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ConsultationMeetingonFamilySensitiveSocialProtection(FSSP)

AjointcollaborativeprojectbetweentheDohaInternationalFamilyInstitute(DIFI)andtheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia(UNESCWA).

FamilySensitiveSocialProtectionProject:ExpertMeeting

26-27June2018

ProfessorJacquelineO’Reilly(UniversityofSussex,UK)commentson:AConceptualFrameworkforFamily-SensitiveSocialProtection,

ByProfessorNeilGilbert,UniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyJ.O-Reilly@sussex.ac.uk

IntroductionOverallthisisaveryambitiousandcomprehensiveoutlineofaconceptualframeworktoexaminefamilysensitivesocialprotectionpoliciestosupportfamilies.ProfessorGilbertprovidesanextensivereviewoftheexistingevidence,succinctlysummarisedundertwomainconceptualareas:theFamilyandSocialProtectionmeasures,withtheproposaltodevelopanalternativeframework.Hestartsoffbyaskingwhyfocusonfamilysensitivesocialprotection,lookingattopicsaroundfertilityandlifeexpectancyi.e.thedemographictransition.Heprovidesaconceptualframeworkforfamilysensitivesocialprotectionlookingatissuesaroundhowwedefinethefamily,andsecondlyonconceptualframeworksandsocialprotectionmeasures.HeoutlinesanalternativeframeworktooperationallydefineFSSPas“publicprivatesocialprogramsandbenefitsthatsupportfamilyformation,Choice,interdependenceandSolidarity,whichstrengthenthebondsoffamilylifeanditscapacitytoperformtheessentialfunctionsofprocreation,socialisationoftheyoung,carefullypendingmembers,andsocialcohesion.”TheaimistofocusonfacilitatingthestabilityandvitalityoffamilylifeoverthelifecoursethatgoesbeyondtheestablishedOECDconceptualisationoffamilypolicyemphasisingprogrammesandbenefitsclusteredaroundeffortstoharmoniseworkandfamilylifeduringtheearlyyearsofchildrearing.1Theambitionofthisproposalisaimedatgoingbeyondsocialprotectionmeasuresthatimpactonpoverty,genderequality,healthcareandeducation.Asacaveattothisveryambitiousprogramistherecognitiononthelimitstowhatgovernmentscando,amixedrecordofevidenceoftheeffectivenessofpolicymeasuresandthesometimesunintendedconsequencesofthesepolicies.Forexample,heciteshowmeasurestoreducepovertyforexampleinsingleparenthouseholdscanhavetheunintendedconsequencesofgeneratingdisincentivetomarriage(BesharovandGilbert2015).Thisisaveryimpressivepaperintermsofthewidearrayofempiricalevidencethatisdrawntogetherandyetverysuccinctlyandclearlysummarised.However,therearethreecommentsIwouldliketomakewithregardtothisproposedconceptualframeworkinrelationtoavastbodyofEuropeansocialpolicyresearchrelatedto:

1Seehttp://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htmfordetailsonanumberofmeasurestocomparedifferentdimensionsoffamilylifeandcomparisonsofrecentpolicyinitiatives.

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I. Conceptualizingwelfareandsocialprotectioninrelationtowork:therelationship

betweensocialreproductionandeconomicproduction

II. Workopportunitiesfordifferentfamilymembers

III. Comparativewelfareandworkregimesforcomparinghouseholds

I.ConceptualisingWelfareandSocialProtectioninrelationtoWork:economicproductionsocialandreproductionThefirstpointtakesissueitthefocusondemographictrendsasthecatalystforsocialprotectionrequirements.Iwouldsuggestthatsocialprotectionneedstobeunderstoodinrelationtoananalysisoftheworldofworkandemployment,i.e.thesphereofeconomicproduction(O’Reillyetal.2017).Conceptualisingfamilyvulnerabilitiesarelargelyrelatedtohowtheyobtainregularandstablesourcesofincome.Thiscanbethroughthestateandformsofsocialprotection.However,mostfamilyincomestreamsaregeneratedthroughworkandemployment.Therefore,itisimportanttofocusontheemploymentopportunitiesavailabletodifferentfamilymembersandhowthesecontributetotheoverallhouseholdeconomy.Byincludingananalysisoftheworldsofwork,orwhatissometimesreferredtoasthesystemofeconomicproduction,weareabletounderstanditsrelationshiptothesphereofsocialreproduction,otherwiseoftenreferredtoastheroleofthefamily.Itistheinteractionbetweenthesetwospheresthatillustratethetypeofvulnerabilitiesfamilymembersaresubjectedto.Thenatureandformoftheseopportunitieswillvarybycountryandregion,aswellasbetweendifferentmembersofthehousehold,orfamilyunit.Includingtheconceptofeconomicproductionleadsustofocusonwhatkindsofworkersemployersarelookingfor?i.e.whoisthemostemployable,andonwhattermsandconditions?Whichfamilymembersareavailableforworkandonwhattermsandatwhattimesoftheday,week,monthoryear?Thisisakeydimensionofeconomicproductionthatisnotcurrentlydiscussedintheproposal.Isuggestthisneedstobeatthecoreofunderstandinghowsocialpoliciesinteracttoprotectdifferentsocialgroupsfromvulnerabilitiesinthelabormarket.Byincludingthisinrelationtotheconceptofsocialreproductionithelpsusfocusontheeconomicaswellassocialrolethefamilyplaysandhowthetwodomainsinteracteffectively,ornot.Wherethesearewellconnectedfamiliesareabletoobtainsufficientresourcesfromemployment(and/orsocialprotectionmeasures)tosupporttheirfamilies.Wherethesesystemsarenotwellconnectedleadustoidentifywhichtypesofvulnerabilitiesfamiliesfaceandwheresocialprotectionmeasuresarerequiredtofillthegaps.Bydrawingonaconceptualframeworkthatincludesboththesphereofsocialreproduction(i.e.thefamily)alongwithunderstandinghowthisis,orisnot,linkedtothedemandsofthesphereofeconomicproduction(i.e.employersdemandforworkers),drawsourattentiontothesecondpointIwouldliketomake:whoworks?II.Whoworks?

