Constitutional Law and Human Rights

in MalaysiaTopical Issues and Perspectives

E d i to r

Khairil A zm in MokhtarLLB (Hons) (HUM), M aster of C om parative Laws (IIUM),

PhD in Law (Aberystwyth)Associate Professor

A hm ad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws International Islamic University Malaysia

SWEET & MAXWELL ASIA T H O M S O N RE U T ER S

Contents

Preface.........................................................................................................................viiAbout the Authors......................................................................................................ixTable of Cases..........................................................................................................xxxiTable of Statutes........................................................................................................ xliTable of International Conventions, Agreements and Treaties............................. liii

P r i n c i p a l O r g a n s o f G o v e r n m e n t

C hapter OneThe Doctrine of Separation of Powers: Judicial Review as a Check and Balance Tool........................................................................11.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 11.2 Constitutionalism , rule of law and judicial rev iew .............................. 11.3 Doctrine of separation of powers, principle of check and

balance and judicial review .......................................................................31.3.1 Doctrine of separation of powers in M alaysia........................41.3.2 The principle of check and balance............................................71.3.3 Judicial rev iew ................................................................................ 7

1.3.3.1 The scope and nature of judicial review ............... 71.3.3.2 Relief available in judicial review ...........................81.3.3.3 Review of prim ary legislation/check on the

Legislature....................................................................81.3.3.4 Review of action and decision/check on the

Executive.................................................................... 141.4 Selected issues and cases...........................................................................151.5 C onclusion................................................................................................... 20

C hapter Tw oThe Civil Service and the Doctrine of Holding Office at Pleasure..............................................................................................212.1 In troduction..................................................................................................212.2 The constitutional position of a public servan t...................................222.3 A ppointm ent and security of te n u re .....................................................232.4 The contractual nature of the relationship ........................................... 272.5 Procedural p ro tec tio n s ............................................................................. 282.6 The roles and functions of the Service Commission and

C ouncil......................................................................................................... 322.6.1 Duty of confidentiality ...............................................................332.6.2 Disclosure in the public in te re s t............................................. 34

xviii Contents

2.7 Freedom of association in the public sec to r........................................ 352.8 G overnm ent transform ation plan and the future of the

public se rv ice .............................................................................................. 37

C hapter ThreeCrown Privilege under the Common Law and theEvidence Act...........................................................................................393.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 393.2 Crown priv ilege...........................................................................................^3.3 Expanding scope of public interest im m u n ity .................................... 413.4 C ourt w ithholding evidence in the public in terest.............................443.5 Test applied for claim to w ithhold ev idence ....................................... 46

3.5.1 Class claims and content c la im s............................................... 46A n3.5.2 Balancing com peting in te re sts ...................................................^

3.5.3 Court's pow er to inspect docum ents........................................483.6 Crown privilege under the Evidence Act 1950...................................49

C hapter FourAccountability and Integrity of the Judiciary................................ 574.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 374.2 M aintaining judicial e th ic s ...................................................................... 334.3 Judicial ethics in M alay sia ....................................................................... 594.4 Judicial delinquents...................................................................................4.5 M ethods of supervising judges' c o n d u c t..............................................63

4.5.1 T ribunal..........................................................................................634.5.1.1 Criticisms on the process of judges' removal.... 654.5.1.2 Did the working party really intend to free

Article 125(3) and (4) from politicalc cinfluence?...................................................................

4.5.2 Judges' ethics com m ittee............................................................684.5.2.1 Background of the M alaysian Judges Code

of E thics....................................................................... 684.5.2.2 The scope of the Judges' Code of Ethics 2009 ... 724.5.2.3 Issues on the Judges' Code of Ethics 2009........... 744.5.2.4 Disciplinary procedure on breach of C o d e 76

4.6 C onclusion.................................................................................................... 77

C hapter FiveContempt of Court vs Freedom of Speech and Expression: Rethinking the Courts' Attitude........................................................795.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 795.2 The M alaysian courts' approaches in striking a b a lan ce ..................805.3 Rethinking the M alaysian courts' approaches in striking a

balance........................................................................................................... 875.4 Concluding rem arks................................................................................... 94

