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THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
SCHOOL OF THE ARTS AND DESIGN
BDS 413: PROJECT PAPER
CONTEMPORARY KENYAN AESTHETIC APPLIED TO FASHION FOR YOUNG PROFESSIONALS IN KENYA
A project paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts (Design) at the School of the Arts and Design, the University of Nairobi
By
Kibuchi Lillian Waithera
B05/0394/2009
Supervisor: Joan Mosomi
February 2013
1
1 DECLARATION I declare that this is my original work and has not been presented in the past for the fulfillment of a
degree course in any other university.
Kibuchi Lillian Waithera
Signature……………………………………………………
Date ………………………………………………………
Joan Mosomi
Supervisor
Signature …………………………………………………
Date……………………………………………………….
Dr. Walter Onyango
Director, School of the Arts and Design
Signature………………………………………………
Date …………………………………………………
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2 DEDICATION
To the Almighty God for his divine providence throughout the four years of the course. To my
parents, Mr. and Mrs. Kibuchi, who provided much needed moral and financial support. To Joy,
Nyash, Ciru, Wang’ombe and Karanu. To Wandati, Kishly and Wams. To my classmates, who kept
me laughing throughout. And to Lambert, who taught me how to cope.
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3 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The completion of this project paper would not have been possible but for the support of my family
and friends. I salute you all. I extend my gratitude towards the interviewees, who spared me some
time to chat. I am also grateful to my lecturers for their academic assistance, and to my supervisor,
Joan Mosomi, for helping me find my way.
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4 ABSTRACT
It has been said that to climb the corporate ladder, women must dress for the job they want, not the
job they hold. This is known as power dressing, and is meant to project confidence that is intended
to translate into importance or success. Definitions of power dressing have, however, been confined
to Western-styled suits or dresses. Thus young professionals in Kenya therefore mostly dress in a
manner that does not reflect their cultural heritage. This paper will attempt to define a contemporary
Kenyan aesthetic in fashion, and examine how it may be applied to fashion for young professionals
in Kenya. The wrapped or draped form of dress is put forward as an aesthetic that is uniquely
Kenyan and cuts across all cultures. Traditional modes of Kenyan dressing from different Kenyan
communities are sampled to explain this aesthetic. This paper will also explore the Cradle to Cradle
theory, whose goal is to design products and systems with their end of life-cycle management in
mind, and to appropriate waste from one life cycle as input for the next product. The researcher
explores how this mindset may be applied to fashion for young professionals, particularly in the use
of the more environmentally friendly polyester fabrics. Using qualitative methods, this study
investigates the fashion profile of young professionals to determine why they opt to dress like they
do. It is descriptive and employs non-purposive sampling, since the main aim of the study is to
obtain an overall picture of the situation. The study is cross-sectional, involving only one contact
with the sample population. Data has been collected by way of non-participant observation,
unstructured interviewing, written documents and audiovisual material. Observations are recorded by
use of descriptive notes and photographs. Due to limitations in time and resources, the researcher
sampled a total of eight young professionals. The paper proposes that fashion designers tap into
traditional forms of Kenyan clothing to develop a uniquely Kenyan contemporary fashion aesthetic.
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5 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Labor Force Participation Rates by Sex and Age 1
Figure 2 Kanga draped across one shoulder and around the waist 9
Figure 3 Part of Ejiro Amos Tafiri’s Arise Africa 2012 collection 10
Figure 4 Part of Ejiro Amos Tafiri’s Arise Africa 2012 collection 10
Figure 5 Part of Folake Folarin-Coker’s Spring Summer 2012 collection 11
Figure 6 Part of Folake Folarin-Coker’s Spring Summer 2012 collection 11
Figure 7 Part of Folake Folarin-Coker’s Spring Summer 2012 collection 11
Figure 8 The Lily twist dress by Folake Folarin-Coker 12
Figure 9 Thakoon Fall/Winter ‘11, Louis Vuitton Spring Summer ’11 12
Figure 10 Rihanna wears kanga outfits by SUNO 13
Figure 11 Rachel Shebesh wears an exact replica of the Kenyan flag 15
Figure 12 Nandi married woman 16
Figure 13 The favorite wife of the Kikuyu chief, Njiri 16
Figure 14 Embu woman circumciser 16
Figure 15 Dorobo married woman immediately after giving birth 17
Figure 16 Recently married Taveta woman wearing her bridal dress 17
Figure 17 Boni girl 17
Figure 18 Buba dress 18
Figure 19 Nelson Mandela wears the Madiba shirt 18
Figure 20 Ugandan gomesi 18
Figure 21 Bogolan or mud cloth from Mali 18
Figure 22 The North African djellaba 18
Figure 23 The Ethiopian coffee dress 18
Figure 24 A sample of the East African kanga 19
Figure 25 The winning national dress design for women 20
Figure 26 A version of the national dress worn by the Kenyan volleyball team 20
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Figure 27 The male version of the Kenyan national dress 21
Figure 28 Domestic textile and apparel market 22
Figure 29 A summary of the fashion design process 37
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Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Significance of the study .......................................................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.5 Research Purpose ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.6 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................. 4
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 8
2.2 The African aesthetic ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.2.1 Color as a semiotic system ...................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 The African dress culture ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Defining African fashion ....................................................................................................... 10
2.2.4 The global circulation of African fashion ........................................................................... 13
2.3 The Contemporary Kenyan Aesthetic ......................................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Identifying a Contemporary Kenyan Aesthetic ................................................................. 15
2.3.2 In search of Kenyan identity in dress .................................................................................. 17
2.3.3 The state of the Kenyan textile industry ............................................................................. 21
2.4 The Cradle To Cradle Theory ....................................................................................................... 22
2.4.1 Use of Polyester ...................................................................................................................... 24
2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 26
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 28
3.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Research Design .............................................................................................................................. 28
3.3 Population and Sample ................................................................................................................... 28
3.4 Data Collection ................................................................................................................................ 28
3.5 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 30
3.6 Data Presentation ............................................................................................................................ 30
3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 31
3.8 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 31
4 DESIGN PROCESS ............................................................................................................................... 33
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4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 33
4.2 Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Developing a collection .................................................................................................................. 33
4.3.1 Analyzing the brief ................................................................................................................. 34
4.3.2 Research ................................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.3 Sketching .................................................................................................................................. 35
4.3.4 Line planning and range building......................................................................................... 35
4.3.5 Pattern development .............................................................................................................. 35
4.3.6 Production ............................................................................................................................... 36
4.3.7 Presentation ............................................................................................................................. 36
4.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 36
5 FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................................... 39
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 39
5.2 Presentation of findings .................................................................................................................. 39
5.3 Limitations of the study .................................................................................................................. 43
5.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 43
6 RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 45
6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 45
6.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 45
6.3 Suggestion for further study .......................................................................................................... 46
7 WORKS CITED ...................................................................................................................................... 47
8 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................................... 52
8.1 Interview guide ................................................................................................................................. 52
8.2 Observation guide ........................................................................................................................... 53
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
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6 INTRODUCTION
6.1 Overview
According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, out of a total of 2,127,700 persons in both the
public and private sector, 649,100 women were under wage employment in the year 2011 (Kenya
National Bureau of Statistics, 2012). The overall participation of women aged 25-39 in the labor
force was projected to be 3,006,795 in 2011 - see figure 1 (National Council for Population and
Development, 2011). Women operate 54% of the total enterprises in the country, dominating
wholesale and retail, rural manufacturing and urban agriculture sectors (Institute of Economic
Affairs, 2008).
For this trend of women empowerment to continue, it is imperative that Kenyan women maintain
corporate success. It has been said that to climb the corporate ladder, women must learn to dress for
the job they want, as opposed to the job they hold. This has led to the concept of “power dressing”,
whereby clothes are “an important part of projecting an image of success and confidence in the
corporate jungle” (Little, 2012). Power dressing is seen as a manner of dressing that projects
importance or success. Experts in the field, however, confine their definitions of power dressing to
Western-styled suits or dresses, with no mention of African or African-inspired dressing. Thus young
Kenyan professionals show a preference for such Western clothing, paying little or no attention to
options that are more authentic to Kenya.
Kenya is a diverse land, accommodating 42 ethnic communities, each having its own traditional
practices and symbols that make it unique. Therefore there exists difficulty in pointing out unifying
Figure 1: Labor Force Participation Rates by Sex and Age Source: Facts & Figures on Population and Development, 2011
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aesthetics that are relevant to all communities. This having been said, however, the Kenyan aesthetic
has been considered to encompass national symbols such as the shield and the colors of the national
flag. These aspects spill over into fashion design, with the former being used as a source of
inspiration for prints, and the latter being used in various interpretations of Kenyan dress. These
literal interpretations remain the only discernible elements of the Kenyan aesthetic in fashion. Young
professionals eschew these aesthetics since they view them as being dowdy or not trendy enough.
Further to this, Kenya lacks national identity in terms of dress. It therefore comes as no surprise that
young professionals prefer to dress in styles considered Western. An in-depth examination of the
traditional forms of Kenyan dressing from the late 19th and early 20th Century reveals that all
communities, even if employing different aesthetic styles, used the wrapped form in dress. This study
will use this factor as the starting point in developing fashion for young professionals that exudes the
Kenyan aesthetic, and is suitable for their upwardly mobile lifestyle.
Cradle to Cradle, as a form of sustainability in fashion, may be successfully integrated to fashion for
young professionals. Cradle to Cradle refers to a design strategy developed by Michael Braungart and
William McDonough and their colleagues in the 1990s. Its goal is to design products and systems
with their end of life-cycle management in mind, and appropriating waste from one life cycle as input
for the next product. Cradle to Cradle “is about innovation, quality and beauty; it’s not beautiful
when it’s toxic” (Boer, van Heeswijk, Heideveld, den Held, & Maatman, 2011). Cradle to Cradle is
based on the ideology of considering the impact of materials used in designing products, through
their life cycle and at the end of it. Centered on this principle, this study will explore the use of
polyester or polyester based fabrics. This fabric has less ecological impact than organic natural fibers.
