +ased on Curle:s (! 'rogression of conflict6

avoiding coercion*

Authors )ithin the conflict transformation tradition also dra) heavil on ideas a+out

conflict dnamics common to all three schools* For e/am'le6 conflicts sometimes develo' strong

tendencies to)ards vicious or +enign s'irals* "he common 'attern is for conflict to +roaden (suc% in

ne) issues!6 )iden (suc% in ne) actors! and intensif (suc% in ne) victims!* But it is also 'ossi+le

for conflict to +e transformed6 as 'arties shift 'ositions and ado't ne) goals6 ne) actors emerge and

ne) situations develo' allo)ing for ne) relationshi's and changed structures*

,t should +e evident from this +rief revie) of a''roaches to conflict transformation theor

that some theories6 e/em'lified + A;ar and Garnen6 are 'rimaril analtical and inter'retative6

attem'ting to e/'lain the formation and transformation of contem'orar conflicts* >thers6 such as

Curle and Dederach6 are 'rescri'tive6 offering 'eace+uilders a means to conce'tualise the 'ath from

conflict to)ards desired outcomes* 1erha's 9altung:s a''roach comes closest to a snthesis*

2

2* From a "heor of Conflict to a "heor of Conflict-in-Conte/t

As the 'ractice of 'eacema%ing has e/tended from 'revention to 'ost-conflict

'eace+uilding6 and as glo+alisation e/erts an increasing im'act on internal conflicts6 the sco'e of

conflict transformation theories must corres'ondingl +e e/tended* >n the one hand6 the need to

+e concerned )ith the factors e/acer+ating conflict and restraining conflict over a num+er of

different 'hases (see Bo/ !#

Bo/ # FactorsE/acer+ating or Restraining Conflict at $ifferent 1hases

'hase

factors're-violence crisis escalation 'rotracted

'ost-settlement

e/acer+ating

underling

causes triggers escalators deformers triggers

restraining dee'

'reventors

light

'reventorsde- escalators transformers 'eace+uilders

>n the other hand6 ho)ever6 these theories must also deal ade7uatel )ith the inter'la

of causes and 'reventors at all the different levels of the international sstem* >ne can identif five

different levels at )hich contem'orar conflicts are caused# the glo+al6 regional6 societal6 conflict

'art and individualelite (Miall6 Rams+otham and 5oodhouse !* Bo/ 2 'rovides s'ecific

e/am'les of causes and 'reventors of violent conflicts at these levels6 using e/am'les from R)anda*



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Bo/ 2# Causes and 1reventors of GiolentConflicts at $ifferent Devels

level e/am'les of causes e/am'les of'reventors

glo+al 'ost-colonial legac international minorit rights

regionalconflict s'illover

in great la%es

conflict'revention

+ >?CE

state(societ-state ca'ture

+ ethnic grou's cross-ethnic'art voting

conflict'art&utu hostilit

to)ards "utsi

'ragmatic a''roach

of minorit

eliteinternational&utu leaders

launch genocide

'resident acce'ts

>?CE advice

Conflict theories6 if vie)ed too narro)l6 )ill +e seen to concentrate overl on the

conflict 'art level6 focusing on 'arties6 issues6 goals and so on to the e/clusion of the conte/t

)ithin )hich the conflict is situated as )ell as of the factors )hich characteri;e the self-fuelling of

conflicts6 e*g* mar%ets and cultures of violence* ,t is 'ossi+le6 ho)ever6 to add more re'resentation

of the +ac%ground6 for e/am'le +uilding on 9altung:s sim'le triangular formulation of conflict*

>n to

Jcontradiction:6 )e can +uild Jconte/t: on to Jattitudes:6 Jmemor: and on to J+ehaviour:6

Jrelations: (see Figure 2 !* "his recogni;es that the meaning of a conflict de'ends largel on the

conte/t out of )hich it arises* "he attitudes the 'arties have to)ards one another are sha'ed +

'revious relationshi's* "he +ehaviour the ado't is not 'urel reactive +ut is +ased on their

memor of )hat has ha''ened in the 'ast6 and e/'ectations of )hat ma ha''en in the future*"he context of conflict includes the societ in conflict and the )ider international and

regional level* 5ithin the societ6 crucial +ac%ground as'ects are culture6 governance

arrangements6 institutions6 social roles6 norms6 the rules and codes in 'lace in a societ6 and its 'ath

of develo'ment* For e/am'le6 in conflicts involving ethnicit6 minorities or challenges to state

structures6 it is the ver structure of the state that is at issue* As glo+alisation 'roceeds6 local

conflicts are inevita+l influenced + )ider economic and 'olitical forces* "hese have tended to

strengthen trade investment and technological net)or%s in some areas of the )orld6 +ut also to

marginalise other areas such as Africa and the former ?oviet Knion* "he result is a )ea%ening of

states and economies in these areas and6 in some cases6 the creation of a real crisis of the state*

,nternal conflicts are increasingl associated )ith fragile states and mal-ada'tive reactions to the

im'act of glo+alisation*Relationships involve the )hole fa+ric of interaction )ithin the societ in )hich the

conflict ta%es 'lace as )ell as +eond to other societies* As Dederach (! argues6 these relational

as'ects of conflict are crucial* 1oor relationshi's +et)een grou's are all too often a trigger for

conflict6 and remain a critical hindrance to 'eace+uilding efforts after the violence is over*