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Theconceptualframeworkcouldbenefitfromdifferentiatingbetweendifferentmembersofthehouseholdandthenatureoftheirparticularsocialrisksandvulnerabilitieswithregardtoobtainingaregularincome.Thisbringsusbacktotheopportunitiesandaccesstheyhavetothelabormarketinordertosecureanindependentincome.Wecanthendifferentiatebetweenthosemembersofthefamilywhocangenerateamarketincomeforthemselves,andpotentiallyotherfamilymemberswhocannot.Therearefamilymemberswhoaremoredependenteitheronsupportfromotherfamilymembers,orsomeformofsocialprotectionintheformsofbenefitsrelatedtounemployment,childcare,pensionsorsicknesssupport.Soforexample,somekeysocialgroupsthatwouldbeworthcomparingacrossanumberofthesocietieswouldincludethefollowing.II.i.Youngpeoplea.YoungpeoplelookingforworkAlthoughyouthunemploymentinEuropehasbeenatitsheightinthepastdecade(O’Reillyetal.forthcoming),thelevelsofyouthunemploymentinArabcountriesissignificantlyhigherandamajorsocialandpoliticalconcern(Table1).2Thelackofabilityforyoungpeopletobeabletoearnanindependentincomeofanykind,withoutsupportfromtheirfamilies,isaseriousareaforsocialpolicyandsocialprotectionpolicies,especiallyinNorthernAfricaandtheArabStates.Table1.Youthunemploymenttrendsandprojectionsto2017,byregion

Source:http://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2016/WCMS_513739/lang--en/index.htmSocialprotectionpoliciesthereforeneedtoidentifywhatformsofsupporttheseyoungpeoplecanbenefitfrommost.Clearlytheaimofthesepolicieswouldbetointegratethemintoadulttrajectoriestoemployment.ThisraisesparticularissuesrelatedtogenderequalityinthesecountriesdifferentlevelsofattitudesandnormswithregardtodifferencesinmaleandfemaleunemploymentratesacrosstheseArabcountries.