Polyester consumes fewer resources in its production, and polyester garments consume less energy in
their use phase. Garments can be worn many times, washed in cold water and air-dried, with no need
for ironing. While polyester does not biodegrade, at the end of its use phase it can be recycled to
near-virgin or virgin-like quality (Scaturro, 2011). By using polyester fabrics to create fashion for
young professionals, Cradle to Cradle design is observed, in that the fabric offers high performance
and durability, and can be infinitely recycled.
Traditional modes of Kenyan dressing will be adapted to this study as a source and influence of
fashion. Fabrics manufactured in Kenya have long employed dyeing methods such as tie and dye and
batik, an influence which will also be utilized for this study. These techniques may be prudently used
to produce psychedelic patterns on fabric. In addition to this are fabric craft techniques such as
weaving, crocheting, embroidery, knitting, and macramé. Traditional weaving patterns from
communities such as the Kamba and Kikuyu may be incorporated into accessories such as bags, belts
and jewelry for young professionals, as may beading techniques from communities such as the
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Maasai and Turkana. Using qualitative methods, this study will investigate the profile of young
professionals in Kenya to determine the causes of the detachment between what they wear and
options that would be considered closer to their heritage. The contemporary Kenyan aesthetic thus
conceived will then be used together with the Cradle to Cradle theory to come up with fashion for
young professionals in Kenya.
The study will be qualitative in nature, aiming to describe how a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic may
be used in fashion for young professionals. Thus it will be descriptive. Based on the number of
contacts, the study will be a cross-sectional study, involving only one contact with the sample, and
aimed at obtaining an overall picture of the situation. The main aim of qualitative research is to
explore a situation; therefore the non-probability purposive sampling method will be employed.
More specifically, this will be in form of convenience sampling, where eight respondents will be
selected at the convenience of the researcher. This sampling method will provide an inexpensive
approximation of the truth, despite not being representative of the whole population. Data will be
collected by way of non-participant observation, unstructured interviewing, written documents and
audiovisual material. Observations will be recorded by use of descriptive notes and photographs.
Overall, information will be presented in form of text or images.
6.1.1 Problem Statement
Young Kenyan professionals dress in a fashion that does not demonstrate a Kenyan aesthetic. In
adherence to the principles of power dressing advocated by image consultants in Kenya, they show a
preference for Western clothing, paying little or no attention to more ethnic possibilities. In so doing
they adopt the Western aesthetic system as opposed to their own, which if properly applied would be
more meaningful.
In addition to this, global trends are moving towards sustainability, and not enough attention has
been paid to the Cradle to Cradle theory, or sustainability in fashion for that matter, in Kenya.
6.1.2 Significance of the study
Developing and making available to young professionals, trendy apparel designed using a
contemporary Kenyan aesthetic, would encourage an attitude change. Moreover, trends on the global
fashion stage indicate a continuing fascination with African inspired clothing and accessories, with
animal prints and safari suiting featuring in Spring/Summer 2013 collections (Hutchings, 2012). This
paper aims to pursue this trend while giving it a unique Kenyan twist that reflects the heritage of the
peoples of Kenya.
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6.1.3 Research Objectives
The main objective of this study is to investigate how a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic may be
applied in tandem with Cradle to Cradle design in fashion for young professionals in Kenya. It will
explore the use of a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic in the expression of self and authentic heritage.
Specific objectives include:
To determine whether a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic has been used in designing
fashion for young professionals in Kenya.
To establish the detachment between what young professionals in Kenya wear and
contemporary Kenyan options.
To propose ways in which a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic may be applied to Cradle to
Cradle design in designing fashion for young professionals in Kenya.
6.1.4 Research Questions
The main research question is, “How can a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic be applied in tandem
with Cradle to Cradle design in fashion for young professionals in Kenya?” Specific research
questions include:
Has a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic been used in designing fashion for young
professionals in Kenya?
Why is there a detachment between what young professionals in Kenya wear and
contemporary Kenyan options?
How may a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic be applied to Cradle to Cradle design in
designing fashion for young professionals in Kenya?
6.1.5 Research Purpose
The main purpose of this study is to improve the profile of young Kenyan professionals in fashion
using a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic and Cradle to Cradle design. By investigating and addressing
the reasons for the young professionals’ preference for Western aesthetics in clothing, the researcher
will be able to propose clothing inspired by traditional Kenyan forms of dress. This clothing will be
in line with the dynamics of their upwardly mobile lifestyle and reflect their increasingly influential
position in society, all the while demonstrating their Kenyan heritage.
6.1.6 Definition of Terms
6.1.6.1 Contemporary fashion
The word contemporary is defined by the Collins English Dictionary as “living or occurring in the
same period of time” or “conforming to modern or current ideas in style, fashion, design etc.”
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(Collins English Dictionary, 2003). Picking up on the former meaning, Evans (2011) states that
contemporary fashion images are “bearers of meaning, and as such, stretch simultaneously back to
the past and forward into the future”. Such images form an abundant primary source. They spawn
new ideas and meanings, carrying a conversation into the future, and taking their place in a sequence
of meaning (Evans, 2011). Designers therefore dip into history to find constant inspiration for
contemporary fashion, meaning current ideas in style and fashion. Nellis (2012) provides an
alternative meaning, stating that contemporary refers to an apparel price category, or “a fashion-
forward look aimed at women in their 20s and early 30s who are looking for trendy apparel, but at an
affordable price”. For the purposes of this study, contemporary fashion will be taken to mean current
ideas in style and fashion, as well as a fashion forward look aimed at women in their mid-20s to early
30s.
6.1.6.2 Aesthetics
The word aesthetics stems from the ancient Greek word “aisthanomai”, which means “perception by
the senses”. Aesthetics is thus defined as “the philosophical branch of inquiry concerned with beauty,
art and perception” (Ford, 2009). The word invokes sensory perception, and as such, its definition
varies through time, and is subjective. Aesthetics differ between people and cultures; different styles
are appreciated in different ways. Ford (2009) also explains that in a contemporary sense, aesthetics
can be used to reference a particular style or design. A motif used throughout areas of design within a
culture can be said to observe or appreciate a certain aesthetic. Aesthetics can be observed in all areas
of present-day life, from the “seemingly simple artifacts of everyday living” to the “self-professed
complexities of architecture and design” (Ford, 2009). Contemporary aesthetics argue that there is no
singular definition of beauty or art. Both can be found and experienced in the moment by the
observer. Lipman (1973) furthers this argument, by stating that the meaning of a work of art “may lie
in the contents which might in other circumstances be meaningful to us because of the denotations
they have”. Aesthetics are therefore culture-specific, and they encompass a striking quality that makes
the observer sit up and take notice.
From this it may be deduced that a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic would refer to contemporary
trends in fashion design applied within a Kenyan context; evaluated and adapted to what is judged
beautiful or artistic by Kenyans. Based on Welters & Lillethun’s argument above, these standards
may be referenced from any point in time, be it in the past, present or future. In this case then, the
researcher seeks to style contemporary fashion trends for young professionals, using traditional
forms of Kenyan dressing from the late 19th and early 20th century, as a point of reference for
aesthetics. Putting these definitions in the context of this study will involve examining aspects of
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traditional dressing cultures in Kenya, picking particular styles or designs, and then applying them to
fashion trend forecasts to come up with contemporary fashion.
6.1.6.3 Cradle to Cradle theory
The concept of Cradle to Cradle, as part of the larger trend of sustainability in fashion, is primarily
borrowed from McDonough and Braungart’s book, “Cradle to Cradle, Remaking the Way We Make
Things” (2002). Based on award-winning research started in the 1980s and continuing today at the
Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency (EPEA), in Hamburg Germany, Cradle to Cradle
is a design strategy developed by Michael Braungart and William McDonough and their colleagues in
the 1990s. Products and systems created using the Cradle to Cradle approach are designed with their
end of life-cycle management in mind, all the while appropriating waste from one life cycle as input
for the next product. The theory is extensive in nature and includes three basic principles. The first
is that waste equals food; everything is a nutrient for something else. The second is the use of current
solar income; renewable energy sources originating from the sun such as solar and wind energy. The
third is respect for diversity, including biodiversity, cultural diversity, and diversity of ideas and
innovation to suit local conditions (Boer, van Heeswijk, Heideveld, den Held, & Maatman, 2011). On
a micro level, the use of polyester, for example, is one of the ways in which Cradle to Cradle design
may be put into practice. It wears well, requires less energy in its use phase in terms of laundering and
maintenance, and can be recycled to near-pure quality at the end of its life. This paper will therefore
apply the Cradle to Cradle theory in terms of the use of a Kenyan aesthetic in tandem with polyester
or polyester-based fabric, to create a fashion-forward Kenyan style for young professionals.
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CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature
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7 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
7.1 Introduction
This literature review will develop the concepts of the contemporary Kenyan aesthetic, African
aesthetic in fashion and the Cradle to Cradle concept. Ozumba (2012) defines the African aesthetic
and expounds on the influence that globalization has had on it, an opinion that is furthered by
Pascoal (2012) and Jepchumba (2009). Rabine (2009) and Hansen (2004) describe African forms of
dress while Rabine (2002) expounds on the nature of circulation of African fashion. Spurwing Kenya
(2012) provides an overview of the Kenyan people and cultural identity, Howden (2009) describes
the premier of the kanga as a contemporary form of dress in the East African region. Kabura (2011)
and Vasagar (2004) describe the Kenyan national dress while Odero (2010) gives insight into the
failure of the national dress to take hold amongst ordinary citizens. Information about the Kenyan
textile industry is drawn from a report by the Export Processing Zones, Kenya’s Apparel and Texile
Industry (2005). The Cradle to Cradle concept is mainly drawn from McDonough & Braungart
(2002), and supported by Boer, van Heeswijk, Heideveld, den Held, & Maatman (2011), while views
on the emergence of polyester as a sustainable alternative are from Socha (2008) and Passariello &
Dodes (2008).
7.2 The African aesthetic
In defining the contemporary Kenyan aesthetic in fashion, it is imperative to discuss it against the
backdrop of the African aesthetic.