0emories are 'art of each 'art:s sociall constructed understanding of the situation6

sha'ed + culture and learning6 and discourse and +elief* "he )a grou's remem+er and construct

their 'ast is often central to the mo+ili;ation for conflict6 and thus a crucial matter to address in

reconciliation and cultural traditions )or%*

Conte/t6 relationshi's and memories are all 'art of the tissue connecting the

contradictions6

attitudes and +ehaviours in the conflict formations6 )ithin the )ider +ac%ground in s'ace and time*

4



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Figure 2# E/'anding the Conflict "riangle#"ransformersand "riggersof Conflict at $ifferent ?stem Devels

glo+al level

regional level

state(societ- level

transformers

develo'ment

institutions

conte/t

C

governance

culture

triggers e*g*arms salesdias'oras

overs'ill ofregional

conflicts

A Be*g*

"rac% ,6

"rac% ,,6 memories relationshi's

"rac% ,,,

initiatives communities

B

"his tem'late ena+les a +etter understanding of the t'es of transformation that ta%e

'lace* Building on Garnen:s a''roach6 Bo/ illustrates five t'es of transformation6 or

transformers*

Context transformations refer to changes in the conte/t of conflict that ma radicall alter

each 'art:s 'erce'tion of the conflict situation6 as )ell as their motives* "he im'act of the end of

the Cold 5ar on regional conflicts is a dramatic e/am'le* A some)hat less far-reaching instance

might +e the 'ro'osed change in the rules of the diamond trade to outla) Jconflict diamonds:6 that

could )ell have a significant im'act on the conflicts in ?ierra Deone and Angola* "he esta+lishment

of the 5orld $iamond Council ()) ) *)orlddiamondcouncil*com!is a 'romising start +ut it is6 aset6 too earl to see if it )ill have a significant im'act*

1tructural transformations refer to changes in the +asic structure of the conflict6 that is to

the set of actors6 their issues6 incom'ati+le goals and relationshi's6 or to the societ6 econom or

state )ithin )hich the conflict is em+edded* Asmmetric conflicts cannot +e transformed6 for

instance6 )ithout changing the un+alanced and contested relationshi's that lie at their roots* 5hile

such changes )ill ta%e 'lace onl graduall6 internal and e/ternal actors can su''ort them along the

)a* For e/am'le ?teve Bi%o:s JBlac% Consciousness: movement raised a)areness of the 'o)er of

the 'oor 'eo'le in the to)nshi's in ?outh Africa6 and the Anti-A'artheid Movement hel'ed to 'ress

the case for dis-investment + foreign-o)ned +usinesses )ell +efore the end of the a'artheid

regime* Man recent conflicts in 5est Africa have demonstrated the futilit in attem'ting

conflicttransformation )ithout addressing the economic interests that fuel )ars*

http://www.worlddiamondcouncil.com/http://www.worlddiamondcouncil.com/


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Bo/ # "ransformersof Conflict

t'e e/am'les

* conte/t transformations change in the international or regional environment

2* structure transformations

change from asmmetric to smmetric relations

change in 'o)er structures

changes of mar%ets of violence

* actor transformations

changes of leadershi'

changes of goals

intra-'art change

change in'art-:s

constituencies changing actors

4* issue transformations

transcendence of contested issues

constructive com'romise

changing issues

de-lin%ing or re-lin%ing issues

3*'ersonalelite transformations

changes of'ers'ective

changes of heart

changes of )ill

gesturesof

2ctor transformations include decisions on the 'art of actors to change their goals or alter

their general a''roach to conflict* "his )ould include decisions to see% 'eace or to initiate a 'eace

'rocess* "he also include changes of leadershi'6 often crucial to the securing of transformation in

conflicts* Also included are changes in the situation of the 'u+lic constituencies and su''orters of

the res'ective 'olitical leaders* "his o'ens a num+er of lines for s'ecific conflict transformation)or%6 as those )ho )or% )ithin a 'art to +ring a+out change in that 'art:s 'osition often 'rove

to +e crucial actors in the 'eace 'rocess6 and ma have more influence than e/ternal "rac% , and

"rac% ,, actors*

3ssue transformations concern the reformulations of 'ositions that 'arties ta%e on %e

issues at the heart of the conflict as )ell as the )a in )hich 'arties redefine or reframe those

'ositions in order to reach com'romises or resolutions* A good e/am'le of an issue transformation

)as the decision + the Knionist 1art in =orthern ,reland to acce't a de-lin%ing of the

decommissioning issue from the 7uestion of the convocation of the =orthern ,reland Assem+l*

Ma%ing J'rogress: on issues in conflict is often tortuousl slo) and 'ainfull su+8ect to reversals6

and of course )hat counts as 'rogress is itself contentious*

4ersonal changes of heart or mind within individual leaders or small groups )ithdecision-ma%ing 'o)er at critical moments ma +e crucial* ?ome e/ternal intervenors tr to reach

these leaders and +ring a+out this 'ersonal change directl (Curle Mitchell 2000!*

