conformity chapter two. individuality vs. conformity one consequence of the fact that we are social...

Conformity

Chapter Two

Individuality vs. Conformity

One consequence of the fact that we are social animals is that we live in a state of tension between values associated with individuality and values associated with conformity.


Is conformity good or bad? To be called an individualist or a

nonconformist is to be designated, by connotation, as a “good” person.

BUT, can also substitute the term “deviate”

To be called a conformist, in our culture, is somehow to be designated as an “inadequate” person.

BUT, can also substitute “team player”


There is an inconsistency in the way our society seems to feel about conformity and nonconformity. Nonconformists may be praised by

historians long after the fact of their nonconformity, but they are usually not held in high esteem at the time!


Strong support of this observation from social psychology studies:Schachter study of “Johnny

Rocco”Kruglanski & Webster

Anticonformity

There is a difference between nonconformity (independence) and “anticonformity.”Not thinking for oneself but

automatically acting contrary to the desires and expectations of others

Conformity

Conformity is not always adaptive and nonconformity is not always maladaptive. Examples:

Hitler’s inner circle Nixon’s “palace guard” NASA Challenger administrators

Issue of “groupthink”…

GroupthinkDefined as the mode of thinking

that persons engage in when concurrence seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.

Groupthink

Consensus seeking is so important that certain members of the group sometimes become “mindguards” - people who censor troublesome incoming information.

What is Conformity?

Can be defined as a change in a person’s behavior or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people.

What is Conformity?

Questions to ponder: What causes people to conform to group

pressure? What is the nature of the group pressure? If there is a conformity to the opinion of others,

is there a change in actual opinion or only in reported opinion?

If there is an actual change in opinion, is it permanent or transitory?

What is Conformity?

Asch study

What is Conformity?

Asch studyReplicated many times with

nearly identical resultsResisting group pressure also

has been found to impact neurological activity Especially in the amygdala

What is Conformity?

Why did Asch’s study participants conform?No explicit rewards for

conformityNo explicit punishment for

deviance

What is Conformity?

Why did Asch’s study participants conform? TWO POSSIBILITIES:

They became convinced their opinions were wrong.

They “went along with the crowd” while inwardly believing their judgments were correct.

What is Conformity?

Why did Asch’s study participants conform?Simultaneously had TWO goals IN

CONFLICT:Goal of being correctGoals of staying in the good graces of other people by living up to their expectations

What is Conformity?

Most people believe that:THEY are motivated by a desire to

be correct. OTHERS are motivated by a

desire to stay in the good graces of other people.

We know other people conform, but we underestimate the extent to which we can be induced to follow the group.

What is Conformity?

Why did Asch’s study participants conform?When interviewed, data suggested that they were going along to get along.

Factors that Influence Conformity

UnanimityCommitmentAccountabilityThe Person and the CultureThe Group Exerting Power


Unanimity Even one alternate view will increase

nonconformity. Commitment

Prior commitment to initial judgment reduces later conformity.

Accountability If held accountable for decisions,

conformity is reduced.


The Person and the CultureIndividuals with low self-esteem are

more likely to conform.Task-specific self-esteem is particularly influential.

Strong sense of security in a particular group reduces conformity.


The Person and the CultureConformity is higher in collectivistic

societies (e.g., Japan, Norway, China) than in individualistic societies (e.g., USA, France).

Women tend to conform more than men, especially when the researcher is male and/or the task is male-oriented.


The Group Exerting Power There is greater conformity if the group:

Consists of experts Has members of high social status Has members comparable to the

individual The appearance of authority can

increase rates of compliance. Example: Wearing a uniform


The Group Exerting PowerGladwell’s: “The Tipping Point”

Conformity influenced by “connectors”

Belonging vs. Getting Information

People have a powerful need to belong. Most of us will go to extreme lengths to avoid

social exclusion. We often rely on other people as a means of

determining reality. When physical reality becomes increasingly

uncertain, people rely more and more on “social reality.”

This is especially true when we have faith in the expertise and trustworthiness of the model.


In an ambiguous situation, other people can induce conformity by providing us with information suggestive of what people generally do in a given situation.Example: Wasting water (O’Leary

& Aronson)Example: Littering (Cialdini, et al.)


It is not always easy to distinguish between conformity induced by information and conformity induced by social fear.Often, the behavior is identical.The key element is the presence

or absence of a punitive agent.


Conformity resulting from the observation of others for the purpose of gaining information about proper behavior tends to have more powerful ramifications than conformity in the interest of being accepted or avoiding punishment.


People conform to others even in assessing something as personal and idiosyncratic as the quality of their own emotions.