The African aesthetic draws from environmental, cultural, historical, religious, and educational
experiences. Ozumba (2012) defines African aesthetics as the African’s way of “appreciating nature,
creating aesthetic objects, evaluating and improving on nature’s aesthetic raw materials for the overall
improvement of their well-being”. Meaning and context are of particular importance to the African
aesthetic. The term also refers to the African interpretation of reality within the conflicts of concepts
of life. Ozumba (2012) is of the opinion that the African aesthetic mind still lingers, despite
increasing preference for the Western lifestyle, ideals and values. The writer puts forth the term
“hybrid African aesthetics” to mean the infusion of the aesthetic life of Africans with that of other
cultures. He states that it is the “translation, importation and transmission of the cultural and
aesthetic traits and mindsets of other cultures into the African environment resulting in a mixture or
a combination, adaptation and partial displacement of African cultural and aesthetic values”.
Globalization, characterized by the explosion of the sharing of information, goods and resources, has
enabled processes that once required large amounts of time to be executed at a much faster pace,
leading to new ways of thinking for Africans (Pascoal, 2012). The writer is of the opinion that in
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adopting other cultures, even if to achieve respect and recognition, the “colonized native” surrenders
his own identity. Saki Mafundikwa agrees with this opinion. He reports having been surprised to
learn that the seemingly “off register” printing on “kitenge” cloth in Congo is intentional, since that
is how the market demands it. He asks readers to consider the graphic expression of the
deconstructivists where “razor-sharp precision is thrown out of the window in favor of looser and
more atmospheric work” and wonders why African students are not encouraged to “experiment with
sensibilities that would come more naturally to them” (Jepchumba, 2009). Ozumba (2012) states that
the African aesthetic mentality is “elastic enough to accommodate the beautiful and the ugly, the
gracious and the bizarre, the serene and the strange, the primitive and the exotic, the harmonious and
the discordant”. Traditional African textiles emphasized on meaning rather than print precision,
unlike Western-produced textiles. From Mali, authentic mud cloth has an uneven look to the weave,
because it is made by hand, and each of the prints featured, being symbolic, has meaning.
7.2.1 Color as a semiotic system
Meaning embodied by color in African textiles differs by location. Red, for example, is reserved for
chiefs and ceremonies in Nigeria, and represents wealth, vitality and aggression. It stands for good
luck in Egypt, mourning in Cote d’ Ivoire and South Africa. Yellow represents mourning in Egypt
and Ethiopia, and wealth in South Africa. Green is a
symbol of corruption in North Africa, nature in South
Africa and holiness and fertility in Egypt. Blue exudes
positivity in Nigeria and happiness in South Africa. Purple
denotes virtue in Egypt while pink denotes poverty in
South Africa. White shows illness or purity in Ethiopia,
good luck and peace in Nigeria, goodness in South Africa,
cleanliness, goodness and good luck in Zambia and status
in Egypt. Black denotes impurity and unpleasantness in
Ethiopia, rebirth in Egypt and is ominous in Nigeria (The
International Business Edge, 2011). Color thus exemplifies
a semiotic system, signs and symbols and their relationship
to various factors. Woven and printed textiles were dyed
earthy colors such as khakis, mahoganies and terra cottas,
since pigments and dyes were made from bark, insects,
plants, seeds, soil and ground vegetables. Charcoal was
used for blackening and generating shadows.
Figure 2: Kanga draped across one shoulder and around the waist, and
accessorized by a turban. The wrapped dress and head wrap culture sweep across
the globe. Source: http://angelasancartier.net
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7.2.2 The African dress culture
There are two broad dress cultures in Africa. The first is based on the draping of cloth in West,
Central, and parts of East Africa (see figure 2). The second is based on tailored Western-styled attires
in much of the rest of East Africa and Southern Africa. Due to local, regional, and external
influences, these styles are transferred across the continent and overseas (Hansen, 2004).
African dress communicates age, gender, occupation, ethnicity, power, and religious commitment for
every day, celebratory, ceremonial, and ritual occasions. Styles of dress provide insights into both
ancient cultures and the latest global fashion trends (Rovine, 2009). The dress icons are the boubou
(loose gown worn by women and men); cloth wrapper and head tie; and Western-styled dress
(Hansen, 2004). Dress involves totally or partially covering the body by supplementing it with apparel
and accessories such as head wraps and jewelry and modifying the body itself with tattoos or piercing
(Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, 2005). Traditionally, the wrapper is probably the most
frequent and popular indigenous garment in sub-Saharan Africa. Women wrap cloth from their waist
to their knees, calves, or feet, or sometimes under the armpits to cover the breasts and lower body.
Men wrap a small length of cloth from their waist to their feet, with the chest either bare or covered.
7.2.3 Defining African fashion
Ozumba (2012) is of the
opinion that though the
African aesthetic mind
still lingers, “much of
what used to be prized as
Africa’s sense of
appreciation is waning”
in favor of the Western
“lifestyle, values and
ideological pictograms”.
In the world of fashion,
however, this is slowly
changing. Despite the
fact that the global
circulation of “African
fashion” as we know it is
driven by Western
Figure 3 Figure 4
Figure 3-4: Part of Ejiro Amos Tafiri’s Arise Africa 2012 collection. The collection referenced traditional North-Nigerian forms of dress, as well as the 70s era in fashion.
This resulted in a modern collection that was unmistakably African. Source: http://www.bellanaija.com
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designers, there exist designers who have paved the way for fashion designers of African heritage,
such as Alphadi (Niger), Ozwald Boateng (Ghana) and Duro Olowu (Nigeria).
African fashion, in some quarters, is taken to be that which has been designed by those of African
heritage, while in others it is taken to be that which has been designed using fabrics considered to be
African. In spite of this, the African fashion industry has mostly confined the definition of African
fashion to “African” prints such as Ankara and mud cloth, amongst other print fabrics available on
the continent (Oduok, 2011). Countless African designers conceive garments that make reference to
or borrow from local clothing practice, blending these forms with international influences (Rovine,
2009). Hansen (2004) explains that the distinction between Western fashion and the “traditional”
clothing of much of the rest of the world is described by scholars in terms of the development of the
capitalist production system in the West. In anthropology, “traditional dress was never a cultural
heritage issue” but a “changing practice”. It reinvented itself in interaction with other dress styles,
commercially manufactured Western garments and the West’s fashion system (see figures 3-4).
Globalization in form of hyper-communication is creating a new “world in dress”, breaking down
established fashion boundaries (Hansen, 2004).
Contemporary African designers conceive garments that make reference to or borrow from local
clothing practice, blending these forms with international influences (Rovine, 2009) – see figure 5-7.
Figure 5-8: Part of Folake Folarin-Coker’s Spring Summer 2012 collection. The designer references both the traditional forms of Western African dress and Western forms. The bodice of the dress in figure 5 evokes
memories of the kanga tied around the neck. The dress in figure 6 takes on the tailored form, but incorporates kitenge in its bodice. The dress in figure 7, on the other hand, takes on the form of the roomy Nigerian dress, the
buba. Folarin-Coker describes her style as having a generally floaty aesthetic, meaning that she uses predominantly light and airy fabrics. This is demonstrated in figures 5-7 above.
Source: www.tiffanyamberng.com
Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7
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African fashion designers are using their heritage and
international trends to gain attention on the world stage. At
the forefront of African fashion is Nigeria, where “style never
seems to go out of fashion”. Folake Folarin Coker, in an
interview with Christian Purefoy, attributes this to the nature
of Nigerian fashion being “ethnicity made globally friendly”.
The brand Tiffany Amber, founded by Folake Folarin-Coker,
who is its Creative Director, epitomizes this trend. Tiffany
Amber was founded in the year 1998, a time when few had
dared to venture into fashion as a business in Nigeria. Despite
its non-African name, the brand’s designs are inspired by
Nigerian prints as well as modern Western silhouettes. Folarin-
Coker belongs to a school of Nigerian designers who have
attracted international attention by “translating local prints
usually found on stiff fabric onto flowy cloth that drapes the
body” (Ibukun, 2012). Clothes designed are “trendy but not in
trend”, one case in point being the Lily twist dress (figure 8),
of which over 700 pieces have been sold to date. Purefoy
attributes Tiffany Amber’s success to the use of bold
statements and local flavor.
Folarin-Coker’s market is international, and
she’s the only Africa-based designer to have
shown twice at the New York Fashion Week.
Tiffany Amber’s clientele is predominantly
curvy women aged 30-45, looking for clothes
thought flattering and sexy. The Nigerian
fashion industry has grown mostly due to the
booming entertainment industry; actresses,
musicians and businessmen want to look good
for gossip magazines. Bola Atta, editor of the
True Love magazine, attributes the industry’s
success to the fact that fashion does not
attempt to impress only Nigerians. The players
in the industry do not want it to be completely
Figure 8: The Lily twist dress by Folake Folarin-Coker. Its success has been
attributed to the fact that it flatters both slender and curvy silhouettes. The dress is made of silk with a georgette twist at
the front. It calls to mind the traditionally draped forms of African
clothing. Source: www.tiffanyamberng.com
Figure 9: Left to right: Thakoon Fall/Winter ‘11, Louis Vuitton Spring Summer ’11, and Thakoon Fall/Winter ’11. Western designers have used traditional Maasai plaids in
their collections, which they then term as “African-inspired”.
Source: http://fashionmole.wordpress.com
22
ethnic; therefore they prefer to combine African print with what is considered Western, since people
like to wear what they see on television. “Power branding” also plays a key part in this success. This
has been Folarin-Coker’s strategy since the very beginning. Folake says that her clothes could just as
easily come from any clothing factory in Nigeria, but the Tiffany Amber tag gives them instant value.
She affirms to selling an ‘attitude’, the fact that the brand has a personality of its own, and that it
makes clients feel regal (Ndani TV, 2012).
7.2.4 The global circulation of African fashion
The nature of circulation of African Fashion is that styles and fabrics thought ‘traditional’ in the
Senegalese fashion system are thought to be ‘modern’ in Kenya and ‘authentic’ in the African
American fashion system (Rabine, 2002). Overseas, the open expression of an explicitly African
identity by African Americans through the use of clothing is as a result of a recent political moment,
that of civil rights (Allman, 2004). The author explains that this phenomenon was meant to challenge
Eurocentrism and the injustice of racism in the mainstream American society. This trend was picked
up in Africa, resulting in Afro clothing and hairstyles.