2http://www.ilo.org/beirut/media-centre/news/WCMS_514537/lang--en/index.htm

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Someformsofsocialpolicyincludethoserelatedtoeducationandtraining,apprenticeshipsystemsandworkplacesubsidiestoenableyoungpeopletoaccesspaidemploymentandanindependentincome.However,wealsoknowthateducationallevelsvaryverysignificantlyacrosstheArabworld.InsomecountriesyoungArabpeopleareextraordinarilywelleducated,whereasothershaveverypoor,ifany,levelsofeducationalattainmentlargelyduetolevelsofeconomicpovertyorconflict.Evenifwefocusonwell-educatedyoungpeople,theiremploymentopportunitieswillclearlybeverydifferentiftheycomefromQatar,EgyptorYemen.ThesedistinctionsareimportantifwearetotalkaboutwhatarethemostappropriatetypesofsocialpoliciestohelpyoungArabpeoplelivingwithinthehousehold.b.ChildlabourOnadifferentlevel,stilllookingatyouth,weneedtotakeaccountoftheroleofchildlabourinrelationtoitssupportoftheoverallhouseholdincome.InsomeArabcountriesthiswillclearlybenegligible,whilstinothersitwillprovideanimportantsourceofrevenueforthefamily.Socialpolicieshereclearlyhavebeendirectedtowardsreducinglevelsofchildlabourandincreasinglevelsofyoungpeoplestayingonineducationobtainingbasicliteracyandnumeracyskillsandbeyond.Bydifferentiatingbetweencountriesinrelationtotheseveryimportantdimensionsleadustoreflectontheappropriatetypesofsocialpoliciesusedtosupportthefamily.Ifchildlabourisnolongerprovidinganincomefortheirfamiliesbecausetheyarenowineducation,thenwhatothersourcesofsocialinsuranceorsupportwillreplacethis?Therehavebeenanumberofexperimentswithbasicincomemodelsintheformofconditionalcashtransfers(CCT)toencouragefamiliestosendtheirchildrentoschoolwhileensuringthatthefamilyhavealevelofrevenuetosupportthis;buttheevidenceontheseeffectsismixed.3Therethenraisestheissueofhowdifferentsocialpoliciesinteractwitheachother.ForexampledrawingonevidencefromtheEUfundedSTYLEproject4wefoundcaseswhereNGOsworkingwithhardtoplaceyoungpeopleencounteredprotestsfromtheirparentswhentheyfoundtheseyoungpeopleanapprenticeshipprogram.Ononehand,onemighthavethoughtthatthefamilywouldbepleasedthattheyoungpersonhadbeenintegratedintopathwayleadingtoaqualificationandajob.Ontheotherhand,theperspectiveoftheparentswasthatbyearninganincome,evenifthisisrathersmall,wouldhaveadirecteffectontheirownentitlementtohousingbenefitintheUK.Asaresulttheypreferredtheirchildrentoremainunemployedsoastomaintaintheirhouseholdwelfareentitlements.Thisiswhyitisimportanttodistinguishbetweenindividualmembersofthehouseholdandtheirroleinthathousehold.Thisrequiresustothinkaboutwhethersocialprotectionneedstobebasedonindividualsorhouseholds,orboth,andhowthesepoliciesinteract.II.ii.WomenThesecondgroupofhouseholdmembersthatneedtobeidentifiedinthisconceptualframeworkarewomen.Inthiscasewecandistinguishbetweenyoungwomenandtheextenttowhichtheyareabletointegrateintothelabourmarket.Thisclearlydependsontheireducationalattainment,locallabourmarketopportunities,theextenttowhichtheirlaboursupplementsthehouseholdincome/budget,andtheculturalnormsaroundfemaleemploymentfordifferentsocialclassesindifferentArabcountries.a.Youngwomen

3https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/working_papers/2012/RAND_WR921-1.pdf4https://www.style-research.eu/

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IntheArabworldyoungwomenfacesomesimilarproblemstothoseofyoungmen.Butweclearlyneedtodifferentiatewheretheirstatusisreinforcedasdependentwithinthefamily,orwheretheyareexpectedtocontributetothehouseholdbudget.Thesedifferenceswillclearlyvarynotonlybythesocialclassofthefamily,butbytheregionandtheirindividualeducationalattainment.b.Womenasparents,caregiversandworkersAswomengetolder,andsomeofthembecomemothers,towhatextentaretheyexpectedtoparticipateinpaidemploymentintheformalorinformalsector,orthroughfamilybusinessesandself-employment?Or,aretheyexpectedtocontinueprovidingunpaidworktosupportthefamily?Distinguishingbetweenthesedifferentgroupsofwomen,forexample,intermsoftheirparentalduties,educationalattainmentandtheirroleinthefamilyasanincomeproviderorcaregiver(orboth)alsodeterminesthetypesofsocialprotectionpoliciestheyrequire.Understandingtheirstatusinrelationtothelabourmarketwillalsohelpidentifywhichkindsofpoliciesmitigateagainsteconomicvulnerabilitiesthatsocialprotectionissetuptoestablish,andunderwhichcircumstancesaretheselikelytobesociallyaccepted,forexamplepublicservicesforchildcareprovision.Theuptakeofsuchpolicieswillclearlybeaffectedbysocietalnormsconcerningappropriatecaregiversforexampleforyoungchildren.c.WomengettingolderWithinthisgroupandwecanalsodistinguishbetweenwomenastheygetolderandwhethertheirsupportinlaterlifeisdependentonhavingbeeninpaidemploymentandentitlementtoapensionontheirownterms,orwhethertheyarereliantontheworkrecordoftheirmalepartner.Distinguishingbetweenthesecategoriesofthemembersofthehouseholdisveryimportantinidentifyingnotonlytheirneedsasanindividualbutalsohowtheirparticularpositioninteractswithothermembersofthehouseholdandhowcloselythisislinkedtolabourmarketopportunities.Inparticular,ifentitlementtopensionsupportisdependentoncontinuingtobemarriedtothespousereceivingthepensionbenefits.II.iii.Migrantlabor:dispersedanddislocatedfamiliesThethirdgroupthatisworthdistinguishingbetweenrelatestomigrantlabouranddispersedanddislocatedfamilies.WithintheArabworldthereareverysignificantflowsofdifferenttypesofmigrantworkers.Thisgroupofpeopleclearlypresentsomesignificantchallengestothenatureandcoverageofsocialprotectionentitlements.Forexample,whethertheyarelegalworkersandwhatlevelsofsocialinsurancecontributionsthattheymay,ormaynot,bepaying;whetherthereisanyportabilityofsocialprotectionrightsovertheirlifecourse,basedontheperiodoftimetheyhaveworkedinthehostcountry,shouldtheyreturntotheirhomecountry.Insomecasestheseworkerswillbehighlyqualifiedmigrantsfromthenorthernhemispherewhosecompanyremunerationpackagescoverthesecontingencies,andwheretheymaybeabletobringtheirfamilieswiththem.ThisgroupofworkersarelesslikelytocomeundertheremitoftheFSSPconcerns.Othermigrantworkers,forexamplethosecomingfromChina,maybeoutsidesocialprotectioncoverageinthecountriestheyareworkingintemporarily.5

