constructing an instrument for data collection · 2020. 12. 23. · 1 methods for data collection...

Constructing an Instrument for Data

Collection Methods for data collection,

- Primary data, Observation, Participant/ non-participant, Interviewing,

structured, unstructured, questionnaire, mailed questionnaire, collective

questionnaire.

- Secondary data, documents.

Establishing the Validity and Reliability of a Research

Instrument,

- Concept of validity, Types of validity in quantitative research,

- face and content validity, concurrent and predictive validity, construct

validity.

@Copyrights: Research Tactics Organized by Dr. Ahmad Jalal (http://portals.au.edu.pk/imc/)

1 Methods for Data collection

There are 2 major approaches to gathering information about;

- a situation, person, problem or phenomenon.

When you undertaken a research study;

- in most situation, you need to collect the required information.

- sometime the information required is already available and need only be

extracted.

Based upon these broad approaches to information gathering, data can be

categorized as;

(a) Primary data;

(b) Secondary data.


1 Methods for Data collection (Cont…)

Differences in methods for data collection as;



Diagrammatic flow of methods used in data collection are;



(a) Primary Sources :

Information gathered using the 1st approach is said to be collected from

primary sources.

Primary sources provide first-hand information.

Primary sources e.g., measured, observed, interviewed, questionnaire.

For Example:

determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization.

finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards health

services.

evaluating the social programme.

ascertaining the health needs of a community.




Methods for collecting data using primary sources are;




(i) Observation :

“ when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide

objective information about it.”

Observation is one of the best way to collected primary data.

It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of;

- watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.

For Example:

Study the dietary patterns of a population.

Study the behavior or personality traits of an individual.

Want to learn about the interaction in a group.

It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate information cannot be elicited

by questioning because;

- respondents either are not co-operative or are unaware of the answers because it is

difficult to them to detach themselves from the interaction.




(i) Observation (Types of Observation):

There are 2 types of observation:

(1) Participant Observation

Researcher participate in activities of the group being observed in the same manner.

For Example;

You might want to examine the reactions of the general population towards people in

wheelchairs. You can study their reactions by sitting in a wheelchair yourself.

Or you might want to study the life of prisoners and pretend to be a prisoner.

(2) Non-Participant Observation

Researcher don't get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer,

watching and listening to its activities and draw conclusions from this.

For Example;

you might want to study the functions carried out by nurses in a hospital.

- as an observer, you could watch, follow and record the activities as they are performed.




(i) Observation (Problems):

Hawthorne effect – individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed and

change their behavior.

- What is observed may not represent their normal behavior.

Possibility of observer bias.

Interpretation drawn from observation varies between observer.

Possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording.

(i) Observation (Environments of Observation):

• Natural observation

Observing a group in its natural operation rather than

intervening in its activities.

• Controlled observation

Introducing stimulus to the group for it to react to and

observing the reaction.


1 Methods for Data collection (Class Participation)


(i) Observation (Recording Observation):

Narrative recording

Using scales

Categorical recording

Recording on electronic devices.


1 Methods for Data collection


(ii) Interviewing :

“ An interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the telephone maybe

used, in which an interviewer tries to elicit information beliefs or opinions from another

person.”

you, as a researcher, have the freedom to decide the format and content of questions to be

asked of your respondents




(ii) Interviewing (flexible/

inflexible):

This process of asking questions can

be;

- either very flexible,

- where you as the interviewer have

the freedom to think about and formulate

questions at run-time.

or inflexible, where you have to keep

strictly to the questions decided

beforehand;

- including their wording,

- sequence and the manner in which

they are asked.




(ii) Interviewing (Types of Interviewing):

Interviews are classified into different categories;

(1) Unstructured Interview

Researcher is free to order these in whatever sequence they wish.

Have complete freedom in terms of the wording.

Common in qualitative research.

(2) Structured Interview

Researcher asks a predetermined set of questions using;

- the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule.

A written list of questions, open ended or closed.

Advantages:-

It provides uniform information, which assures the comparability of data.




(iii) Questionnaire :

Written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded by respondents.

Respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the

answers.




(iii) Questionnaire (Ways of administering):

(1) Mailed questionnaire

Send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail.

Usually it is good idea to send a prepaid, self0addressed

envelope with the questionnaires.

Major Problems – low response rate.

(2) Collective administration

Captive audience – people assembled in one place such as students in

a classroom, or people attending a function, etc.