Unfortunately, the global circulation of African fashion as we know it is mostly driven by Western
designers such as SUNO, Diane Von
Furstenberg, Burberry, Vivienne Westwood,
Louis Vuitton and Thakoon (figure 9). These
have embraced African prints from ankara to
mud cloth and Maasai plaids, also known as
shukas (Oduok, 2011). Rovine (2009) observes
the fact that Africa’s profile in international
fashion has been intensified by its appearance as a
source of inspiration for Western designers.
However, African designers who are themselves
engaged in “innovative transformations of
African style” receive little attention in the
international fashion press.” Oduok (2011)
concurs with this observation. African designers
who design ‘African Fashion’ with mud cloth or
Ankara largely tend to be ignored by the global
retail stores, Western media and buyers. When a
Western fashion designer does the same and calls
Figure 10: Rihanna has been photographed several times wearing kanga outfits by SUNO. Such
appearances by Western celebrities create more buzz about the East African fabric than any number of
indigenous fashion shows could. This, however, is slowly changing.
Source: http://www.orijinculture.com
23
it ‘African Inspired’, high-end boutiques, department stores and local retail stores stock these African
Inspired designs (see figure 9&10). In spite of this, the African continent has a long history of
fashion production. African fashion appears in the global Western-dominated realm of haute couture
as well as indigenous fashion economies, where designers may draw from international styles yet
remain distinctly local (Rovine, 2009). Rabine (2002) states that globally transmitted African Fashion,
“inspired by the flowing garments and woven, dyed or brilliantly printed fabrics whose home is
Senegal and other Muslim areas of coastal West Africa”, adopts different looks and meanings in
Dakar, Nairobi, and Los Angeles. Yet each of these fashion systems “develops only through constant
exchange within these and similar nodes of encounter”.
7.3 The Contemporary Kenyan Aesthetic
Kenya is known for her tourism and wildlife (particularly the seventh greatest wonder of the world,
the great wildebeest migration), horticulture, tea and coffee exports, her exceptionally talented
athletes and the Maasai culture. That having been said, it is rather challenging to isolate the Kenyan
aesthetic; to point out what aspects portray the Kenyan identity. This phenomenon is particularly
observed in fashion. What makes fashion or textiles Kenyan? The colonial administration, missionary
activities and formal education in the late 19th and early 20th century obliterated most cultural
practices in Kenya. This gap was filled by Western cultural attitudes and aesthetics, a phenomenon
particularly witnessed amongst the youth. This reality was further fostered by historical and current
politics of division practiced by the colonizers and subsequent community leaders. This has led to a
state where Kenyans themselves barely know or appreciate their traditional culture. This complicated
nature of Kenyans’ cultural identity was revealed in attempts at conceiving a national dress. The top-
down formula employed resulted in “a restricted set of pre-approved national dresses and outfits
with questionable aesthetic appeal to the majority of Kenyans” (Spurwing Kenya, 2012).
There are about 42 ethnic groups in Kenya, grouped into larger sub-groups based on cultural and
linguistic similarities. The peoples are diverse in culture, with the Bantu of the Coastal region, Central
Highlands and Western Kenya, the Nilotes of the Great Rift Valley and the Lake Victoria Region,
and the Cushites comprising the pastoralists and nomads in the North Eastern part of the country
(Spurwing Kenya, 2012). Each ethnic grouping has its own unique customs and ethos. This makes it
difficult to identify an aesthetic that runs throughout all communities in Kenya. Some communities,
however, resemble each other in these aspects due to linguistic and environmental similarities.
24
7.3.1 Identifying a Contemporary Kenyan Aesthetic
Kenya is quite culturally diverse. Past efforts to define forms of
dress that would be considered Kenyan have almost always
invariably resulted in derivative aesthetics composed of the
colors of the Kenyan flag (see figure 11). This set of standards
crosses over from clothes to shoes and accessories such as
jewelry, key chains, purses and bags. This is a banal
representation of what the country has to offer.
As mentioned above, there are two dress cultures in Kenya. The
predominant style is based on tailored Western-styled attire. In
Nairobi, Nakuru and Nyeri, styles do not come from the Kikuyu
or other ethnic group’s traditional dress, since these were
banned by British missionaries and colonialists. Rather, they
come from West African fashion, often “through the detour of
reinterpretations in the United States” (Rabine, 2002). The
other style is based on draped cloth. The draped style, in vogue
circa late 19th and early 20th century, was employed by the
majority of ethnic groups in Kenya, from the Nilotic to the
Bantu and the Cushitic. Clothing was not necessary for warmth or protection due to the tropical
climate (Pendergast & Pendergast, 2004). As a result of this, dress was mostly in the form of wrapped
garments designed to keep away the occasional chill. Materials such as animal skins and bark cloth
were first to be used, and later on with improved technology came leather and woven cloth. These
were initially used to make aprons to cover the genitals or large robes to drape around the body
(Pendergast & Pendergast, 2004). Outfits were complemented by strikingly elaborate jewelry. This
eclectic dress culture provides a rich seam of ideas that could be mined by fashion designers to create
an identity that would be representative of Kenyan history.
Adamson (1967) describes the writer’s journey through Kenya, prior to independence, in a bid to
capture traditional life where it had not been touched by foreign influence. As such, the account
consists of numerous portraits of traditional dress from different communities, as well as several
photographs. The paintings below illustrate the unifying aesthetic of the wrapped dress across
Kenyan cultures.
Figure 11: Rachel Shebesh in this undated photo wears a dress that is an exact replica of the national flag. This
derivative aesthetic is what is considered patriotic.
Source: http://one-kenyan-
boy.blogspot.com
25
The Nandi, a Nilotic community, had married women wrapping hide around their shoulders,
overlaying a similar undergarment (figure 12). So did the Bantu, as shown by the painting of the
Chief’s wife (figure 13), and the Embu woman circumciser (figure 14), who draped hide over one
shoulder in a style similar to that of the Nandi woman. The Embu women had many cicatrizations
on their stomachs and faces. The circumciser’s items were also heavily decorated with cowrie shells
(Adamson, 1967).
Dorobo married women wore leathers over one shoulder, cinched in at the waist by a belt (figure 15).
They also painted on a white striation across their foreheads, temples and cheeks. In figure 16, a
recently married Taveta woman wears her heavily adorned bridal costume. Her eyes are kept covered
to create pretence of helplessness and inability to walk without help. The bridal costume is quite
intricate, and features an assortment of chains, beads and cowrie shells. In figure 17, a woman wears
a black cloth, the kanik, cinched in at the waist by a belt. The outfit is beautifully accessorized by a
chunky necklace and head band. This waist-defined look has, in fact, been adapted into various forms
in contemporary fashion.
Figure 12: Nandi married woman. Source: Adamson (1967)
Figure 13: The favorite wife of the Kikuyu chief, Njiri. Source: Adamson (1967)
Figure 14: Embu woman circumciser. Source: Adamson (1967)
26
While it may be fitting to adopt some aesthetic forms of the West and other cultures, we must do so
prudently (Ozumba, 2012). This study will endeavor to investigate how contemporary fashion for
young professionals can be created based on these time-honored modes of Kenyan dressing. It is
imperative to point out here that despite the fact that each of Kenya’s ethnic groups had its own
form of dress, the wrapped form cuts through these differences.
7.3.2 In search of Kenyan identity in dress
The Nigerians have their buba dress, and the agbada. The buba is a loose blouse that reaches down a
little below the waist, worn with the iro, a rectangular piece of cloth wrapped around the waist. The
agbada is festive clothing comprising buba and sokoto, the trousers. It comprises a flowing wide sleeved
robe, usually decorated with embroidery. The Ugandans have the gomesi, a traditional form of
Baganda dress worn with a sash around the waist. The Senegalese have their ankle-length kaftan,
a pullover men's robe with long bell sleeves. The Malians have their bogolan, or mud cloth, a
handmade cotton fabric traditionally dyed with fermented mud. The North Africans have the djellaba,
a Berber traditional long, loose-fitting unisex outer robe with full sleeves, which incorporates a baggy
hood (called a qob) that comes to a point at the back. The Ethiopians have the dashiki, and the
Ethiopian coffee dress; an ankle length dress made of white cotton and decorated with Ethiopian
motifs. The Somali have their khameez and koofiyad. The Zimbabweans have the safari shirt and the
South Africans the madiba shirt. What about Kenya?
Figure 15: Dorobo married woman immediately after giving birth.
Figure 16: Recently married Taveta woman wearing her bridal dress.
Figure 17: Boni girl.
27
There exists no discernible Kenyan national dress identity. Each of the ethnic communities
Figure 18: Buba dress Source: http://foreigndispatches.typepad.com
Figure 19: Nelson Mandela wears a printed shirt that has come to be known as the
Madiba shirt. Source: http://moreintelligentlife.com
Figure 20: Ugandan gomesi Source: semuwemba.com
Figure 21: Bogolan or mud cloth from Mali Source: http://en.wikipedia.org
Figure 22: The North African djellaba
Source:
http://www.almoultazimou
n.com
Figure 23: The Ethiopian coffee dress
Source: www.ebay.com
28
mentioned above have their own traditional modes of dressing. These modes have, however, largely
been discarded in favor of Western modes of dress, particularly in the urban areas. Communities
living out of the reach of this uniformity of urbanization such as the Maasai, Turkana and others in
North East Kenya have been successful in preserving aspects of their traditional dress culture. The
Maasai wear their predominantly red plaid shukas. They also have their intricate and elaborate
jewelry, as do the Turkana. Some communities along the Swahili coast dress in the Arabic or Muslim
style. For formal or important functions, Kenyans opt for the kitenge, a cotton fabric available in
various colors and designed through tie-and-dye, batik, printing and heavy embroidery. Kikoi has
also been increasingly used in making clothes, and this upsurge of interest has created an upsurge of
stores offering these fabrics to the fashion-conscious public. It is obligatory for a trendy individual to
possess an item in their closet made of kanga, kikoi or kitenge.