Contents xix

C hapter S ix ..............................................................................................................97A ccess to Ju s tic e : A d v e rsa r ia l C o sts in P u b lic In te re s t L it ig a t io n ................................................................................................................97

6.1 In troduction .................................................................................................. 976.2 Judicial discretion in aw arding costs......................................................976.3 Costs in the United K ingdom .................................................................1016.4 Costs in M alaysia.......................................................................................106

6.4.1 Specific statutory provisions for order of co sts .................. 1066.5 The position in C anada............................................................................1076.6 Different kinds of costs m echanism s....................................................1096.7 The Aarhus Convention........................................................................... 1096.8 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 110

C hapter SevenF u n c tio n s a n d P riv ile g e s o f P a rlia m e n t: A n O v e rv ie w ................ I l l

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................ I l l7.2 W hat is Parliam ent?.................................................................................. I l l

7.2.1 Parliam ent bu ild ing ...................................................................1127.2.2 Parliam ent as an institution..................................................... 112

7.3 The structure and main com ponents of Parliam ent.........................1137.3.1 Constitutional and legal framework of parliam entary

privileges in M alaysia ............................................................. 1157.3.2 Parliam ent as the central organ of Malaysian

dem ocracy.................................................................................. 1157.4 Definition and purpose of parliam entary privileges......................116

7.4.1 The sources and legal framework of parliam entaryprivileges in M alaysia............................................................. 117

7.4.2 Types of parliam entary privileges.........................................1187.5 Privileges of the Houses of Parliam ent as a collectivity...................118

7.5.1 Rights of the House to regulate its own composition and have exclusive cognizance of m atters arisingw ithin the H ouse.......................................................................119

7.5.2 The pow er to discipline............................................................ 1217.6 Rights and im munities of individual m embers of P arliam ent.... 122

7.6.1 Freedom of speech .................................................................... 1237.6.2 Exemption from court a ttendance.........................................1257.6.3 Freedom from arres t................................................................. 125

7.7 A com parison of two cases on pow er to punish for contempt:A distinction between the pow er of the State Legislative Assembly and the Federal Parliam ent................................................126

7.8 C onclusion..................................................................................................129

C hapter E ightT h e E lec tio n C o m m iss io n : H is to ry a n d F u n c tio n s ..........................131

8.1 In troduction............................................................................................... 1318.2 Historical backg ro u n d ............................................................................ 131

xx Contents

8.3 The 1955 election: successful experim ent of the electionsin M alaya.....................................................................................................139

8.4 The Election Com mission since independence.................................1408.4.1 The organisation of Election C om m ission...........................1408.4.2 Functions of the Election C om m ission ............................... 143

8.5 Dem ands for electoral reform ................................................................ 1458.6 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 147

C h ap ter N ineElected Members and the Right to Change Party........................ 1499.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 1499.2 Elections and the party system .............................................................. 1509.3 Concept of an elected representative................................................... 1519.4 Islamic theory of dem ocratic governm ent and the role of

elected representatives............................................................................ 1529.5 Anti-defection law: Legal position in M alaysia................................ 154

9.5.1 Anti-defection laws: Legal position in Ind ia ......................1579.5.2 Is there a need to enact an anti-defection law in

M alaysia?......................................................................................1589.6 Overcoming legal h u rd le s .......................................................................161

9.6.1 The advantages and disadvantages of anti-defectionla w s ............................................................................................... 162

9.7 Conclusion................................................................................................... 162

C h ap ter TenIslamic Law within the Federal Framework and Legal System of Malaysia and Nigeria....................................................................16510.1 In troduction.................................................................................................16510.2 The nature of the M alaysian and N igerian s ta tes.............................16610.3 Status and scope of Islamic law ............................................................. 169

10.3.1 Civil law (Muamalat).................................................................16910.3.2 Criminal la w ...............................................................................17010.3.3 H arm onisation of Islamic la w ................................................173