5http://www.sais-cari.org/data-chinese-workers-in-africa/andhttps://www.ft.com/content/7106ab42-80d1-11e7-a4ce-15b2513cb3ff

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InothercasesmigrantsfromotherpartsofthecontinentofAfricaorfromtheglobalsoutharemorelikelytobeworkinginlowpaidandprecariousemployment,withtheirincomesbeingusedasremittancestosupporttheirfamiliesintheirhomecountries.Distinguishingbetweenpeoplewhobelongtodislocatedhouseholdsandfamiliesisalsoclearlyaveryimportantdimensionofsocialprotectionforthesefamilies.However,thecharacteristicsofmigrationindifferentpartsoftheArabworldintermsofwheretheycomefrom,thetypesofeconomicvulnerabilitiestheyaresubjectedto,andtheirentitlementtoanyformsofsocialprotectionvarysignificantly.Somerecognitionofthisdiversityneedstobetakenaccountofintheoverallconceptualframeworkifitisgoingtospeaktospecificneedsandtargetedfamilysensitivepoliciesforthesetypesofhouseholds,oriftheyaretobeexcludedfromtheanalysis.III.Crossnationalcomparativeresearchonwelfareandworkregimes,andpatternsofhouseholdemploymentThethirdcommentontheconceptualframeworkrelatestocrossnationalcomparativeframeworks.AsignificantbodyofEuropeanresearchhasdistinguishedbetweencountriesintermsofwhetherthesearestrong,moderateorweakmalebreadwinnersocieties.Thisdistinguishesbetweensocietieswherewomenaremorelikelytobedependentonamaleearnerandlesslikelytowork;moderatemalebreadwinnersocietieswherethewomanismorelikelytoworkonapart-timebasisandthemanonfull-timebasis;anddualfull-timeearnerswherebothmembersofthefamilyparticipateinfulltimepaidemployment.Muchofthisresearchhasfocusedontheimpactofsocialpoliciesincreatingincentivesforthesedifferentfamilymodels;someofthisanalysishasalsodifferentiatedbetweencontradictorysocialpoliciesco-existingwithinregimetypes(Saraceno2016;SaracenoandKeck2011).Morerecentstudieshaveemphasisedtheimportanceoflabourmarketopportunitiesandthediversityofhouseholdemploymentpatternswithinthesedifferentregimetypes(Sanchez-MiraandO’Reillyforthcoming)(SeeFigureinAppendixtoillustratehowthesehouseholdemploymentcategoriesaredistributedacrosstheEU).Clearlythereareimportantdifferencesbetweensocietiesinthedominantcharacteristicsofhouseholdemploymentthatareareflectionofanumberoffactors.First,inasocietyassociatedwithmoretraditionalmalebreadwinnermodels,levelsoffemaleemploymentareusuallyverylow.Thiscaneitherbearesultofthefactthatthemalebreadwinner(MBW)iscapableofearningenoughmoneytosupportthetraditionalfamilyformoritcanalsobeareflectionthatthereareveryfewjobopportunitiesforwomeninthelabourmarket.Itistheinteractionbetweentheselabourmarketopportunities,familyformsandformsofsocialprotectionthataffectthetypesofvulnerabilitiesfamiliesexperience.Insomecountriessocialpoliciesencouragetraditionalfamilyforms,inothersitisbecausetherearenojobopportunitiesforwomen,andnosocialpolicysupporteither.TheMBWfamilymodelstypifiesaperiodofthepost1950speriodwhenthemaleearnerwasexpectedtobecapableofearningthefamilywagetosupporthimselfandhisdependentsi.e.hisfamily,hischildrenandpotentiallyanyothermembersofthefamilyrequiringcareandsupportthatwereunabletoprovidetheirownindependentincome.However,theidealofthe‘familywage’foughtforbytradeunionswasamiddleclassidealthatwasoftennotrealisedinworkingclassfamilieswherewomen’slabourcontinuedtomakeasignificantcontributiontothehouseholdthroughvariousformsofformalandinformalemployment.ThedeclineofthemalebreadwinnerfamilymodelinEuropecanbeattributabletoeitherwomenaccessingemploymentbecauseofincreasedequalityandjobopportunitiesinthelocalmarket,orbecauselowmalewagesrequiresasupplementaryfemaleincome.Thecatalystfordualearnerhouseholdsdependsverymuchonwherethesefamiliesarelocatedinthe