Kanga (also called the khanga/leso
–figure 24) remains the closest to
a unifying form of dress in Kenya,
considering that almost every
household owns at least one. The
kanga is a piece of clothing about
1.5m by 1m, screen printed with a
bold central design (mji) and
Kiswahili sayings or proverbs at
the bottom border (pindo). The
kanga's uses are almost endless.
They are used to strap children to
their mother’s backs, as picnic
blankets, tablecloths, sarongs and towels. Double kangas are worn as full-length dresses and singles
as headscarves. They are also used as tablecloths, can be made into bags, woven into shoes or used as
car-seat covers. There are wedding kangas and funeral ones. However, away from the coast, kangas
are usually not worn as a full outfit. This has progressively changed over the years. More Kenyans
have embraced the kanga as a contemporary form of dress. This has been helped along by the advent
of the Swahili Fashion Week. Mustafa Hassanali, a Tanzanian fashion designer, is credited with its
inception in 2008. Hassanali used kanga in a contemporary collection with the title "Kangalicious",
starting a trend of “making uber-couture out of kangas”. Through this forum, East African
designers have sought to “reinvent and remind an international audience that the Indian Ocean coast
has its own unique signature garment” (Howden, 2009). The versatility of the kanga has been the
Figure 24: A sample of the East African kanga. Notice the bold central design (mji) and Kiswahili saying at the bottom border (pindo).
Source: http://mapspam.info
29
mainstay of Swahili Fashion Week. The fabric has survived the devastating invasion of second-hand
Western clothes that have destroyed the Kenyan textile industry.
There have been several attempts to create a Kenyan
national dress. First came Mary Kadenge, them Margaret
Akumu-Gould in the 1980s. In 1995, she formed a
partnership with the Kenya Tourist Board, together with 20
other designers. The winning award was heavily influenced
by West Africa, and was not successful. In the meantime,
Koigi wa Wamwere and Gor Sunguh caused an uproar in
Parliament when they decided to wear agbadas instead of
suits and ties. The episode raised questions about
colonialism and a lack of personalized Kenyan style.
Then came the Unilever-sponsored “Sunlight quest for
Kenya’s National Dress” in 2004. This competition was in
part sponsored by the government. Ojay Hakim (as cited in
Mwakugu, 2007) reports that the design team studied
different types of clothing worn by all of Kenya's ethnic
groups to come up with the design. According to him, “all
the communities had some kind of head gear, a loin cloth
and a cloak which they covered themselves with across their
shoulders” (Mwakugu, 2007). These key factors inspired the
final outfits. The result, voted in by the public, looked
unmistakably African but failed to win over the wananchi. It
was drawn across cultures, from “the Maasai warrior, to the
Swahili/Arabian inspired clothing such as the women’s
headscarf, that resembled the Moslem hijab but with
African beadwork” (Kabura, 2011). Known as the Kenyan
cloak, the design featured an ankle-length robe and long
cloak for women (figure 25&26). For men it was a shirt
with a slashed collar and a cape across one shoulder (figure
27). Both costumes came in the colors of the flag: red,
green and black.
Figure 25: The winning national dress design for women. Head gear, loin cloths and cloaks featured in the dress designs Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk
Figure 26: A version of the Kenyan national dress was worn by the Kenyan volleyball team on a trip to Osaka, Japan. Source: www.tumblr.com
30
It is not clear what made the design such a spectacular failure.
Perhaps it was the top-down approach adopted, the ludicrous
price tag, or the generally bland and derivative aesthetics.
Odero (2010) is of the opinion that the problem was the cost.
Kenyans were not willing to spend over KSh. 5,000 on an
outfit that would be worn at most twice a year. It was, and still
is, preferable to use such an amount at the cheaper second
hand markets such as Gikomba, Toi and Muthurwa. The local
textile industry was not involved, and no one considered the
ubiquitous kanga or kikoi. And this was before they were both
patented in Europe. The kitenge was also not considered for
its popularity. Tailors were not trained on how to cut the dress,
and there was no identifiable universal fabric that may have
been used for consistency and as part of the identification. The
women’s volleyball team did wear it to Osaka, Japan, (see
figure 2) even if “it looked more like a Kenyan uniform than a
national dress for all its blatant lack of imagination when it
came to interpreting different colors and ideas of it” (Odero, 2010).
7.3.3 The state of the Kenyan textile industry
Since the liberalization of the economy in 1990, the influx of textile goods such as second-hand
clothes into Kenya reduced the average capacity utilization in the textile mills to about 50%. Second
hand clothing trade commonly known as ‘mitumba’ trade in Kenya has grown to claim a substantial
share of the textile and clothing industry market in the country since the late 1970’s/early 80’s (Imo
& Maiyo, 2012). The authors explain that market liberalization provided an opportunity for second
hand clothing trade to grow, since it allowed goods to be imported at reduced costs. Since locally
manufactured garments are relatively expensive, second hand clothing has become highly marketable
and affordable to consumers. Women in the West tend to buy much more clothing and discard it
more often than men, thus the supply of used women’s clothing is at least seven times that of men’s
(Claudio, 2007). This second hand clothing is relatively easy to obtain around major Kenyan towns. It
is, in fact, first choice for those who want to be trendy at pocket friendly prices. Pears (2006) states
that second hand style “ has greater longevity and continues to influence contemporary fashions just
as the current fashion will dictate what is popular within the second-hand clothing supply.” Those
who wear second-hand style are not trying to recreate the past; they are re-appropriating the past
style within their contemporary environment (Pears, 2006).
Figure 27: The male version of the national dress has been said to have
been borrowed from the Nigerian agbada.
Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk
31
Data available for the last 5 years indicates that the sector is on its way to recovery largely due to
AGOA and increased Government support (Export Processing Zones Authority, 2005). Export
manufacture has been encouraged through the establishment of the Export Processing Zones (EPZ).
The Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) has liberalized trade between the United States
and Kenya, rekindling interest in the textile industry – see appendix 2 (Maiyo & Imo, 2012). As of
2005, the number of garment manufacturers or exporters stood at 55, with 29 under the
Manufacturing Under Bond (MUB) scheme and 26 firms under the EPZ program (Export
Processing Zones Authority, 2005). The actual number of small-scale garment manufacturing units
though has never been documented.
7.4 The Cradle To Cradle Theory
A Cradle to Cradle mindset may be used to further the application of a contemporary Kenyan
aesthetic to fashion, due to its emphasis on meaning and purposeful design. Products, processes and
systems designed in a Cradle to Cradle manner are beneficial economically, socially and
environmentally (Boer, van Heeswijk, Heideveld, den Held, & Maatman, 2011). As such, the Cradle
to Cradle concept is based on a circular model, as opposed to the linear cradle-to-grave model, which
dominates modern manufacturing, within which resources are extracted, shaped into products, sold,
and eventually disposed of in a ‘grave’, usually a landfill or an incinerator. Cradle to Cradle follows
the philosophy of positive intentions being good from the start rather than ‘less bad’, differentiating
it from conventional sustainability. As McDonough and Braungart (2002) put it, why would we want
to be less bad when we can be good? Trying to do things that are less bad, like minimizing carbon
footprint, only delays the process of environmental degradation.
There is perhaps no truer reflection of the cradle to grave phenomenon than what can be seen in
modern day fashion. It does not address ecological issues and its focus is on market and production
(Zou, 2012). The past ten years especially have witnessed an increasing supply of Fast Fashion,
referring to an industry focused on low cost mass-production based on the latest trends, which
Figure 28: Domestic textile and apparel market Source: (Export Processing Zones Authority, 2005)
32
encourages consumers to purchase more than they need. Seasons are changing every six weeks rather
than the traditional two seasons per year. (Cataldi, Dickinson, & Glover, 2010). Thus we consume
sixty percent more clothes today than we did ten years ago. Allwood, Laursen, de Rodriguez &
Bocken (2006) states that “By the year 2000, around US$1 trillion was spent buying clothes around
the world. Currently, clothing and textiles represent about seven per cent of world exports. Output
volume is increasing, while prices are dropping, as new technology supports productivity.” These
clothes, once out of season, are either dumped or given away. According to the EPA, Americans
discarded 13.1 million tons of textiles in 2010. Of these, more than 11 million tons were dumped in
landfills across the country (Zou, 2012). Only 15% was reclaimed or recycled.
It is the view of Dalby (2010) that fashion is not vital. The author bases this observation on Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, where the physiological needs are at the base, and self-realization (in this case,
self-expression through clothes and accessories) at the top. Thus we must transform the way the
fashion industry conducts its business. Cradle-To-Cradle is presented as a mindset which consciously
focuses on not generating waste, instead entering everything into an eternal cycle of recirculation.
Farrer & Finn (2008) are of the opinion that “the concept of best-practice product management
from Cradle to Cradle has started to embed and is now better understood. However, there are few
reliable tools to measure the outcome of new practices, and results can be subjective.”
Three basic principles guide implementation of the Cradle to Cradle philosophy. The first is that
waste equals food; that everything is a nutrient for something else. Items considered to be waste are
input for a new cycle of production (McDonough & Braungart, 2002). The second is the use of
current solar income - a reliance on renewable energy sources that ultimately originate from the sun,
i.e. solar energy, wind energy, water and various innovative bio-based sources, provided that they do
not compete with food crops. The third is respect for diversity in all its forms, including biodiversity,
cultural diversity, and diversity of ideas and innovation to suit local conditions (Boer, van Heeswijk,
Heideveld, den Held, & Maatman, 2011). Humans have built up a variety of cultures across the
globe, but a tide of sameness is sweeping away these cultural details. McDonough & Braungart
(2002) declares that, “Respecting diversity in design means considering not only how a product is
made but how it is to be used, and by whom. In a Cradle to Cradle conception, it may have many
uses, and many users, over time and space.”(p. 139). Human systems and industries work when we
recognize that all sustainability is local (McDonough & Braungart, 2002, p. 123). The authors
advocate designing for ‘mass customization’, allowing products to be adapted to local tastes and
traditions without compromising the integrity of the product. In this respect, fashion and cosmetics
have been the trailblazers (McDonough & Braungart, 2002, p. 141).