10.4 Application of Islamic la w ......................................................................17510.4.1 Jurisdiction of Islamic courts..................................................17510.4.2 Jurisdiction of civil courts (English courts) in Islamic

law m atters...................................................................................17810.4.3 H arm onisation of Islamic law in Malaysia and

N igeria .......................................................................................... 18010.4.4 Obstacles to the application of full Islamic la w .................181

10.5 C onclusion...................................................................................................181

C h ap ter ElevenEnforcing the Law against Enforcers: The Enforcement Agency Integrity Commission..........................................................18311.1 In tro d u c tio n ................................................................................................183

Contents xxi

11.2 The O m budsm an ...................................................................................... 18411.3 Form ation of the "M alaysian O m budsm an" - the EAIC................ 18711.4 The Enforcement Agency Integrity Commission Act 2009.............19011.5 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 196

B a s ic C o n c e p t s a n d F e a t u r e s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n

C h ap ter T w elveGeneral Principles of Good Governance in Public Administration: A Judicial Approach............................................19912.1 In troduction................................................................................................19912.2 Public authority defined ......................................................................... 200

12.2.1 M ultiple p o w ers ........................................................................20112.3 Judicial approaches on good governance.......................................... 201

12.3.1 Jurisdiction versus no jurisdiction.........................................20112.3.2 Bona fides versus mala f id es ...................................................20212.3.3 Proper purpose versus im proper p u rp o se .......................... 20312.3.4 Relevant facts versus irrelevant fac ts ....................................20412.3.5 N on-dictation versus abdication............................................ 20512.3.6 Mechanical decisions...............................................................20512.3.7 N on-restra in t.............................................................................20612.3.8 Reasonable delay versus undue delay................................. 20712.3.9 No discrim ination.................................................................... 20812.3.10 Rationality (reasonableness) versus irrationality

(unreasonableness)..................................................................20812.3.11 Procedural propriety (procedural fairness) versus

procedural im propriety...........................................................21012.3.12 Right of hearing (audi alteram partem)................................. 21112.3.13 No bias (nemo judex in causa sua) ...........................................21212.3.14 Reasoned decision.................................................................... 213

12.4 C onclusion.................................................................................................214

C h a p ter ThirteenMalaysian Constitution, Political Parties and theParty System........................................................................................21513.1 In troduction...............................................................................................21513.2 Political parties and party system ........................................................21513.3 Political parties and party system in the M alaysian

C onstitu tion .............................................................................................. 21813.4 Political parties and party system in M alaysia.................................22013.5 C onclusion................................................................................................. 224

xxii Contents

C h ap ter FourteenL iv in g in L im bo : C o n s ti tu t io n a l a n d L eg a l Is s u e s o f U n re g is te re d B ir th s .......................................................................................... 225

14.1 In troduction................................................................................................ 22514.2 The im portance of birth registration.................................................... 225

14.2.1 Right to education .................................................................... 22614.2.2 Right to health and a family env iro n m en t........................22614.2.3 Juvenile justice............................................................................ 22714.2.4 Entitlement to state benefits and participation

in society.......................................................................................22714.2.5 Right to a nam e and nationality ........................................... 22814.2.6 Right to be exem pted from certain law s............................ 228

14.3 Factors of non-registration of b ir th .......................................................23014.3.1 Political barriers.......................................................................... 23014.3.2 Adm inistrative b arriers ............................................................ 23014.3.3 Legislative barriers.....................................................................23014.3.4 Economic b a rrie rs ......................................................................23114.3.5 Geographical barrie rs ............................................................... 23114.3.6 Social cultural barriers.............................................................. 232

14.4 Registration of birth in M alaysia...........................................................23214.5 Registration of birth and the right to citizenship in M alaysia 233

14.5.1 Proof of citizenship ....................................................................23414.5.2 Registration of a child born overseas................................... 235

14.6 C onclusion...................................................................................................237

C h ap ter FifteenE ffective F ed e ra l-S ta te C o o rd in a tio n M e c h a n is m fo r G o o d G o v e rn a n c e a n d S u s ta in a b le L an d A d m in is tr a t io n ........................241