Conciliator gestures + leaders6 )hich e/'ress 'ersonal changes6 )ould 'la an im'ortant role in

this conte/t*

"hese five t'es of transformation can +e readil related to the levels of conflict

causation or 'revention identified a+ove* Conte/t transformations usuall occur )ithin the glo+al or

regional setting* ?tructural transformations usuall ha''en at the statesociet level* Actor and

issue transformations ta%e 'lace at the conflict 'art and elite levels* 1ersonal transformations

demand com'etencies on the individual level*

"he transformation t'es can also +e connected to the different 'arts of conflictformation6

0



12/22

)hether this is seen in A;ar:s terms (see Figure ! or in 9altung:s (see Figure 2!* Conte/t6 structural

and issue transformations all affect the conte/t and contradictions at the heart of the conflict* Actor

and 'ersonal transformations 'articularl affect attitudes and memor6 +ehaviour and relationshi's*

"hese in turn6 of course6 are interrelated*

Finall6 these different t'es of transformation further relate to the 'hases of conflicts andthe timing of intervention* Conte/t and structural changes tend to ta%e 'lace over a longer time-

scale6 and affect the setting of the conflict the other t'es of transformations occur more ra'idl

and se7uentiall6 as 'art of the dnamics of the conflict* "he se7uencing of changes varies )ith

each 'eace 'rocess de'ending on the logic of the situation (see Bo/ 4 for the =orthern ,reland case!*

>nl in the ver sim'lest conflicts is conflict transformation li%el to +e a ra'id or immediate

'rocess* More t'icall6 it is slo) and tortuous )ith turning 'oints usuall follo)ed + stic%ing

'oints* "his

ma%es the evaluation of individual measures e/tremel difficult*

Bo/ 4# "ransformersof the =orthern ,reland Conflict

As one of the most intensivel managed conflicts6 as )ell as one of the more

intracta+le conflicts of the t)entieth centur6 =orthern ,reland offers man lessons for

conflict transformation* 5e can find evidence of all five levels of transformation at different

'oints* "he context of the conflict )as altered + long-term changes in the British and ,rish

societies6 the develo'ment of the EK and the end of the Cold 5ar* "he conflict structure

changed as the 'an-=ationalist coalition develo'ed sufficient alliances and confidence to

+alance the hitherto asmmetric relationshi's +et)een the 'arties* 2ctor transformations

included changes of government in Britain6 the fundamental shift in thin%ing )ithin the ?inn

FLin leadershi'6 and division and change among the Knionists* 3ssue transformations

included the mutual agreements reached in the 9ood Frida agreement to reconcile the

legitimac of the t)o cultural traditions and esta+lish institutions )hich reinforce +oth the,rish and British dimensions of governance* All this could not have ta%en 'lace )ithout

significant changes of mind at the individual and elite level* Even so6 conflict remains and

continues6 as each marching season reinvo%es the old atmos'here of division and fear*

=orthern ,reland offers a stri%ing e/am'le of the com'lementarit of a''roaches on di fferent

trac%s and of the interrelationshi' +et)een Jstructural: and Jcultural: a''roaches (Bloomfield

!* For e/am'le6 the 'atient )or% of the Communit Relations Council on the ground

+uilt sufficient credi+ilit to ena+le the Council to facilitate 7uiet dialogue )ith oung

'oliticians (Fit;duff

!* 5e have not et gained a clear understanding of the role that Jcivil societ: 'laed in

this 'eace 'rocess and in the longer term 'rocess of healing the divisions +et)een the

communities* Cochrane and $unn (2002! 'rovides an in-de'th assessment*

"he dnamics of conflict and conflict transformation are also related to the social and

international ca'acit for handling conflicts* ,n general6 this ca'acit is li%el to +e higher in

societies )ith a 'ast tradition of handling change 'eacefull6 in )hich institutions are legitimate and

rules and norms are acce'ted* Corres'ondingl6 it ma +e threatened and undermined in times of

e/treme conflict and )ar* "he modified version of A;ar:s theor6 'resented in Figure 6 suggests

the relationshi' +et)een conflict dnamics and conflict handling ca'acit in divided societies*

Constructive conflict handling reinforces the societ:s confidence in its civic institutions6

culture and ca'acit to manage conflict 'eacefull* Further it not onl transforms relationshi's in

conflict6 it also strengthens the societ:s sstem of governance and ca'acit for conflict handling



13/22

and 'eaceful change*

$estructive conflict6 on the other hand6 results in an intensification of damage to the

'artici'ants in conflicts and the +standers* ,t further destros their coo'erative ca'acities6 including

the sstem of governance6 the economic order and the social relationshi's of the societ6 in some

cases even the state* ,n 'rotracted conflicts6 all the institutions of societ +ecome thoroughldeformed*

"hese rather +road theoretical considerations suggest a frame)or% through )hich )e can

analse and evaluate conflict transformation 'ractices6 and consider the ga's and )ea%nesses in the

international ca'acit for handling conflict*

* 1ractices of Conflict Resolution* Actors of Conflict "ransformation

Conflict transformation usuall involves a +road range of actors6 )ho ma%e use of a )ide

re'ertoire of 'ractices* "hese can6 ho)ever6 +e categorised into four main grou's of actors6 )ho

sha'e the develo'ment of contem'orar 'ractice#

H states and inter-governmental organisations

H develo'ment and humanitarian organisations

H international =9>s concerned )ith conflict 'revention and transformation

H 'arties to the conflict and other relevant grou's )ithin the affected societies*