33
This study will apply the third principle of the Cradle to Cradle concept by using a contemporary
Kenyan aesthetic reworked from traditional modes of wrapped Kenyan dressing. Other local
influences will include dyeing methods such as tie and dye and batik, as well as craft traditions such
as weaving patterns and jewelry techniques from the Kenyan peoples. The Cradle to Cradle mindset
will also be applied in the use of polyester fabrics, which has been expounded on below.
7.4.1 Use of Polyester
Decomposing clothing emits methane, a greenhouse gas which contributes substantially to global
warming. Dyes and chemicals in fabric and shoes leach into the soil, contaminating both surface
and groundwater (Zou, 2012). A Cradle-to-Cradle mindset considers the entire life cycle of the
product, not just from cradle to grave but from cradle to cradle. In this respect, polyester has
potential in its recyclability, seeing as growth in textile manufacture volumes is almost entirely
associated with polyester (Dalby, 2010). Polyester fiber is manufactured from a synthetic polymer in
which the polymer units are linked by ester groups (Vintage Fashion Guild, 2012). The spun fiber
makes a strong, relatively inexpensive fabric that is abrasion-resistant, fade resistant, wrinkle
resistant, insect resistant and mold resistant. The maintenance of polyester over its lifetime, in terms
of energy and water consumption, is of lower ecological impact than that of cotton. Polyester is
more stain-resistant, can be washed in cold water, dries quickly and does not require ironing.
Cotton, on the other hand, must be washed more frequently, in hot water to remove stains, and
easily loses its shape thus requires tumble drying (Activist, 2008). Polyester thus wears better than
cotton and lasts longer.
Since the source of polyester, petroleum, was widely available and inexpensive in the mid 1900's,
the fabric gained in popularity. However, it was thought to be uncomfortable and heat-retentive,
and the thriving cheap polyester suits and shirts with massive lapels hurt the image of the fabric.
Nonetheless, polyester has experienced revival with the advent of microfibers, which have led to an
increase in softness and wearability. Marketing campaigns have portrayed polyester as a wash and
go fabric (NY Fashion Information, 2012). Polyester has undergone a sly rehabilitation, helped
along by designers such as Rei Kawakubo of Commes des Garçons, Issey Miyake, Lanvin’s Alber
Elbaz and Louis Vuitton’s Marc Jacobs (Socha, 2008). The latter two made the fabric the focus of
their spring 2008 collections. The gauzy, light polyester that designers are using today is a far cry
from the stiff cardboard-like Dacron suits mass-marketed in 1954. Recent improvements in the
synthetic fiber have made polyester lighter, thinner and more delicate (Passariello & Dodes, 2008).
Elbaz (as cited in Socha, 2008) wished to create dresses and coats that could “fly away,” and
polyester “felt so soft and familiar, yet so new”. He explains that clients thought it was washed silk.
Jacobs loves the “radiance to the color” not achievable with natural fibers, and “a roundness in
34
polyester that you can’t achieve in natural fabrics unless they’re really heavy.” Consumers who once
thumbed their noses at polyester now consider the fabric chic, with the general consensus that if
Lanvin uses it, then it's cool (Passariello & Dodes, 2008).
Teijin, a Japanese polyester supplier, offers Ecocycle, a program that allows polyester garments to
be recycled into a new polymer that is indistinguishable from virgin polyester (Nordic Initiative,
Clean and Ethical, 2009). Teijin produces 7000 tons of recycled polyester from used polyester
clothing annually. The first stage involves breaking down clothing into fragments as small as a grain
of rice. These fragments are then treated with chemicals and heat to remove coloring, buttons, zips
and other foreign objects. This is to produce the basic ingredient for polyester, dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT). This is then made into thread that gets spun into polyester fabric. Most of
Teijin’s recycled fabric, however, is used for work clothes and uniforms rather than for exclusive
fashion garments (Recycling International, 2008). Such innovation in textile recycling makes it
worthwhile to use the fabric in garment construction, in anticipation of the availability of such
technology and opportunities in the near future.
7.4.1.1 Identifying polyester
The majority of fabrics in the Kenyan market do not have care labels identifying their fiber content.
To determine this without special chemicals or microscopes, the ‘burn test’ is a simple, non-
technical method. Characteristics under observation include whether the fibers melt or burn, if they
shrink from the flame, the type of odor emitted, the characteristics of the smoke and the
appearance of the residue fibers. Since the yarns in the warp are not always the same as those in the
weft, they should be burned separately (Fabric Link, 2010). A sample of about 1" to 1-1/2" long by
1/8"-1/4" wide is appropriate for this test. A sheet of aluminum foil about 10 to 12 inches square
can be used as a protected working area, to allow the person testing the sample to drop it onto the
foil if it ignites. One end of the sample is held with tweezers or two coins, and ignited. Polyester
burns briefly with a spluttering orange flame, while emitting black smoke and a sweet chemical
odor. It drips and self-extinguishes, leaving a hard, black, round bead (Fiber Images, 2012). This
process, however, has some limitations. If the fabric contains a blend of fibers, identification of
individual fibers can be difficult. Two or three different kinds of fibers burned together in one yarn
may also be difficult to distinguish. Finishes used on the fabric can also change the observed
characteristics (Fabric Link, 2010).
35
7.5 Conclusion
Based on the literature examined above, the concepts of the contemporary Kenyan aesthetic and the
Cradle to Cradle theory can be effectively integrated to design clothing and accessories for young
professionals in Kenya. The use of modern light and gauzy polyester based fabrics may be used to
effectually model the traditionally wrapped forms of African garments. Oduok (2011) suggests that
African fashion designers “must no longer be content with just saying they are African designers
because they design with “African” fabrics. They must be innovative, educate themselves and elevate
their crafts so they can compete and be taken seriously globally. In line with this vision, the
researcher can use the contemporary Kenyan aesthetic and a Cradle to Cradle approach to
differentiate fashion products for young professionals in Kenya.
36
CHAPTER THREE
Research Methodology
37
8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
8.1 Overview
The study will be in the form of applied research, for the purpose of enhancing the understanding of
a phenomenon (Kumar, 2005), in this case the application of the contemporary Kenyan aesthetic to
fashion for young professionals. The investigation will be qualitative in nature, emphasizing words
rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data (Bryman, 2004). It will also be
descriptive, its purpose being to “portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations
(Robson, 2002, as quoted in Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2009), specifically a description of the
application of the contemporary Kenyan aesthetic in fashion.
8.2 Research Design
Based on the number of contacts, the study will be a cross-sectional study, best suited to studies
aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by taking
a cross section of the population (Kumar, 2005). Cross-sectional studies are useful in obtaining an
overall ‘picture’ as it stands at the time of the study, cross-sectional with regard to both the study
population and time of investigation. As cross-sectional studies involve only one contact with the
study population, they are comparatively cheap to undertake and easy to analyze (Kumar, 2005).
8.3 Population and Sample
In qualitative research, the issue of sampling has little significance as the main aim of most qualitative
inquiries is either to explore or describe the diversity in a situation, phenomenon or issue (Kumar,
2005). The author is of the opinion that “a study based on information obtained from one individual,
or undertaken to describe one event or situation is perfectly valid”. Qualitative researchers usually
neither work with populations large enough to make random sampling meaningful, nor is their
purpose that of producing generalizations (Glesne, 2006). Purposive sampling is thus employed. For
this paper, this is in form of convenience sampling; where cases are selected on the basis of
convenience (Glesne, 2006).To inform this study, a sample of eight is obtained from young
professionals in Nairobi, as convenient to the researcher. This is a non-probability sampling method
which may not be representative of the whole population (Trochim, 2006), but provides an
inexpensive approximation of the truth. A disadvantage of purposive sampling as well is that samples
are not easily defensible as being representative of populations due to potential subjectivity of
researcher (Black, 1999).
8.4 Data Collection
Data collection procedures include observation, interviewing, written documents and audiovisual
material. Observation is non-participant, where the researcher does not get involved in the activities
38
of the group but remains a passive observer, drawing conclusions from this (Kumar, 2005). The
researcher will observe the mode of dress of the respondents during the interviews. Observations will
then be recorded by use of descriptive notes and photographs.
Unstructured interviews will be conducted to obtain information from the respondents. In an
unstructured interview the researcher uses a brief set of prompts to deal with a certain topic. The
interviewee is allowed to respond freely, while the interviewer responds to points that seem worthy
of being followed up (Bryman, 2004). Secondary sources in the form of documents will also be used
to obtain information. These will include documents in visual form (such as photographs), official
documents deriving from private sources (such as documents provided by organizations), mass
media reports and virtual outputs such as internet resources (Bryman, 2004), as well as earlier
research (Kumar, 2005). As a research resource, photographs will not be taken at face value; it is
necessary to have considerable knowledge of social context (Bryman, 2004). Audiovisual material
such as interviews with people directly involved in the fashion industry will also be used to obtain in-
depth information about the topic at hand.
Data collection
method
Tool to be used Advantages Limitations
Non-participant
observation/
Complete observation
Observation guide
Useful in exploring
topics that may be
uncomfortable for
participants to discuss
When individuals
become aware that
they are being
observed, they may
change their behavior
(Kumar, 2005)
Increased possibility of
observer bias
Unstructured personal
interviewing
Interview guide in
form of prompts
The interview process
is flexible, and allows
exploration of topics
likely to be important
to the study (Bryman,
2004)
Useful for collecting
in-depth information
(Kumar, 2005)
Provides ‘indirect’
information filtered
through the views of
interviewees (Creswell,
1994)
Time consuming and
expensive
39
Written documents Taking of notes Can be accessed at a
time convenient to the
researcher (Creswell,
1994)
Provides information
on the topic of
research that has
already been recorded
Requires the researcher
to spend time
searching for relevant
documents (Creswell,
1994)
Validity of information
may vary from source
to source (Kumar,
2005)
Watching audiovisual
material
Transcribing May be an unobtrusive
method of collecting
data
Provides an
opportunity for the
informant to share
directly his/her reality
(Creswell, 1994)
May not be available
publicly or privately
(Creswell, 1994)
8.5 Data Analysis
Photographs may be said to have three roles: illustrative, to clarify points; as data, that is, as part of
field notes; and as prompts, to entice people to talk about what is represented in them (Bryman,
2004). In the case of a descriptive study, data collected using methods mentioned above undergoes
content analysis on the basis of field notes (Kumar, 2005). The grounded theory framework is also
employed to analyze data: this is where data collection and analysis proceed in tandem, repeatedly
referring back to each other. One tool of the grounded theory is theoretical sampling, whereby the
analyst collects, codes and analyzes data while deciding what data to collect next, in order to develop
his theory as it emerges (Bryman, 2004). Coding, as another tool of the grounded theory is also used.