15.1 Introduction .................................................................................................24115.2 Good governance in land adm inistration system s...........................24315.3 M alaysian land policy fram ew ork ........................................................24815.4 Legal regulatory fram ew ork ...................................................................25015.5 Institutional and adm inistrative fram ew ork ......................................252

15.5.1 The National Land C ouncil.......................................................25315.5.2 D epartm ent of Director General of Land and Mines

(DG LM )........................................................................................25415.6 Analysis of the effectiveness of the functions of the federal

agencies in coordinating the land adm inistration system 25615.6.1 Lack of powers for coordinating the federal and state

land adm inistration re la tionsh ip ...........................................25715.6.2 Lack of pow ers for DGLM in coordinating land

adm inistration for co u n try ......................................................25815.6.3 Federal and state jurisdictional is su es ................................. 25815.6.4 Lack of coordination betw een governm ent ag en cies 260

15.7 Globally em erging initiatives in nationalising m anagem entof land adm in istra tion ............................................................................ 261

Contents xxiii

15.7.1 A ustralian in itiatives.............................................................. 26115.7.2 European Union initiatives....................................................26115.7.3 United States in itia tives.........................................................261

15.8 M alaysian initiatives in m eeting global n eed s ..................................26215.9 Proposed reforms to enhance the land adm inistration

System to m eet the global challenges................................................ 26315.9.1 Enhance role of the National Land Council in

coordinating land adm inistration between federaland state au th o rities ................................................................ 264

15.9.2 Establish National Centre for Developing and M aintaining Electronic land adm inistration system (MyeLAS)................................................................................... 265

15.9.3 Elevate position of D epartm ent of Director General ofLand and Mines to National Agency for Land A dm inistration and M anagem ent........................................26615.9.3.1 Review of the legal and institutional

framework for land adm inistration................... 26715.9.3.2 Improve procedures in land adm inistration

to enhance service d e livery ................................. 26715.9.3.3 Advisor to federal and state governments on

land policy, law and adm inistration m atters ....26815.9.3.4 Establish think tank for land adm inistration

and m anagem ent at federal level....................... 26815.9.3.5 Capacity building of land adm inistration

organisation and staff.......................................... 26815.10 C onclusion.................................................................................................269

C h a p ter SixteenEviction of Unlawful Occupiers of Land: Judicial Responses and Policies........................................................................................ 27116.1 In troduction ...............................................................................................27116.2 General concepts...................................................................................... 272

16.2.1 The squatter phenom enon in M alaysia .............................. 27316.2.2 Judicial responses to the position of squatters on state

and private la n d ........................................................................27516.3 Emergency (Clearance of Squatters) Regulations 1969...................28016.4 Forced eviction under the international hum an rights

d im en sio n ................................................................................................. 28316.4.1 An alternative to forced eviction?......................................... 285

C h ap ter SeventeenLegal Status of the States in Malaysia before Independence:Were we Colonised?...........................................................................28917.1 In troduction............................................................................................... 28917.2 The British and the Malay States: Policy of non-annexation

and treaty of p ro tec tion ......................................................................... 29017.2.1 The British and the Straits Settlem ents................................294

xxiv Contents

17.3 The British and the Borneo S ta tes .........................................................29517.4 Distinction betw een Protected State, Protectorate State and

Crow n C olony........................................................................................... 29617.4.1 The Malay States as Protected S ta tes ................................... 29817.4.2 The protected M alay States: British influences over

governm ent and adm inistration of the States.................... 30117.4.3 The Crow n Colony of the M alay Peninsula: British

Governm ent in the Straits Settlem ents................................. 30217.5 British direct rule after World War II: The U nitary M alayan

U nion ........................................................................................................... 30517.5.1 British direct and indirect rule after W orld War II:

The Federation of Malaya 1948.............................................. 30617.5.2 The root of confusion: Protectorate State and the

status of states under East India C om pany and the British N orth Borneo C hartered C om p an y ........................ 308