, )ill +riefl discuss some of the characteristic 'ractices of each grou'6 +efore

considering the issues that arise )hen the come together*

"rac% , 'ractitioners6 states and international organisations6 are among the most

influential of all the actors as their 'ractice im'inges most directl and 'o)erfull on the conflict'arties6 and the 'ositive and negative conse7uences of their interventions are full in the 'u+lic

ee* "he 0s +egan )ith a ho'eful 'hase in )hich the K= set out to im'lement the e/'anded

conce'tion of 'eacema%ing envisioned in Boutros Boutros-9hali:s2genda for 4eace6 )ith nota+le

'eace+uilding o'erations in areas )ith recent 'eace settlements6 including Cam+odia6 =ami+ia6

Angola6 Mo;am+i7ue and El ?alvador*

A general model for K= 'eace+uilding has emerged from these cases* ,t calls for militar

measures to secure the demo+ili;ation6 disarmament and cantonment of o''osing forces

constitutional measures to im'lement elections and esta+lish a transitional government governance

measures to su''ort civilian government and infrastructure6 including the training and6 if necessar6

su'ervision of local 'olice human rights measures return of refugees and restoration of the )ar-

damaged infrastructure* At first6 this model a''eared to have stri%ing successes6 and in some casessuch as =ami+ia and Mo;am+i7ue a 'eaceful transformation from )ar )as indeed achieved* ,n

others6 ho)ever6 such as Angola and Cam+odia6 violent conflict resumed* "he K= and the ma8or

states continue to learn from these o'erations and are e/tending their 'eace+uilding o'erations6 for

e/am'le in Bosnia and osovo* 5hile international interventions have in these cases seem to have

halted ethnic )ars6 the e/tent of transformation of the underling conflict remains limited* Ethno-

nationalist leadershi's remain and settlements +ased on the realities of ethnic divisions in the )ar

have 'reserved these divisions in the 'eace*

"hese high-'rofile cases6 of course6 involved im'osed settlements6 achieved after

considera+le vacillation on the 'art of a divided international communit* More im'ressive have

+een the cases in )hich conflicts )ere 'revented even +efore the +ecame violent 6 and )here

2



14/22

dee' or structural and light or o'erational conflict 'revention have )or%ed together* &ere6 real

changes in the conte/t of the conflict and in the structure of the societies have resulted in some

im'ressive transformations*

,n the case of Estonia6 for e/am'le6 a 'otential ethnic conflict )as averted in 'art through

the )ell-%no)n interventions of the >?CE &igh Commissioner on =ational Minorities6 su''orted+ the EK and ?candinavian governments* ,n 'art6 the transformed economic conte/t served to

change the incentives for the Russian-s'ea%ing communit* Moreover an additional %e factor )as

the introduction of an electoral sstem that created incentives for cross-ethnic voting6 thus resulting

in a transition from ethnic 'olitics to a 'olitics of economic and regional interest grou's* =on-

Estonian 'oliticians )ere included in the 'art lists of Estonian 'arties6 and the Estonian Centre

1art )on )ide su''ort from Russian-s'ea%ers as a vehicle for 'romoting their interests* "his is a

'articularl stri%ing success for the conflict management and ethnic accommodation a''roaches6

made 'ossi+le + the transformation of the Estonian conte/t after *

"he second t'e of actors are develo'ment and humanitarian agencies* ,n the 0s and

0s6 these agencies )ere increasingl dra)n into the costl +usiness of re+uilding )ar-torn

societies6 and )ere res'onding to the acute damage to develo'ment6 )hich had resulted from armed

conflicts6 + targeting develo'ment 'rogrammes s'ecificall to)ards 'eace+uilding* ,n some cases6

their activities su''orted K= 'eace+uilding o'erations6 for e/am'le in Mo;am+i7ue )here donors

hel'ed to %ee' the elections on schedule and su''orted the transformation of RE=AM> into a

'olitical 'art* ,n other cases6 develo'ment aid can +e channelled to directl mitigate conflict6 as

)hen donors su''orted refugees in neglected 'arts of ?omalia )ith the intention of reducing

discontent in a 'oliticall unsta+le area* 1rogrammes to su''ort the re-integration of child soldiers

or the reha+ilitation of agricultural land are further e/am'les of develo'ment tas%s that can readil

have a 'eace+uilding com'onent* Ca'acit-+uilding and su''ort for indigenous conflict handling

ca'acit are also crucial* A nota+le e/am'le of such )or% is >/fam:s conflict transformation )or%

in =orthern ena (see Bo/ 3!*$evelo'ment aid can6 of course6 have unintended as )ell as intended conse7uences in

some circumstances6 aid is ca'tured + the 'arties to conflict and then sustains the fighting* Current

)or% on esta+lishing a frame)or% of indicators for assessing the im'act of develo'ment 'ro8ects on

conflicts goes some )a to)ards meeting the need for a frame)or% for +etter evaluation (see

contri+utions of Mar% &offman and Mar Anderson in this volume!* ?uch a frame)or% of

indicators should in turn +e lin%ed to a frame)or% for understanding the overall transformation of

the conflict6 such as the one offered a+ove*

Although develo'ment agencies are increasingl im'ortant and influential in this field6

the generall see their role as 'rinci'all to su''ort and encourage the )or% of others6 rather than

to ta%e 'rime res'onsi+ilit for transforming 'articular conflicts (this role is still seen as a ne) and

untested function!* Most of the conflict transformation )or% has therefore +een left to =9>s*