Here transcripts or field notes are reviewed and component parts seeming to be of potential
theoretical significance given labels (Bryman, 2004). Charmaz (as cited in Bryman, 2009) affirms that
“codes serve as shorthand devices to label, separate, compile and organize data”.
8.6 Data Presentation
Qualitative procedures end with some comments about the narrative that emerge from the data
analysis (Creswell, 1994). Qualitative research narratives employed by the researcher present
information in text or image forms such as photographs. The narratives take the form of a realist tale
40
which is a direct matter-of-fact portrait without information about how the field worker produced
the portrait.
8.7 Summary
Collection of Data Recording of Data Analysis of Data Presentation of Data
Non-participant
observation/ Complete
observation
Taking of descriptive
notes
Taking of photographs
Content analysis
Narrative
Photographs
Unstructured personal
interviewing
Taking of descriptive
notes
Coding Narrative
Written documents Taking of notes Content analysis
Coding
Theoretical sampling
Photographs
Narrative
Watching audiovisual
material
Transcribing Coding
Theoretical sampling
Transcribed notes
Narrative
8.8 Limitations
Cross-sectional studies involve only one contact with the study population, therefore, they cannot
measure change. To measure change it is necessary to have at least two cross-sectional studies, at two
points in time, on the same population (Kumar, 2005).
Since qualitative research is unstructured and often reliant upon the qualitative researcher’s ingenuity,
it is almost impossible to conduct a true replication, due to the lack of standard procedures to be
followed (Bryman, 2004).
Due to limitations in time and resources, the researcher is not able to sample a larger population of
young Kenyan professionals.
41
CHAPTER FOUR
Design Process
42
9 DESIGN PROCESS
9.1 Introduction
This paper will for the most part adopt the design process for fashion products as defined by
Hopkins (2011) and McKelvey & Munslow (2012). Other guidelines are obtained from Sarkar (2011),
Baytar (2012), Folake Folarin-Coker’s interview with Ndani TV (2012), and from the Elizabeth Sence
School of Fashion (2012).
9.2 Overview
Fashion is an industry that thrives on change, meaning that industry players are consistently creating
new products. The field therefore involves a strong creative and design component (Baytar, 2012).
Fashion design comprises four elements: color, fabric (in terms of texture and pattern), shape (or
silhouette) and style (in terms of the overall look). Color and shape (or silhouette) form the basis for
the client’s first response, while fabric forms the designer’s medium. Style is created by way of
construction and may draw its influence from past fashion trends. These elements are combined in
line with general principles of design such as balance, proportion, repetition, emphasis and harmony
to create fashion products (Baytar, 2012).
Design as an internal creative process entails 5 stages: defining the problem, understanding it,
thinking about it, developing the idea and detailing and testing the design (Studd). The fashion
designer plays a pivotal role throughout the design process in ensuring that clothes or accessories
designed are suitable for the target market. This design process can be divided into four broad
categories: research, design development, manufacture and retail. These steps are further expounded
on below.
9.3 Developing a collection
A collection may be considered an assortment of garments, accessories or associated products, linked
through a combination of factors such as season, prevailing silhouette, color scheme, fabric story or
specific manufacturing process (Hopkins, 2011). The end product offers a coherent presentation of
ideas translated into designs. The Collins English Dictionary (2003), in relation to clothing and
fashion, defines the word capsule as “consisting of a few important representative items”. Hopkins
(2011) explains that a capsule collection refers to a collection that is smaller in size than a
commercially produced collection, but which offers a breadth of designs across different product
categories such as skirts, trousers, outerwear, knitwear and tops. Capsule collections include six or
more outfits defined by a concept or theme. Collections are presented to buyers or the press, either
privately or in an external environment such as a trade show.
43
Preparing a collection presents designers with a series of critical decisions meant to ensure overall
balance. Hopkins (2011) defines this balance as the “product assortment” and the “visual look” of
the collection, as well as “the relationship between the garments”. This paper will discuss the process
of designing a collection as divided into seven stages: analyzing the brief, research, sketching, line
planning and range building, pattern development, production and presentation.
9.3.1 Analyzing the brief
At this stage, the designer identifies the project and defines the client. Subjects to be addressed here
include the season for which the designer is designing, deadlines, timetables, budget, shop reports,
special considerations, fabric story, color story, silhouette, details, pattern and texture (McKelvey &
Munslow, 2012). These matters may or may not be addressed in the design brief. Sometimes the
designer may decide to develop a collection for marketing exposure. In this case, there is no
conventional project brief. It is supplanted by the designer’s inspiration and vision; what look they
would like to achieve within the collection.
9.3.2 Research
Folake Folarin-Coker of Tiffany Amber admits to doing research for at least one month before
shows to ensure the output of a cohesive collection, an art which takes fashion designers years to
master (Ndani TV, 2012). Fashion is subject to external influences and perceptual changes in society.
The fashion industry is also guided by commercial priorities and economic constraints. Creativity
must be balanced with the needs of the target market and the realities of team work (Hopkins, 2011).
This guides the research approach adopted by designers. Research may be defined as either primary
or secondary. Primary research means original sources or material collected by the designer e.g.
observational sketches or the shape of a building. This may be applied directly to the design or
tweaked to suit the designer’s sensibilities. McKelvey & Munslow (2012) states that primary research
ranges from “qualitative research and market intelligence” to “observation, inspiration, and intuitive
judgment”. Secondary research refers to the use of previously published images or text, forecasting
publications, or sources such as magazines (Hopkins, 2011). Fabric research may be carried out on
the internet, by attending fabric fairs and visiting fabric shops, and by word of mouth as well. Color
research may be inspired by natural objects, art movements and trend forecasts. Patterns and prints
also need to be considered in accordance to the overall color scheme. Other sources of inspiration
include vintage garments, film, television and media, photography, street style, travel, architecture,
utilitarian themes and muses (personalities who capture a spirit, mood or look) (Hopkins, 2011).
Information obtained is recorded by visually mapping ideas, connections and thoughts, to assist in
inspiring designs from theme to final detail (McKelvey & Munslow, 2012). Both primary and
secondary research is used during the design process. Thus this phase also includes
44
conceptualization; forming the origin of ideas for the actual products. The designer works on the
mood board, theme board, color palette, trends (Sarkar, 2011). The mood board is a visual summary
of inspiration, concept, colors and fabrics and shapes.
9.3.3 Sketching
After research comes the generation of ideas. This is done by way of sketching proposed garment
and/or print designs. Each garment must have individual styling, though it may be similar to other
garments in the line (Elizabeth Sence School of Fashion, 2012). The sketches also reflect the
prevailing silhouette and color stories. It is at this stage that the designer draws on their sources of
inspiration. Most designers initially sketch designs by hand. Computer-aided design (CAD) software
is increasingly being used to translate the hand sketches to the computer. Using CAD software allows
designers to view designs on virtual models, in different colors and shapes. When sketching, the
designer must be aware of the need for good taste, proportion, good fit and effective use of the
qualities inherent in the fabric (Elizabeth Sence School of Fashion, 2012). Sketchbooks must show
evidence of originality in form of primary research and experimentation. This is a continuous process
beginning with doodles, brainstorms, inspiration and sketches, and eventually clothing design.
Updating and maintaining the sketchbook as a way of documenting and recording the process of
developing a collection helps the designer with personal planning and reflection (Wallis, as cited in
Hopkins, 2011).
9.3.4 Line planning and range building
Line planning and range building are crucial for fashion merchandisers who consult with designers
and buyers. A collection must put into consideration the target market, season, price and product
assortment. Line planning entails an evaluation of the previous season’s sales by designers,
merchandisers and buyers. Best-seller styles are assessed, and style as well and fabric modification
discussed. This is referred to as a ‘carry-forward” style (Hopkins, 2011), due to the fact that it is
carried forward as part of a new collection or offered in different fabric or color. Services from
professional trend forecasting companies like WGSN and Trendstop are utilized in this stage. Market
research may also be conducted to confirm other directions and gauge competitors. Sample fabrics
are obtained to test and create first samples. Before shows, Folake Folarin-Coker obtains fabric
samples, does the fitting for them and then chooses the preferred ones (Ndani TV, 2012).
9.3.5 Pattern development
Sketches in the approved style are selected, and developed into flat patterns to prepare for actual
production. The number of sketches chosen depends on the type of garment, price range, method of
distribution (Elizabeth Sence School of Fashion, 2012). Patterns are made in every size offered by the
company, for example, sizes 6-16 for women. Initially the pattern is drafted in a regular size 10 or 12,
45
then graded upwards or downwards to make the other required pieces. In a commercial process, this
is followed by the creation of economical layouts for various widths of fabric, for each particular size.
9.3.6 Production
Once the patterns have been developed the designer produces a toile. This is the first version of a
design transferred to a fabric such as calico or cotton muslin to test a pattern (Hopkins, 2011). It is
made to enable the designer to go over aspects of the design such as fit, cut and shape before cutting
up expensive fabric. The toile is then assessed and then adjusted or corrected if necessary before the
first sample is made in the final fabric. These prototype samples are presented on models to be
evaluated for cost, production requirements, merchandise options and overall styling (Hopkins,
2011). Once the prototype samples have been approved, definite production begins. Garments are
stitched together and finished appropriately. They are then pressed and checked for quality,
eliminating aspects such as hanging thread. Labels and tags are then attached in readiness for sale.