17.6 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 310

H u m a n R ig h t s

C h ap ter EighteenReligious Rights and Freedom: Comparative Perspectives 31318.1 In troduction................................................................................................ 31318.2 Islam as the religion of the Federation u nder Article 3(1) of

the Federal C onstitution (FC) .............................................................. 31418.2.1 A doption of official faith: Greece..........................................31418.2.2 Adoption of official faith: Ire lan d .........................................31518.2.3 Secular constitution: A ustra lia .............................................. 31518.2.4 Secular constitution: N igeria................................................. 316

18.3 The first argument: Religious rights and freedom sguaranteed in the States' C onstitu tions.............................................. 31618.3.1 States w ith official religion: M alaysia ................................. 31618.3.2 States w ith official religion: G reece..................................... 31718.3.3 States w ith official religion: Ireland..................................... 31718.3.4 O ther secular states: A u stra lia ..............................................31818.3.5 O ther secular states: N ig e ria ................................................. 318

18.4 Freedom of religion in M alaysia u nder Article 11 and therestriction on religious rights u nder the F C ......................................319

18.5 The second argum ent: Democratic and secular constitu tions.......32218.5.1 International hum an rights in s tru m en ts ............................32218.5.2 The Universal Declaration of H um an R ights.................... 32218.5.3 United N ations D eclarations................................................. 322

18.5.3.1 The 1981 R esolution................................................32218.6 The practice of the European Court of H um an Rights (ECHR)...... 324

18.6.1 Freedom of religion under the European Conventionfor the Protection of H um an Rights and Fundam ental Freedom s (the European C onvention)................................. 324

Contents xxv

18.6.2 The restriction of religious rights and freedom underthe doctrine of "m argin of appreciation":the jurisprudence of the ECHR............................................. 325

18.7 C onclusion................................................................................................. 329

C h ap ter N ineteenRight to Development as a Human Right: A Challenge for Malaysia...............................................................................................33119.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 33119.2 H um an rights and developm ent in perspective............................. 33219.3 Globalisation and hum an righ ts........................................................... 33319.4 The right to development: a controversial concep t......................... 334

19.4.1 Historical background............................................................33419.4.2 The evolving concepts............................................................33519.4.3 Specifying the content of the right to developm ent........336

19.4.3.1 Comprehensive developm ent..............................33619.4.3.2 Respect for all hum an r ig h ts ................................33619.4.3.3 Participation..............................................................33719.4.3.4 Social justice............................................................. 33719.4.3.5 Self-determ ination..................................................337

19.4.4 Clarifying the nature of the right to developm ent..........33719.4.4.1 A hum an r ig h t.........................................................33819.4.4.2 R ight-holders........................................................... 33819.4.4.3 D uty-holders............................................................ 33919.4.4.4 National im plem entation......................................339

19.5 H um an rights-based approaches to developm ent..........................34019.6 Challenges for M alaysia ........................................................................ 342

19.6.1 The challenge of enforcing constitutionalism andrule of la w ..................................................................................342

19.6.2 Challenge of prom oting popular participation andparticipatory dem ocracy.........................................................343

19.6.3 The challenge of strengthening capacity of publicservice..........................................................................................344

19.7 C onclusion.................................................................................................346

C h ap ter T w e n tyBalancing Business and Human Rights: Conflicts, Challenges and Prospects......................................................................................34720.1 In troduction...............................................................................................34720.2 Business and hum an rights: a multi-dim ensional

re lationship............................................................................................... 34820.2.1 Business as violators of hum an r ig h ts ................................ 34920.2.2 Corporate complicity in hum an rights abuses

committed by s ta tes ................................................................. 35220.2.3 Business as prom oters and protectors of

hum an rights.............................................................................. 352

xxvi Contents

20.3 U nderstanding business-related hum an rights abuses inM alaysia......................................................................................................35320.3.1 O verview ..................................................................................... 35320.3.2 C ontributing factors..................................................................355

20.3.2.1 Regulatory vacuum in regards to businessco n d u c t...................................................................... 355