Bo/ 3# Conflict "ransformation5or% in =orthern ena

,n =orthern ena6 the gro)ing 'ressure on arid land and the introduction of a

alashni%ov culture into traditional cattle-raiding has led to an increase in +oth the e/tent

and intensit of conflicts +et)een nomadic 'astoral communities6 as )ell as +et)een

'astoralists and agriculturalists* =ot onl historical rivals such as the "ur%ana and 1o%ot or

?omali and Borana6 +ut also communities )hich coe/isted 'eacefull in the 0s are no)

engulfed in )ar* "he militarisation of these 'astoralist communities is severel affecting the

securit of ena and the neigh+ouring territories6 and damaging the affected communities*

,n res'onse6



15/22

>/fam facilitated 'eace tal%s reling on local elders in the Baragoi 1astoral 1ro8ect of *

A crucial as'ect of >/fam:s ongoing )or% in the area is an effort to a''reciate the codes of

honour and conduct of these 'eo'les and their understanding of conflict6 through le/ical and

ethnogra'hic analsis (ona !* ,n this vein6 a local committee of )omen from the

affected communities set u' the 5a8ir 1eace and $evelo'ment Committee6 a net)or% of 2governmental organisations and =9>s in north-eastern ena* "his grou' conducts training

and ca'acit-+uilding6 and contri+uted to a cease-fire in and continuing efforts to

'revent and resolve local conflicts in the region*

(Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention a6 32 +6 24-4!

>f all the grou's of 'ractitioners discussed here6 it is 'ro+a+l the =9>s )ho have 'aid

most attention to theories of conflict transformation* Follo)ing Dederach6 =9> 'ractitioners

advocate a sustained level of engagement over a longer time-'eriod* "he see% an in-de'th

understanding of the roots of conflict6 )or%ing closel )ith 'eo'le +oth )ithin and outside the

conflict 'arties* "he see% to o'en a s'ace for dialogue6 sustain local or national conferences and

)or%sho's on 'aths to)ards 'eace6 identif o''ortunities for develo'ment and engage in

'eace+uilding6 relationshi'-+uilding and institution-+uilding over the longer term*

"he methods and tools em'loed + "rac% ,, actors include su''orting and sustaining

local grou's and social movements6 +uilding 'eace constituencies6 strengthening ca'acit6

em'o)ering %e actors6 organisational develo'ment and net)or%ing and training* A nota+le

e/am'le of this %ind of )or% is the 'rogramme of the Dondon-+ased =9> Conciliation Resources

(CR! in Fi8i6 underta%en in coalition )ith local actors* CR su''orted the Citi;ens: Constitutional

Forum in Fi8i6 an organisation )hich made a significant contri+ution to the ne) constitutional

settlement in

)ith the introduction of the alternative-vote sstem and 'o)er-sharing (ConciliationResources

2000!* Knfortunatel6 the cou' in Fi8i in Ma 2000 and the return to a narro)l-+ased government

indicates onl too clearl the set+ac%s confronted + this %ind of )or%*

>ne %e re7uirement for this )or% is good conflict analsis (see Bo/ !6 )hich is +est

develo'ed in con8unction )ith grou's in conflict* "rac%ing the changing dnamics of a conflict

over time is clearl one of the areas in )hich 'ractice must dra) on a''ro'riatel develo'ed

theor*

Bo/ # Conflict Analsis

"he original conflict ma''ing guide of 5ehr (! is still of value* More recent

guides can +e found in Miall6 Rams+otham and 5oodhouse (6 2-!6 Bloomfield andReill (6 4-4! and Deonhardt (2000!* "he +asic techni7ue is to ta%e a sna'shot of the

conflict6 identifing %e actors6 sta%eholders6 issues and relationshi's6 and then identif the

actors6 third-'arties or 'otential 'eace alliances ca'a+le of +ringing a+out change* More

so'histicated conflict trac%ing relies on indicators of conflict )hich are also used for earl

)arning 'ur'oses and im'act assessment (?chmid ongmaan 2000see contri+ution of

1affenhol; in this volume!*

Finall6 and most im'ortantl6 the local actors themselves have the greatest

res'onsi+ilit6 and the greatest o''ortunit6 for transforming their o)n conflicts* "here are cases of

Jem+edded third-'arties: )ho emerge out of conflict 'arties and 'la a significant role in o'ening

channels of dialogue and o'ening 'olitical s'ace < such as ohn &ume in =orthern ,reland

cases of grou's

4


16/22



17/22

)ithin 'olitical 'arties )ho can +ring a+out an actor transformation such as the shift to)ards

'olitical forms of struggle in ?inn FLin and civil societ actors and local =9>s )ho often have an

enormous influence on +ridge-+uilding +et)een 'olitical 'arties and local communities e/em'lified

+ the Clonard monaster in =orthern ,reland6 and the Corrmeela Communit )or%ing on res'ect

for cultural traditions there+ addressing the 'ro+lems of historical memories and reconciliation*"he im'act of this 'eace+uilding on the macro level of the conflict is hard to evaluate +ut on a

small scale6 the 'ersonal and grou' transformations that it can achieve are %eenl felt*