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Europeancontext.Forexample,inScandinaviancountriesdualfull-timeearnerhouseholdsarequitecommon,thestandardoflivinginhiscountriesisalsohighbothcouplesareabletoaearnareasonableincomesupportedbyahigh-levelofwelfareincomeacrossthelifecourse.Inothercountries,forexampleinEasternEurope,theevidenceofdualfull-timeowninghouseholdsaremoreoftentheresultsofeconomicnecessitywheremalewagesaretoolowtosustainahouseholdeconomy,butthefragilityofsocialsupportsystemsalsomakesthemveryvulnerableduringrecentperiodsofeconomiccrisis(Sanchez-MiraandO’Reillyforthcoming).TheimplicationsofthislongtraditionofcomparativeresearchinEuropeinrelationtowelfarestatesandemploymentsystemsisrelevanttotheconceptualdevelopmentpresentedbyProfGilbert.ItwouldseemnecessarytodeveloptheframeworkthatallowedustocomparebetweendifferentArabcountries,aswedowithintheEuropeanUnion.Thiscomparativeframeworkcoulddistinguishbetweenregionsorcountriesthatiscloselyrelatedtoformsofeconomicdevelopmentandlabormarketopportunitiesforwomenandyoungpeople.Withoutthisbackgroundcontexttoassessthenatureofvulnerabilityfamiliesexperienceimpliesthatproposalsforsocialprotectionpolicieswillbetoogenericandlacktraction.ConcludingcommentsontheconceptualframeworkThemainpointshereare:First,weneedtointegrateananalysisofemploymentopportunitiestoidentifywheretherearegapsinsocialprotection.Wealsoneedtotakeaccountoftheworldofworkinordertounderstandwhowillbeabletopaydifferentformsofsocialprotectionandwhowillbeentitledtoclaimthese,andonwhatbasis.Itisessentialthatthesespheresofeconomicproductionneedtobeincludedwithananalysisofvulnerabilitiesfacedbythoseinthesphereofsocialreproduction.Socialprotectionpoliciescanthenbetargetedateitherorbothspheresintermsofdirectinterventionsforfamilies,orinpoliciesdirectedatemployerstomakeitmoreattractivetoemploythesetargetmembersofthefamily.Second,weneedtodifferentiatebetweenmembersofthehouseholdandtheircontributiontohouseholdincomeandhowthisrelatestotheirvulnerabilitiesandneedforsocialprotection,bothasindividualsandashouseholdmembers.Thisincludesdifferentiatingbetweenthesituationforyoungpeople,womenandmigrantworkersfromdislocatedfamilies.Third,weneedtodifferentiatebetweendifferentArabcountriesintermsofwealth,workandwelfareinordertounderstandwhatarethespecificcharacteristicsoffamilytypesinthesedifferentsocieties.Finally,weneedtounderstandhowtheproposedconceptwouldprovideabetterconceptualframeworkforanalysistoinformpolicymakingincomparisontotheworkthathasalreadybeenconductedbytheOECD.

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SpecificquestionsSession2.MeanstestedsocialbenefitsandtheformationofstablefamiliesWhatincentivesanddisincentivesfortheformationofstablefamiliesaregeneratedbymeanstestedsocialbenefitssuchassocialassistance,housingsubsidiesandchildren’sallowance.OneissuethatarisesintheUKrelatestotheimportanceofhousingbenefitandoverallhouseholdincome.TheexamplegivenfromtheSTYLEprojectaboveillustratesthis.Whenayoungpersonlivinginahouseholddependentonbenefitsmovesintoapositionofearninganincome,evenifitisratherlow,forexamplebyparticipatinginapprenticeshipprogramme,thisaffectsfamily’sentitlementtohousingbenefit.Thisexampleindicatesthattheinteractionofdifferentbenefitscancreatedisincentivestoworkandthatpolicyregimescanworkagainsteachother(SaracenoandKeck2011).UniversalCreditTheUKgovernmenthavebeenkeentointroduceUniversalCredit(UC)6wheretheoverallhouseholdincomeandjobsearchactivityisassessedthroughonebenefitsystem.Whilethisapproachwasintendedtoreducebureaucraticregulationscoveringanumberofbenefits,inpracticetheresultshavebeenassessedasverypoorandunlikelytoachieveanysavings.TheNationalAuditCommissionconcludedinJune2017thattheUCprogramme‘isnotvalueformoneynow,andthatitsfuturevalueformoneyisunproven.’7ThedeliveryofthissystemhasincurredanumberofdelaysinitsimplementationacrosstheUKsothatparallelbenefitsystemsareoperatingsimultaneously.Theeffectsofthispolicyonfamiliesarenumerous.First,anumberofhouseholdshaveexperiencedextensivedelaysbeforetheyhavereceivedtheirbenefitpayments.ArecentstudyhasshownthatwiththeimplementationofUniversalCredittherehasbeenasimultaneousriseinthenumberofpeoplegoingtofoodbanksintheUKbecausetheydonothavesufficientincometosupportthemselveswhiletheyarewaitingfortheirbenefitstobeprocessedandpaid.8Second,manypeoplehavebeenveryharshlysanctionedfornotattendingjobcentreinterviewsorjobplacements,eveniftheyhavegivenjustifiablereasons,suchasgivingbirth,attendingtheirparents’funeral,nothavingthefundstotravel,orgoingtoajobinterviewatthesametime.9Theconsequencesofthesesanctionsanddelaysaretoincreasetheriskoffallingintodebt,failingtopayrentontimewiththepossibilityofbeingevicted,orevenfindingrentalaccommodationasthistrendbecomesmorewidelyknowntolandlords.Thesekindsofstressesexacerbatedifficultiesthesefamiliesface.Third,accordingtoRitaGriffith(2017)10UCcouldhaveunintendedconsequencesforfamilyformationandthestabilityofrelationshipsbecauseoftheneedtostipulatewhichmemberofthecoupleshouldreceivethismonthlybenefit.Thisremovesorreducesamother'saccesstoanindependentincomeandrequiresonepartnerinacoupletobefinanciallydependentonthe