Major Advantage – ensures a high response rate..

(3) Administration in a public area

Administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping

center, health center, hospital, or school.

Depends upon the type of study population, you are looking for and

where it is likely to be found.

Major Problems – slightly more time consuming.


1 Methods for Data collection (Class Participation)

Design an environment of your research field which includes all

methods of Data Collection?

Participant Observation,

Non-Participant Observation,


Unstructured Interview,

Structured Interview,

Mailed questionnaire,

Collective administration,

Administration in a public area

2 Establishing the Validity and Reliability of a Research

Instrument “The input passes through a series of steps --- the selection of a sample, the collection of information, the

processing of data, the application of statistical procedures and the writing of the report—

And

the manner in which all of these are done can affect the accuracy and quality of your conclusion.”

As a researcher, you can also be asked by other;

- to establish the appropriateness.

- quality and

- accuracy of the procedures you adopted for finding answers to your research questions.

Broadly, this concept of appropriateness and accuracy as applied to a research process is called validity.

- as inaccuracies can be introduced into a study at any stage, the concept of validity can be applied to the research

process as a whole.

There are 2 perspectives on validity:

1. Is the research investigation providing answers to the research questions for which it was undertaken?

2. Is so, is it providing these answers using appropriate methods and procedures?


2.1 The concept of validity To examine the concept of validity, let us take a very simple example.

Suppose you have designed a study to ascertain the health needs of a community.

In doing so, you have developed an interview scheduled.

- most of the questions in the interview schedule relate to the attitude of the study population towards the health

services.

Note that :

You aim was to find out about health needs but;

The interview schedule is finding out what attitudes respondents have to the health services.

Thus :

the instrument is not measuring what it was designed to measure.

“ The author has come across many similar examples among

students and less skilled researches”.


2.1 The concept of validity [definition]


Validity is defined as the degree to which the researcher has measured what he has set out to measure.

(Smith 1991: 106)

According to Kerlinger,

- “the commonest definition of validity is epitomized by the question: Are you measuring what we think we are

measuring?”

These definitions raise 2 key questions:

1) Who decides whether an instruments is measuring what it is supported to measure?

2) How can it be established that an instrument is measuring what it is supported to measure?

2.1 The concept of validity [definition] (Cont…)


1) Who : the answer to the 1st question is;

The person who designed the study,

The readership of the report and

experts in the field.

2) How : 2nd question is extremely important. “ On what basis do you ( as a researcher), a reader as a consumer or an

expert make this judgment?

In the natural sciences, there appear to be 2 approaches to establishing the validity of a research instrument.

1) Based upon either logic that underpins the construction of the research tool.

2) Statistical evidence that is gathered using information generated through the use of the instrument.

2.2 Types of validity in quantitative research


There are 3 types of validity in quantitative research:

1) Face and content validity;

2) Concurrent and predictive validity;

3) Construct validity.

1) Face and content validity;

Logical link between the questions and the objectives of the study.

- Establishment of this link is called face validity.

Items and questions cover the full range of the issue or attitude being measured.

- Assessment of the items of an instrument in this respect is called content validity.

Although; it is easy to present logical arguments to establish validity; there are “certain problems:”

I. The judgment is based upon subjective logic; hence, no definite conclusions can be drawn.

II. Different people may have different opinions about the face and content validity of an instrument.

2.2 Types of validity in quantitative research (Cont…)


2) Concurrent and predictive validity :

Instrument’s validity might be determined by comparing it with another assessment.

Predictive study is judged by the;

- degree to which an instrument can forecast an outcome.

Concurrent study is judged by;

- how well an instrument compares with a second assessment concurrently done.

2.2 Types of validity in quantitative research (Cont…)


3) Construct validity :

Construct validity is a more sophisticated technique for establishing the validity of an instrument.

- It is based upon statistical procedures.

- It is determined by ascertaining the “contribution of each construct” to the “total variance observed” in a

phenomenon.

For Example:

Find the degree of job satisfaction among the employees of an organization. You consider

- status,

- nature of the job, and

- remuneration as the 3 most important factors indicative of job satisfaction.

After the pre-test or data analysis;

- you use statistical procedures to establish the contribution of each construct (status, the nature of the job and

remuneration) to the total variance (job satisfaction).

“The greater the variance attributable to the constructs, the higher the validity of the instrument:”

constructing an instrument for data collection · 2020. 12. 23. · 1 methods for data collection...

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