*2 Coordination and Multi-"rac% $i'lomac

A 'articular challenge for conflict transformation )or% is the 7uestion of ho) +est to

)or% effectivel )ith interventions occurring at other trac%s* At times6 ver effective colla+oration

ta%es 'lace6 for e/am'le in the case of Macedonia (see Bo/ !*

All too often6 ho)ever6 internal and e/ternal actors in the various trac%s are at cross-

'ur'oses* "his is not sur'rising6 given the clash +et)een 'aradigms* Actions on one trac% can

sometimes )rec% efforts on another* For e/am'le6 it ma +e difficult for an organisation that strives

for non-violent resolution of conflicts to coo'erate )ith a government that relies on coercive

methods to 'ressure the local 'rotagonists to acce't a settlement* Conversel6 foreign ministries are

not usuall enthusiastic a+out the intrusion of =9>s into di'lomac*

1ractitioners of conflict transformation activities at the non-state level must 'ursue their

aims )ith sensitivit to +oth the culture of the conflict area and the goals and constraints of other

actors* "he must al)as remem+er that the ma not +e a+le to influence other actors )hose

actions )ill in turn affect their o)n )or%* Moreover6 their tas% ma +roaden )hen conflict

transformation involves changing the 'olicies of "rac% , +odies outside the conflict area* For

e/am'le6 it is increasingl recogni;ed that +odies li%e the 5orld Ban% can have a significant im'act

on conflicts* Cam'aigns to influence their 'olicies have thus +ecome a regular 'art of the )ider tas%of conflict transformation*

Bo/ # Coo'erative Multi-"rac% $i'lomac in Macedonia

Macedonia offers a case in )hich the various initiatives of different trac%s a''ear to

have +een genuinel com'lementar* For e/am'le6 the >?CE &igh Commissioner on

=ational Minorities (e/ternal "rac% ,! together )ith the >'en ?ociet ,nstitute in ?%o'8e

(internal "rac% ,,,! 'ro'osed several com'romise solutions on the universit issue* "he

,nternational Conference on the Former Nugoslavia ("rac% ,! +ro%ered a com'romise

+et)een Macedonia and the ethnic ?er+s6 )hile Mr* &ol+roo%e and the K? government

("rac% ,! clinched the agreement +et)een 9reece and Macedonia )hich ended the +loc%ade*

"he =9> ?earch for Common 9round (e/ternal "rac% ,,,! develo'ed a long-term'rogramme aiming to meet the common needs of +oth communities at the grassroots

level6 'articularl + 'romoting

Jinclusive 8ournalism:6 res'ect for the common cultural legac and the monuments of +oth

communities6 and also +icommunal efforts to 'rotect the environment (Ac%ermann 2000!*

"ensions +et)een the t)o communities remain shar' and have +een further e/acer+ated +

the effects of the )ar in osovo* ,ndeed the fighting in Maune 2000 threatened to e/'and

into civil )ar* Knderling disagreements over the acce'tance of the identit and status of the

grou's have not +een resolved* =evertheless6 an inter-ethnic coalition is still intact in

1arliament ("rac% ! < this is 'ro+a+l the most vital factor in restraining violent conflict*

Although at the time of )riting these tensions could still over)helm Macedonia6 internal and

e/ternal actors have so far )or%ed together effectivel to create a significant ca'acit6 at

least

at the to'-level6 for accommodating differences*

3



18/22

* Assessing the ,m'act of 1ractice

5hat is the overall im'act of these %inds of 'ractice on conflict. ,t is still difficult to sa*

"here are re'orts of significant achievements in +uilding 'eace constituencies for e/am'le in

Dederach:s )or% (!* Com'ilations of recent )or% include some im'ressive stories of a''arentsuccesses (Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention a6+!* >nl recentl6 ho)ever6 some

com'arative research studies have started to identif %e varia+les of im'act assessment more

sstematicall such as Reflecting on 4eace 4ractice !R44& and *essons *earned in Conflict

3nterventions + the Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention and "ransformation* Bercovitch:s

research (! suggests that conflict management a''roaches6 including the use of 'o)er

resources6 are the most effective at delivering settlements* >n the other hand6 these settlements

often fail to genuinel transform the conflict6 and the long-term )or% necessar to +uild

relationshi's and ca'acit ma +e more im'ortant than reaching fragile short-term 'olitical

settlements*

"he overall evidence of the ending of ethnic conflicts is 'articularl so+ering* ,n a stud

of 'eacefull settled conflicts in Euro'e6 the Middle East and Africa since 43 (1fetsch and Roloff

2000! the authors found onl out of 2 cases of conflicts over ethnicit6 religion or regional

autonom that )ere resolved through 'eaceful negotiation (these include the Aland ,slands6

=orthern E'irus6 the ?aar and ?outh "rol!* 3 remain undecided6 )ere resolved + the threat of

force or other forms of coercion6 and 4 + violence* "he great ma8orit of the 'eaceful cases )ere

re'u+lics of the former ?oviet Knion )hich 'eacefull +ro%e a)a in * ,ndeed6 des'ite the

violent conflicts in Chechna6 "a8i%istan6 =agorno-ara+a%h and else)here6 the num+er of ethnic

conflicts )hich a''ear to have +een transformed )ithout violence in the former ?oviet Knion is

startling*

A useful line of )or% is to identif these 'eaceful cases and ascertain the reasons )h

violence has +een avoided6 and ho) ethnic and other internal conflicts have +een managed oraddressed* But conflict ending measured + the end of violence is too final and crude an indicator

on )hich to +ase the 'lanning and assessment of conflict transformation initiatives* For this6 a

more finel-grained6 differentiated a''roach is needed and indicators such as those develo'ed in