6https://www.gov.uk/universal-credit7https://www.nao.org.uk/report/rolling-out-universal-credit/8https://www.trusselltrust.org/what-we-do/research-advocacy/universal-credit-and-foodbank-use/9https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/universal-credit-what-is-it-has-it-improved-benefits-system-why-controversial-a8402286.html10http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/universal-credit-family-structure/

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other.Thishasbeeninfluentialinpartneringdecisionsandlivingarrangementsforlow-incomefamilies.“Rollingallbenefitspayabletogetherinonelumpsumpercoupleeffectivelyreversesthepreviousreformwhichallowedchildtaxcreditandthechildcareelementofworkingtaxcredittobepaidtothemaincarer.UnderUC,otherthanin‘exceptionalcircumstances,’forexampleprovencasesofdomesticorfinancialabuse,theonlychoicecouplescanexerciseistonominatetheaccountintowhichUCispaid.Ifthisisnotajointaccount,onememberofthecouplewillreceivetheentireawardwhichcouldincludefinancialsupportforrentandchildcarecosts.”IfUCispaidintothemalepartner’saccount,orajointaccounttowhichthefemalepartnerhasnoorlimitedaccess,thiswouldrepresentasignificantintra-householdredistributionofincomefrom‘pursetowallet,’reinforcingtheeconomicdependenceofsomewomenandpotentiallytrappingsomeinabusivesituations.Asinglemonthlypaymentcouldthereforeincreasetheriskofdebtandrentarrears,undermininghouseholdfinancialsecurity,andpotentiallyincreasingwomen’sandchildren’spoverty.Absorptionofchildtaxcreditandthechildcareelementofworkingtaxcreditintoasinglehouseholdawardalsounderminestheprinciple,evidencedbyresearch,thatthesepaymentsaremosteffectiveinreachingtheirintendedbeneficiarieswhenpaidtothecaringparent.TheincorporationofhousingbenefitintoUCcouldincreasethelikelihoodofevictionifmoneyintendedforrentiswithheldorspentinotherwaysbyoneofthepartners.AlthoughcertainclaimantscanrequestthatthehousingelementofUCispaiddirecttoaprivatelandlord,bothmembersofthecouplemustagreetosuchalternativepaymentarrangements.”Thiscoulddestabiliserelationshipsanddiscourageloneparentsfromre-partnering.SocialSecurityrulesshapetheparametersaroundwhichsomeofthesevulnerablefamiliesdecidewhethertoestablishtheirrelationshipasacouplelivingtogetherorwhetherthereareincentivestoremainassingleparents;aproblemidentifiedbyBesharovandGilbert(2015).AccordingtoGriffiths:“AttheheartoftheissuearetwopoorlyunderstoodaspectsofUKsocialsecurity–the‘LivingTogetherasaMarriedCouple’regulation(knownasthecohabitationrule)andthefamily-basedsystemofmeanstesting.Basedonadefinitionofcohabitationas‘marriage-like’andoutdatednotionsofbreadwinning,coupleswhosharethesamehouseholdhavenoindependentrighttoclaimmeans-testedbenefitsortaxcredits;ifeligibleforhelp,theymustclaimjointly.Althoughcouplescancurrentlychoosetopaycertaintaxcreditstothemaincarer,thereisnolegalobligationonthepersonwhoreceivesthebenefittotransferanypartofthejointpaymenttotheirpartner.Whenalow-incomemotherstartstolivewithapartner,shethereforeriskslosingherbenefitortaxcreditentitlementaltogether.Inthiscontext,whoinacouplewasearning,whowasentitledtoclaimbenefitsandtaxcredits,whoreceivedpaymentandhowhouseholdincomewasaccessedanddistributedunderdifferentpartnershipandlivingarrangements,matteredagreatdeal.”Cohabitationcanresultinalossofincomeandfinancialautonomyforwomeninparticular.“financialdependenceonapartnerfelttobeunacceptableinamodern-dayrelationshipbutwhenawomanisnotmarriedtoherpartner,thestakesareconsiderablyhigher,moreespeciallyifheisnotthebiologicalfatherofherchildorchildren;unlikespouses,cohabiteesareundernolegalobligationtofinanciallysupportoneanother.Cedingresponsibilityforsafeguardingthefamily’sfinancialwell-beingtoaneworunprovenpartnerwasseentobeaparticularlyriskyarrangement.Thoughloneparenthoodwasnotwithoutitsownchallengesand