20.3.2.2 M isconceptions about CSR.................................. 35620.4 Regulatory and voluntary-based solution m echan ism s.................358

20.4.1 Regulatory ap p ro ach es........................................................... 35820.4.2 Voluntary ap p ro ach es ..............................................................361

20.5 Findings of the study and some recom m endations.........................36220.5.1 H arm onising the regulatory and voluntary

approaches...................................................................................36220.5.2 H um an rights as business and states responsib ilities 36420.5.3 H um an rights principles are good for b u sin ess .................364

20.6 C onclusion...................................................................................................365

C hapter T w en ty OneR ig h ts o f th e O ra n g A sli u n d e r th e F e d e ra l C o n s t i tu t io n ............367

21.1 In troduction................................................................................................ 36721.2 Legal definition of ind igenousness.......................................................368

21.2.1 O rang A sli...................................................................................36821.2.2 Native of Sabah and Saraw ak.................................................37021.2.3 M alay ............................................................................................372

21.3 The Orang Asli rights under the Federal C onstitution....................... 37321.3.1 Article 8(5)(c)..............................................................................37421.3.2 Articles 13(1) and (2).................................................................377

21.4 Law as a tool for the advancem ent of the Orang A sli........................37921.5 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 381

C hapter T w en ty TwoR ig h t to H e a lth : In te rn a t io n a l H u m a n R ig h ts L aw a n d th e E x p erien ce o f O th e r C o u n t r ie s ...................................................................383

22.1 In troduction................................................................................................ 38322.2 Brief concept of h e a lth ............................................................................. 38322.3 Health and hum an r ig h ts ........................................................................38522.4 International hum an rights instrum ents on the right to hea lth ...387

22.4.1 Regional instrum ents on the right to h e a lth ...................... 39222.4.1.1 Europe........................................................................39222.4.1.2 Am erican co n tin en t...............................................39322.4.1.3 A frica .........................................................................394

22.4.2 Scope of the right to h ea lth .....................................................39422.4.3 Constitutional rights to h e a lth .............................................. 395

22.5 Im plem enting the right to health: exam ples of selectedcountries......................................................................................................39722.5.1 Position in M alaysia..................................................................406

22.6 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 408

Contents xxvii

C h a p ter T w e n ty ThreeRights of Persons with Disabilities (PWD): The "Almost Forgotten" Protection under the Federal Constitution...............41123.1 Introduction................................................................................................41123.2 International hum an rights law for PWD position in UN,

CRPD ..........................................................................................................41423.3 Laws governing PWD in M alaysia .......................................................41923.4 Position in Federal Constitution for P W D ..........................................423

23.4.1 Article 5 - Personal liberty.....................................................42323.4.2 Article 8 - E quality ..................................................................42623.4.3 Article 12 - E ducation ............................................................. 428

23.5 C onclusion..................................................................................................430

C h ap ter T w e n ty FourFreedom of Information: Principles and Challenges Towards Vision 2020..........................................................................................43124.1 Introduction................................................................................................43124.2 H istory ......................................................................................................... 43124.3 Freedom of inform ation as a hum an right under the um brella

of freedom of expression...................................................................... 43224.4 M ovem ent tow ard freedom of inform ation legislation.................. 43324.5 Concept and scope of freedom of inform ation.................................. 43424.6 Principles under freedom of inform ation and challenges..............43624.7 C onclusion..................................................................................................442

C h ap ter T w e n ty FiveRight to Privacy: Development, Cases and Commentaries.......44525.1 In troduction............................................................................................... 44525.2 Definition and scope of right to privacy............................................. 446

25.2.1 Right to privacy in the common law .................................. 44825.2.2 Right to privacy in the islamic perspective.......................450

25.3 Right to privacy in the M alaysian C onstitution................................45225.3.1 Right to privacy as a subset of right to life and

liberty ...........................................................................................45325.3.2 Right to privacy as a subset of the right to p ro p e rty 455

25.4 Recent developm ents from M alaysian co u rts ................................... 45725.5 C onclusion..................................................................................................465