)or% on 1eace and Conflict ,m'act Assessment (1C,A! sstems offer one such a''roach (see

contri+ution of &offman in this volume!* ,f conflict transformation can +e +ro%en do)n into a

se7uence of changes in the conflict structure6 the 'arties: goals and into issues over time6 as

suggested in the first 'art of this 'a'er6 it ma +ecome more feasi+le to relate interventions to

'articular transformations in the conflict*

"he im'act of endeavours for conflict transformation should not onl +e seen as an issue

)hich affects the 'arties in conflict* ,t is also of direct relevance for all the individuals involved*

"he challenges6 difficulties6 hardshi's6 set+ac%s and tenacit inherent in all conflict transformationmean that )e must also Jtransform the transformers:* 5e must include this grou' as )e focus on

activities designed to enhance 'eace education6 to im'rove training 'rogrammes and to create

o''ortunities for self-reflection and s'iritualit (see Bo/ !*

Bo/ # "ransformingthe "ransformers< ?miling as a Method

>ne of the )orld:s most nota+le transformers of conflict uses a method that does not

usuall a''ear in +oo%s a+out conflict and is com'letel a+sent from conflict theories* ,t is6

ho)ever6 a method that )or%s* "he method is to smile* @Breathing in6 , calm m mind and

+od* Breathing out6 , smile* "his is the 'resent moment* "his is the onl moment* "hich

=hat &anh is a Gietnamese Buddhist mon%6 'oet and 'eace activist* &e is not the onl

e/'onent of the smiling a''roach to conflict transformation* "he $alai Dama6 Adam Curle

and =elson



19/22

Mandela are all instinctive smilers* "hich =hat &anh not onl smiles )onderfull6 he also

offers a com'rehensive guide to the theor and 'ractice of smiling6 rooted in traditional

)isdom and e/'erience (=hat &anh !* @,f )e are 'eaceful6 if )e are ha'' )e can smile

and +lossom li%e a flo)er and everone in our famil in our entire societ )ill +enefit from

our 'eace* "he idea of smiling as an a''roach to conflict transformation is +ased on thetheor of interde'endent co-origination* "he 'ractice of smiling is 'art of the 'ractice of

engaged mindfulness and reminds us that the conflict transformer must also ta%e res'onsi+ilit

for transforming him- or herself in the 'rocess* "he theor of interde'endent co-origination

states that everthing has an influence on everthing else* Everthing inter-is )ith everthing

else* A flo)er is 'artl a flo)er6 +ut it also has the sun and the rain and the earth inside it*

"he flo)er is made u' of non-flo)er elements* ?imilarl6 our self is made u' of non-self

elements* 5e can touch that of ourselves in the other and +e touched + that of the other in

ourselves* According to Buddhist 'scholog6 )e have a mental consciousness and a

storehouse consciousness* ?eeds develo' in the storehouse consciousness and )hen the come

to occu' our mental consciousness6 )e )ater them and the gro)* ,n conflict )e )ater the

seed of anger until the anger )ithin our storehouse consciousness gro)s ver strong* ,t can

then govern our thoughts and +ehaviour* But this is not inevita+le* "he 'ractice of engaged

mindfulness can transform anger6 'ain6 and hate into com'assion6 8o and love* Conflict

transformation6 li%e mindfulness6 tends and )aters seeds6 )ithout %no)ing e/actl ho) the

)ill gro)* Memor6 relationshi's and conflicts are seeds in the collective storehouse

consciousness* "ransforming collective conflicts re7uires a dee' a)areness of ourselves and

our inter+eing )ith others*

2

Conclusion

"his 'a'er has argued that a distinctive school of conflict transformation theor and

'ractice has develo'ed over the 'ast decade* "his ne) a''roach can +e differentiated from conflict

management and conflict resolution6 although all three schools rel on a shared tradition of thin%ing

a+out conflict and intervention*

Conflict transformation is a com'rehensive a''roach6 addressing a range of dimensions

(micro- to macro- issues6 local to glo+al levels6 grassroots to elite actors6 short-term to long-term

timescales!* ,t aims to develo' ca'acit and to su''ort structural change6 rather than to facilitate

outcomes or deliver settlements* ,t see%s to engage )ith conflict at the 're-violence and 'ost-

violence 'hases6 and )ith the causes and conse7uences of violent conflict6 )hich usuall e/tend

+eond the site of fighting*"his 'a'er has argued that the am+itious 'rescri'tive theories need to +e +etter integrated

)ith the incremental analtical a''roach* At the same time6 the analtical theories must +e e/tended

in time-scale and sco'e* "he 'a'er 'ro'osed e/'anding conflict theor to include conflict-in-

conte/t6 and suggested a theoreticall informed frame)or% for evaluation*

A num+er of 7uestions and ga's in the theor remain* 5e still lac% sufficientl 'recise

dnamic theories to ade7uatel ca'ture the emergent 'ro'erties of conflict6 including the formation

of ne) actors and ne) issues* Most theories concentrate either on the causes and develo'ment of

conflict or on the creation and sustenance of a 'eace+uilding ca'acit6 and fail to sufficientl

integrate an understanding of ho) the 'reventors and causes of conflict interact* "here has +een a

some)hat uncritical )illingness to em+race multi-trac% di'lomac6 )ithout an ade7uate