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risks,somesinglemothersruledoutanyformofrelationshipwhiletheywerereliantonbenefits.Otherswithpartnersinlow-paidorinsecureworkchoseto‘liveaparttogether’.”Griffiths(2017)arguesthatthesechangescanalsohavedestabilisingeffectsoncohabitingcouples.“Inabilitytoaccessthefamily’sbenefitincomewhenclaimingjointlyhadalsode-stabilisedsomecouples’relationships,contributinginsomecasestofamilybreakdown.Morebroadly,findingssuggestthatinthecontextofaprecariouslabourmarketforlow-skilledmenandaneverstringentsocialsecuritysystem,farfrombeingprotective,livingtogetherasacouplehadcometorepresentanarenaofincreasinguncertainty,insecurityandrisk…..Withoutameaningfulpolicyadjustment,forexampleenablingthechild-relatedelementstobepaidtothenominatedleadcareror,asinScotland,allowingjointclaimantstosplittheUCpaymentequally,thegovernment’sclaimthatthatUChasbeendesignedtopromoteself-relianceandpersonalindependencehassomethingofahollowring.”Children’sallowanceWithregardtochildren’sallowancethishasbeensignificantlyreformedinthepast10yearssothathigherincomehouseholdsnolongerhaveanyentitlementtochildbenefit.Ifonememberofthehouseholdisearningover£50,000ayearthehouseholdhasnoentitlementtothisbenefit.Iftwomembersofthehouseholdlearning£49,000poundsayearthehouseholdwouldbeentitledtoreceivethesebenefits;initialprotestattheunfairnessofthisschemeleadtosignificantcriticisms.ThisisareflectionofchanginghouseholdandemploymentpatternsintheUKwiththedeclineofmalebreadwinnerfamilymodelandtheriseofdualearnerhouseholds.Inthiscasewherethereisonlyoneincomeandthatisrelativelyhighthesefamiliesare,inrelationtotwofull-timeearners,disadvantaged.Whateffectdoesthishaveontheformationofstablefamilies?TheUKhashadarelativelyhighlevelofyoungpeoplelivingindependentlyatanearlyageespeciallyincomparisontoyoungpeoplefromsouthernEurope.Thishadbeenattributedtotheabilityforsomeyoungpeopletogainformsofsocialassistanceandhousingbenefittoenablethemtomoveawayfromtheparentalhome.However,recentwelfarereformshavesoughtprogressivelyoverthepast30yearstoreducethisindependententitlementtoyoungpeople.Increasinglyyoungpeoplearenotentitledtosocialassistanceorwelfarebenefitsorunemploymentinsuranceorhousingbenefituntiltheyreachprogressivelyolderyears(LeschkeandFinn(forthcoming),Smithetal.(forthcoming)).Asaresultoftherecentten-yearperiodofausteritywehadincreasinglyseenyoungpeopleremainingintheparenthomeorreturningtoitintimesofeconomicadversity(MazzottaandParisiforthcoming).Andinsomecases,especiallyinEasternEurope,itisyoungpeople’semploymentthatissupportingthehouseholdduringthisperiodofausterity(MedgyesiandNagyforthcoming).Someofthefactorsthatexplainwhyyoungpeopleareunabletoestablishtheirownhouseholdsindependentoftheparentalfamilyareduetoalackoflabourmarketopportunities,orwhentheycangetajobtheincomeitisinsufficientlyhighforthemtobeabletoaffordrentalcostsofindependentliving.IncreasinghighcostsofhousinganditslimitedavailabilityareofconcerninmanyEuropeancountries.TheshortageofhowavailablehousinghasexacerbatedanincreasingexponentialgrowthinthecostahouseorflathomesothatmanyyoungpeoplefeeltheywillneverbeabletobeabletomoveoutofrentalaccommodationintheUK.11

11https://www.resolutionfoundation.org/media/press-releases/up-to-a-third-of-millennials-face-renting-from-cradle-to-grave/

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Day2session2WorkorientedbenefitsandfamilylifeSocialprotectionmeasuressuchaspaidparentalleave,parttimeworkearlychildcareimpactonchildbearingandsocialisationfunctionsofthefamily.Thegrowthofpart-timeworkinthe1980saccountedforincreasinglevelsoffemaleparticipationinthelabourmarketintheUK.FertilityratesstillremainrelativelyhighintheUKdespitethelackofissubsidisedchildcareprovision.Thoseinparttimejobsarealsomorelikelytobeinlow-paidlowskilledjobsandweknowthatgenderpaygapinthesejobsismuchhighertheninthelabourforceingeneral.Wealsoknowthatalthoughpart-timeworkisoftenarguedtoallowwomenasteppingstonebetweenfulltimeemploymentatparticularphasesinthelifecourse,whatwefindfromempiricalresearchisthatoncewomenmovedintopart-timeworktheirprobabilityofdroppingoutofemploymentismuchhigherthanthosewhogobacktoworkonfull-timebasis.Therehasbeenagrowingbodyofresearchrelatedtoparentalleaveandtheprovisionformentotakethisup.Whiletherehasbeensomeevidencethatsomemenaremakingmoreusethisthanwasthecaseinthepast,thesecasesneverthelessstillremainratherlimitedanddonotseemtoleadtoasignificanttransformationofdomesticcaredutieswithinthefamily.Althoughitwouldbewrongtosaythattherehasbeennochangeallinthatintermsofculturalnorms:insomecircumstancesitisbecomemoreacceptabletotakethisleave.Nevertheless,thetypeofmenwhotakethisaremorelikelytobehighlyeducatedandworkinthepublicsector,comparedtothosewhoworkintheprivatesectororareself-employed.