C h ap ter T w e n ty SixSlavery and Human Trafficking: Constitutional Provisions and Domestic and International Laws...........................................46726.1 In troduction................................................................................................46726.2 Prohibition of slavery and forced labour in the Federal

C onstitution and international law s ...................................................46826.2.1 Slavery, forced labour and hum an trafficking.................. 472

xxviii Contents

26.3 The m eaning of hum an trafficking ...................................................... 47326.3.1 The difference betw een hum an trafficking and

hum an sm uggling ......................................................................47426.3.2 Difference betw een trafficking in persons and

sm uggling of m ig ran ts ............................................................. 47526.3.3 International laws on the suppression of hum an

trafficking.....................................................................................47626.4 M alaysian laws used to suppress h um an trafficking....................... 477

26.4.1 The Penal C ode.......................................................................... 47726.4.2 The Child Act 2001....................................................................47826.4.3 The Im m igration Act 1959 (Revised 1963)..........................47826.4.4 Anti-Trafficking in Persons and A nti-Sm uggling of

M igrants Act 2007......................................................................47926.4.5 Enforcement of the 2007 Act and the Governm ent's

national action plan against hum an trafficking.................48226.5 C onclusion.................................................................................................. 483

C h ap ter T w e n ty SevenB e a tr ic e F ern an dez v S i s t e m P en erb a n g a n M a l a y s i a :A Constitutional Critique..................................................................48527.1 Introduction .................................................................................................48527.2 Facts of the case: Beatrice Fernandez.......................................................486

27.2.1 Review of the court's d ec is io n ...............................................48727.2.2 W hether Article 8 of the FC is applicable to term s and

conditions of a collective ag reem en t.................................... 48727.2.3 W hether Clause 2(3) of the collective agreem ent

violates Article 8 of the FC as it was discrim inatory in n a tu re ............................................................................................ 491

27.2.4 The applicability of the convention on the elim ination of all forms of discrim ination against wom en (CEDAW), to the term s and conditions of thecollective ag reem en t................................................................. 495

27.3 Reception of international treaties w ithin our dom estic la w 49527.3.1 W hy CEDAW should be applicable to the term s and

conditions of the collective agreem ent................................. 49827.3.2 O ther possible argum ents........................................................500

27.3.2.1 Nullity of contracting out of fundam entalrig h ts ...........................................................................500

27.4 C onclusion...................................................................................................501

C h ap ter T w e n ty E ightFreedom of Speech on the Internet: Shariah and Malaysian Perspectives..........................................................................................50328.1 Introduction.................................................................................................50328.2 Scope of freedom of speech.....................................................................503

28.2.1 N ature of the in te rne t...............................................................504

Contents xxix

28.3 Freedom of speech as an integral part of democracy andthe S hariah ................................................................................................ 505

28.4 Freedom of speech: A universal and domestic r ig h t....................... 50728.5 Lim itation and regulation of freedom of speech in civil

society and from the Shariah perspective......................................... 51128.6 Limitation and regulation of the freedom in international

hum an rights law .................................................................................... 51328.7 Limitation of freedom of speech in the internet: Prohibition

and regulation of negative content on the in te rn e t........................ 51528.8 Illegal and harm ful content on the internet: Initiative taken

and approach adopted by the European Union and its institu tions................................................................................................ 51628.8.1 Illegal co n ten t............................................................................51628.8.2 Potentially harm ful content....................................................516

28.9 Laws regulating the internet in some countries................................51828.9.1 Internet Code of Practice of S ingapore............................... 51828.9.2 Internet Code of Practice of Brunei D arussalam .............. 51828.9.3 Com munications Decency Act 1996 and Child

Pornography Prevention Act 1996........................................51828.9.4 Laws restricting and regulating internet content in

M alaysia ..................................................................................... 51928.9.5 Com m unication and M ultim edia Act 1998 of Malaysia

and regulation of internet content in M alaysia.................51928.9.6 Restriction under defam ation law ........................................522

28.10 C onclusion.................................................................................................522

Index 525