4*


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conce'tualisation of ho) activit in the various trac%s can fit together* 5e still have an incom'lete

understanding of the im'act of conflict transformation activities on conflict6 )hich ma%es them

difficult to evaluate*

As the tas% of conflict transformation +roadens6 it ma seem even more daunting* An

one 'ractitioner or theorist can tac%le onl a 'art of this enormous field* All )e can to is6 tounderta%e a 'iece of )or% in good faith and do it )ell is all )e can do* 5e 'lant seeds6 and trust

that interde'endent co-origination )ill ta%e care of the rest*

3* Reference and FurtherReadingAc%ermann6 A* 2000* 0aing 4eace 4revail: 4reventing iolent Conflict in 0acedonia6 ?racuse# ?racuse

Kniversit 1ress*

Anderson6 M* *5o 6o 7arm: 7ow 2id Can 1upport 4eace 8 or 9ar6 Boulder# Dnne

Rienner* A/elrod6 R* 4* 'he volution of Cooperation6 =e) Nor%# Basic Boo%s*

A;ar6 E* 0* 'he 0anagement of 4rotracted 1ocial Conflict6 Aldershot# $artmouth*

A;ar6 E* and ohn 5* Burton6 * 3nternational Conflict Resolution: 'heory and 4ractice6 Boulder# Dnne

Rienner and 5heatsheaf*

Baile6 ?* * 4eace is a 4rocess6 Oua%er &ome ?ervice and 5ood+roo%e College for the ?)arthmore

Decture Committee*

Bercovitch6 * (ed*! *Resolving 3nternational Conflicts: 'he 'heory and 4ractice of 0ediation6 Boulder#

Dnne Rienner*

Bloomfield6 $* * 4eacemaing strategies in 6orthern 3reland: "uilding Complementarity in Conflict

0anagement 'heory6 Basingsto%e# Macmillan*

Bloomfield6 $* and Ben Reill * @"he Changing =ature of Conflict and Conflict Management6 in 1eter

&arris and Ben Reill (eds*!6 o'* cit*Burton6 * * Resolving deep-rooted conflict: a handoo, Danham6 Marland# Kniversit 1ress of

America*

Burton6 * and F* $u%es (eds*! 0* Conflict: 4ractices in 0anagement, 1ettlement and Resolution, vol 4 of

the Conflict ?eries6 Dondon# Macmillan*

Carnegie Commission on 1reventing $eadl Conflict * 4reventing 5eadly Conflict, 5ashington $C#

Carnegie Cor'oration of =e) Nor%*

Clar%6 &* 2000* Civil Resistance in ;osovo6 Dondon# 1luto*

Cochrane6 F* and ?eamus $unn 2002* 4eople 4ower: 'he Role of the oluntary and Community 1ector in

the

6orthern 3reland Conflict6 Cor%# Cor% Kniversit 1ress*

Conciliation Resources 2000*2nnual Report #$$$6 Dondon# Conciliation Resources (see htt'#))) *c- r *o r g!Coogan6 "* 3* 'he 'roules: 3reland)s a?a @irst: the 1ecret 6orway Channel to 4eace etween 3srael and the 4*


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,nstitute6 -2*

Euro'ean 1latform for Conflict 1revention a* 1earching for 4eace in 2frica: 2n >M6 Deiden# Deiden Kniversit*

ona6 E'o%horr ?** 2 framewor for cross-cultural conflict resolution theory: 4rospects for CulturalContriutions from 2frica6 Richardson ,nstitute6 Dancaster Kniversit# Kn'u+lished thesis*

ries+erg6 D* * Constructive Conflicts: @rom scalation to Resolution* Danham# Ro)man and

Dittlefield*

ri''endorf6 E* * @1eace Research and the ,ndustrial Revolution6 Aournal of 4eace Research6 Gol 06

3-20*

Dederach6 *1* 3* 4reparing for 4eace: Conflict 'ransformation 2cross Cultures6 =e) Nor%# ?racuse

Kniversit 1ress*

Dederach6 * 1* * "uilding 4eace: 1ustainale Reconciliation in 5ivided 1ocieties6 5ashington6 $*C*#

Knited ?tates ,nstitute of 1eace 1ress*

Deonhardt6 M* 2000* Conflict 3mpact 2ssessment of D 5evelopment Cooperation with 2C4 Countries: 2

review of literature and practice6 Dondon# ,nternational Alert?afer)orld*

Miall6 &*6 >liver Rams+otham6 and "om 5odhouse * Contemporary Conflict Resolution6 Cam+ridge#

1olit* Mitchell6 C* R* * 'he structure of international conflict* Dondon6 Macmillan*

Mitchell6 C* R* 2000* >estures of Conciliation: @actors Contriuting to 1uccessful * and 5oodhouse6 "om * 7umanitarian 3ntervention in Contemporary Conflict6

Cam+ridge# 1olit*



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Ra'o'ort6 A* * 'he

conflict transformation a multidimentional task

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