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StreetPolicyStudyNo.40(September).

Griffiths,R.(2017)‘NoLoveontheDole:TheInfluenceoftheUKMeans-testedWelfareSystemonPartneringandFamilyStructure’JournalofSocialPolicypublishedonline8thFebruaryhttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279417000046

Leschke,J.andM.Finn(forthcoming)‘Labormarketflexibilityandincomesecurity:ChangesforEuropeanyouthduringtheGreatRecession’inO’Reilly,J.,Leschke,J.,Ortlieb,R.,Seeleib-Kaiser,M.andVilla,P.(eds.)YouthLabourinTransition:Inequalities,MobilityandPoliciesinEurope(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress).

Mazzotta,F.andL.Parisi(forthcoming)‘Stuckintheparentalnest?TheeffectoftheeconomiccrisisonyoungEuropeans’livingarrangements’inO’Reilly,J.,Leschke,J.,Ortlieb,R.,Seeleib-Kaiser,M.andVilla,P.(eds.)YouthLabourinTransition:Inequalities,MobilityandPoliciesinEurope(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress).

Medgyesi,MandI.Nagy(forthcoming)‘Incomesharingandspendingdecisionsofyoungpeoplelivingwiththeirparents’inO’Reilly,J.,Leschke,J.,Ortlieb,R.,Seeleib-Kaiser,M.andVilla,P.(eds.)YouthLabourinTransition:Inequalities,MobilityandPoliciesinEurope(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress).

O’Reilly,J.,Leschke,J.,Ortlieb,R.,Seeleib-Kaiser,M.andVilla,P.(forthcoming)(eds.)YouthLabourinTransition:Inequalities,MobilityandPoliciesinEurope(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress).

O’Reilly,J.,Smith,M.andVilla,P.,(2017)‘Thesocialreproductionofyouthlabourmarketinequalities:theeffectsofgender,householdsandethnicity’inDamianGrimshaw,ColetteFagan,GailHebson,IsabelTavora(eds.)(2017)Makingworkmoreequal:Anewlabourmarketsegmentationapproach(Manchester:MUP)pp.249-267.

Sanchez-Mira,N.andO’Reilly,J.(forthcoming)‘HouseholdemploymentandthecrisisinEurope’Work,EmploymentandSociety.

Saraceno,C.(2016)‘Varietiesoffamilialism:ComparingfoursouthernEuropeanandEastAsianwelfareregimes.’JournalofEuropeanSocialPolicy26(4):314-326.

Saraceno,C.andKeck,W.(2011)‘Towardsanintegratedapproachfortheanalysisofgenderequityinpoliciessupportingpaidworkandcareresponsibilities.’Demographicresearch25:371-406.

Smith,M.,J.Leschke,H.Russell,andP.Villa(forthcoming)‘Stressedeconomies,distressedpolicies,anddistraughtyoungpeople:Europeanpoliciesandoutcomesfromayouthperspective’inO’Reilly,J.,Leschke,J.,Ortlieb,R.,Seeleib-Kaiser,M.andVilla,P.(eds.)YouthLabourinTransition:Inequalities,MobilityandPoliciesinEurope(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress).

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Figure1.DistributionofhouseholdtypeswithinEuropeancountries,bycountryclusters2007

CountryabbreviationsAT-Austria

BE-Belgium

CY-Cyprus

CZ-CzechRepublic

DE-Germany

DK-Denmark

EE-Estonia

EL-Greece

ES-Spain

FI-Finland

FR-France

HU-Hungary

IE-Ireland

IS-Iceland

IT-Italy

LT-Lithuania

LU-Luxembourg

LV-Latvia

NL-Netherlands

NO-Norway

PL-Poland

PT-Portugal

SE-Sweden

SL-Slovenia

SK-Slovakia

UK-UnitedKingdom

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

SK EE SI LT LV PT FI CZ CY HU PL DK NO IS SE FR UK BE IE AT LU DE NL EL ES IT

Dual Earner Full-Time Dual Earner Mixed Multiple Modes Polarized

7-Others

6-Workless

5-Female breadwinner

4-Male Breadwinner-Female Unemployed

3-Male breadwinner-Female Caregiver

2-Modified male breadwinner

1-Both full-time

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