According to William James, an emotion has both a “feeling” content and a cognitive content.Requires both physiological

arousal and a label


Research by Schachter & Singer found that when physical reality was clear and explainable, participants’ emotions were not influenced by the behavior of other people. However, when participants were

experiencing a strong physiological response of unknown origin, they interpreted their own feelings depending on the behavior of other people.


Haney further examined the influence of other people by looking at the death qualification procedure.

Responses to Social Influence

The concept of conformity can be expanded to distinguish among three kinds of responses to social influence:ComplianceIdentificationInternalization


ComplianceDescribes the behavior of a person

who is motivated by a desire to gain reward or avoid punishment.Typically, behavior is only as long-lived as the promise of reward or the threat of punishment.


Identification Describes a response to social influence

brought about by an individual’s liking for or desire to be the influencer.

Differs from compliance in that we do come to believe in the opinions and values we adopt, although we do not believe in them very strongly.

This phenomenon occurs often when we encounter the opinions of people we like or admire – even relative strangers.


InternalizationMost permanent, most deeply

rooted response to social influenceThe motivation to internalize a

particular belief is the desire to be right.The reward for the belief is intrinsic.


Some distinguishing characteristics:Compliance is the least enduring and

has the least effect on the individual because people comply merely to gain reward or to avoid punishment.Rewards and punishments must be ever present to be effective.


Some distinguishing characteristics: Continuous reward or punishment is not

necessary for identification. The person with whom the individual identifies

need not be present at all, as long as: The individual remains important to you The individual still holds the same beliefs These beliefs are not challenged by

counter-opinions that are more convincing.


Some distinguishing characteristics: Internalization is the most permanent

response to social influence because your motivation to be right is a powerful and self-sustaining force that does not depend on constant surveillance in the form of agents of reward or punishment, as does compliance, or on your continued esteem for another person or group, as does identification.


Any specific action may be due to either compliance, identification, or internalization.Example: Obeying speed laws


Major component in each response:Compliance = PowerIdentification = AttractivenessInternalization = Credibility


There are areas of overlap among the three categoriesSome circumstances can

increase the permanence of compliance and identification (e.g., secondary gain).

Obedience As a Form of Compliance

Milgram study on obedience


Milgram study Replicated many times with similar results


What are the implications of Milgram’s study? An astonishingly large proportion of

people will cause pain to other people in obedience to authority.

This research also may have important counterparts in the world outside of the experimental laboratory.

Examples: Nazi Germany, My Lai, Abu Ghraib


Yet, we should be cautious about over-interpreting Milgram’s results. There are significant differences between the

lab and real-world cases. Other important factors:

Prestige of researcher Perceived authority of researcher Presence of authority figure Witnessing the suffering of others


Disobedience in the Milgram Experiments Several people chose to defy the experimenter

and refused to continue with the experiment. Human history also contains examples of such

courage. However encouraging, acts of humanity and

bravery should not blind us to the pervasiveness of our tendency to obey authority.

We harbor a myth of our personal invulnerability to obedience pressures.

The Uninvolved Bystander as Conformist

Not only do we find it difficult to resist pressures to hurt people, we often avoid taking action when presented with opportunities to help people.


The Kitty Genovese CaseEleanor Brady’s

experience


Why did bystanders fail to help?One possible explanation concerns the existence of different norms for helping in large cities as opposed to smaller towns.


Why did bystanders fail to help? Experiments by Darley, Latane, et al suggest

that nonintervention can be viewed as an act of conformity.

The fact that there are a lot of other people around, rather than increasing the likelihood that someone will help, actually decreases the likelihood that any one of them will help. Dubbed “the bystander effect”


Why did bystanders fail to help?Additionally, if people are

aware that an event is being witnessed by others, the responsibility felt by any individual is diffused.


Conversely, why do bystanders help at other times?Examples: Camping trip, subway

carTwo additional factors at work:

Feeling of “common fate” or mutuality

Restricted environment


How can the tendency to help be increased? Define the situation as an emergency Assume personal responsibility for

intervening Reduce “costs” of assistance Increase usefulness of intervention Strengthen the connection with the

victim

A Note on the Ethics of Experiments

The procedures in several studies discussed raise serious ethical problems.

Two important points: It is the responsibility of all experimenters in

this field to protect the experimental participant from all harm.

Social psychologists have an ethical responsibility to society as a whole – they are obligated to use their research kills to advance knowledge and understanding of human behavior for the ultimate aim of human betterment.

By Feb. 20th

You should have read chapter two by this time. Now that you have completed these power points, please go to the Social Animal website.

http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/aronson10e/default.asp

Log in and take the quiz for chapter two, submit answers to my email.

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