Costing and pricing functions are then carried out. Hopkins (2011) defines cost as “the monetary
value that is expended to produce a product or service”, and price as “the revenue that is collected
from the customer who purchases the product or service”. In fashion, price is an indicator of quality,
and equals the sum of cost and profit. All costs associated with producing a finished sample are taken
into account. These include fabrics, linings and trimmings such as buttons, zips and thread.
9.3.7 Presentation
Designers seek validation for their work from presenting the collection in a fashion show, lookbook,
exhibition and portfolio. The lookbook is a visual press release of the designer’s signature pieces,
shown to journalists, stylists, prospective and current clients. It vital piece of promotional material,
containing photographs and/or montages of models wearing the fashion products contained in the
collection. Producing a fashion show involves planning the budget, seeking sponsors, space,
advertising, music, choreography, lighting and décor, as well as casting and booking models. It
provides a platform for marketing and networking; to present and sell merchandise to an invited
audience, while promoting the image and standing of a company (Hopkins, 2011).
9.4 Conclusion
Gaining greater understanding of the nature of fashion products, and the process of product
development, leads effectiveness in targeting specific market segments; thereby satisfying some of the
most basic needs within the society. A well designed collection combines the right fabric, right cut
and right trimmings, and can be sold for the right price with the right margin of profit (Elizabeth
Sence School of Fashion, 2012). Though the design process may vary by specialty, in general, it takes
6 months from initial design concept to final production.
46
Therefore, in designing fashion for young professionals, it is important to have a clear customer
profile in mind to facilitate proper branding, the pillar of any fashion venture. A Cradle to Cradle
mindset is injected in form of fabrics used. Colors also tend to be earthy, with the palette drawn from
reds, browns and oranges. Silhouettes tend to be based on traditional African forms of dress, but
incorporating Western styles. A combination of most or all of these factors gives rise to an Kenyan-
themed collection.
Figure 24: A summary of the fashion design process. Source: http://design.iub.edu
47
CHAPTER FIVE
Findings
48
10 FINDINGS
10.1 Introduction
Following the main objective of the study, to investigate how a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic may
be applied in tandem with Cradle to Cradle design in fashion for young professionals in Kenya, the
researcher conducted a cross-sectional study. The study was qualitative in nature, aimed at describing
the general opinion on clothing by young professionals in Kenya. The non-probability method of
convenience sampling was employed, whereby a sample of eight young professionals was drawn at
the researcher’s convenience, from within Nairobi. This sampling technique was chosen since the
main aim of the study was to explore and describe the opinions on a particular issue. Convenience
sampling offered an inexpensive approximation of the truth, despite the fact that it was not
necessarily representative of the whole population.
Data collection procedures included non-participant observation, interviewing, written documents
and audiovisual material. Observations were recorded by use of descriptive notes, as was information
obtained from written documents such as photographs, mass media reports and internet resources.
Audiovisual material, such as interviews with people involved in the fashion industry, was transcribed
and then coded to be analyzed. All data collected underwent content analysis on the basis of field
notes. The grounded theory framework was employed. Data collection and analysis proceeded in
tandem, repeatedly referring back to each other. The information thus collected is presented in the
form of a narrative, a direct matter-of-fact portrait without information about how the researcher
produced the portrait. The narrative will describe the researcher’s observations regarding the manner
in which the interviewees were dressed, as well as the respondent’s views on clothing and Kenyan
fashion in general.
The end objective of the study was to propose ways in which a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic may
be applied in designing fashion for young professionals in Kenya. The findings are described below.
10.2 Presentation of findings
Out of the eight respondents interviewed, two were aged between 20 and 24 years, three were aged
between 25 and 29 years, two between 30 and 34, and one between 35 and 39. Their occupations,
listed in no particular order, were banking, auditing, Information and Communication Technology
(ICT), insurance, design and research. Four of the respondents had attained post-graduate education,
while three were university graduates. Four earned between Ksh. 26 000 and Ksh. 50 000, two
between Ksh. 51 000 and Ksh. 75 000, and two between Ksh. 76 000 and Ksh. 100 000.
49
The interviewees invariably described their dressing style as comfortable. This factor was, however,
influenced by other factors. The respondents in the more formal occupations such as banking,
auditing and insurance, named codes at the workplace as an additional influence on what they chose
to wear. Those in occupations with less stringent dress codes such as design and research cited
fashion and trends as an influence on their style. Those who cited trends as an influence sourced
ideas from internet blogs, magazines and fashion channels on television. Neutrality and decency were
of particular importance to two respondents, who gained comfort from not looking to stand out.
Two respondents cited simplicity as key in deciding what to wear, while stressing that despite being
simple, the outfit had to be well thought out from head to toe. They also explained that they felt that
their looks were stylish and reflective of personal style, trendy all the while not blatant adaptations of
what was in fashion at the time. The designer was the only interviewee to classify her look as ethnic
and stylish.
All the respondents believed that the way they dressed had an impact on their success at the
workplace. This was explained in two ways. The first was that being smart meant that people took
you more seriously and were prepared to hear what you had to say. First impressions count. The way
one presents themselves is the way people perceive them and judge them. Ladies will go out of their
way to look good due to the need to be appreciated. This ideal holds until colleagues begin to work
with the individual. Then the individual is able to prove their skills and competence at the workplace.
The second explanation was that being smart meant being confident; this translated into success at
the workplace. With confidence, an individual is more likely to take additional career risks. This will
almost invariably lead to greater success. One respondent expounded on the effect that
uncomfortable clothing had on the workday. If a lady dresses in too short a skirt, too low a neckline,
or too outrageous a hairstyle, they end up being self-conscious the entire day and cannot wait to get
rid of the offending piece of clothing. This is why comfort and decency are essential.
The interviewees offered differing opinions on what they considered Kenyan fashion. The only
consistent viewpoint offered was that the country’s style draws too much influence from Western
culture. Young professionals, particularly, look to American and European fashion shows, events and
styling as a source of inspiration for the way they dress. Kenyan fashion is diverse and dynamic. It
keeps changing according to what is in style in Nairobi and abroad. Thus what one wears is either
cheap and fashionable, or expensive and fashionable. Shopping choices are inspired by what is seen
on the streets, on television and on the internet. They are also influenced by age, purchasing power
and personal taste. Some of the interviewees felt that Kenyan fashion has in the recent past been
defined by the use of the kanga and the kitenge. This is reflected on shoes, clothing and jewelry. The
50
newfound appreciation for these fabrics cuts across all cultures and social classes. Being trendy
means that one has at least one outfit in kanga, kitenge or perhaps kikoi.
Interviewing the respondents on their knowledge on the Kenyan national dress provoked a series of
varied answers. The first response on asking for their opinion on it evoked the question, “Does it still
exist?” Most of the respondents could not remember its features, or even how it looked. One
respondent was not even aware of its existence. The respondents felt that the outfit was not
interesting, and needed more creative design. One explained that she felt that the design was too
sophisticated for the average mwananchi, thus it couldn’t pick up. Another felt that the garments
picked represented neither the Kenyan people nor their culture. The driving force behind the idea
was a good intention, but it lacked the public’s support. The design team did not extensively consult
the typical mwananchi. Thus the process resulted in an elitist design that was out of touch with the
reach and reality of the public. One respondent went into detail about what she viewed as the flaws
of the design. She felt that the design did not take into consideration all the Kenyan women. The
design chosen tended to flatter slender or model size silhouettes only, effectively locking out the
more voluptuous women. It also flattered small-busted women only, and would look absolutely
ghastly on those who were more endowed. The interviewee compared the outfit to the Ugandan
gomesi, which is worn with a sash around the waist. The gomesi flatters all who wear it, be they
slender or voluptuous. In addition to this, national dress was targeted at a particular clientele, those in
the urban areas, inadvertently alienating those in the rural areas. Those in charge of the process
should have looked for another way for the public to voice their opinions, alternative to the SMS
voting which they opted for. In 2004, only a few people owned mobile phones. The design team
would also have done better to look into the use of kitenge which was already popular at the time.
The respondents were quite ambivalent on the idea of creating identity through dress. All of them
believed, in differing degrees, in creating identity through dress. One is defined by what they wear.
What one chooses to dress in, acts as a mirror of one’s self. The way one puts together an outfit also
reflects and brings out one’s creativity. Through the way one dresses, one must strive to accentuate
the female body and show off their best features. People judge one by their dress code. Who you are
as a person will be exhibited on the outside. Through the way one dresses, one may also project an
identity that is not really their own. Sometimes people dress to fit the context, for example, the way
one would dress when going out clubbing is not the way one would dress when going upcountry to
visit one’s in-laws. Branding by way of style is also possible. When this happens, we associate
particular styles with particular people. An example that was given was the elaborate headgear
associated with Orie Rogo Manduli. In addition to this, it is easier to stick to the style that one has
cultivated for purposes of convenience. It was noted, however, that the matter of creating identity,
51
through the way one dresses, is well and good, but cannot be strictly enforced since it is rather
expensive.
The young professionals interviewed admitted to shopping at different outlets depending on the
need, and available disposable income. When in need of items such as sweaters and jackets, they
visited markets such as Ngara, Toi Market and Kenyatta Market. Some explained that they preferred
to shop at second-hand stalls and thrift stores in town since they were more likely to obtain trendy
items here. Shoes were purchased from exhibitions and shops like Jade Collection and Bata, as well
as second hand markets once in a while. With an increase in clothing budget, the respondents
preferred to shop at outlets such as Mr. Price, as opposed to thrift stores. Once in a while, the
respondents would buy fabric, usually kitenge, kikoi or kanga, and take it to a tailor to stitch into a
garment.
The researcher also employed the tool of non-participant observation, noting what the respondents
were wearing during the interviews. From this, the researcher noted that the professionals in the
more formal occupations such as banking, auditing and insurance preferred to dress in neutral colors
such as white, black, cream, brown, blue and grey. Generally cool colors were preferred. These
respondents also preferred minimum print on their clothing, going for solid colors and subtle plaid
instead. Those in the less formal occupations such as design and research were more experimental in
terms of color. Colors observed amongst these individuals included bright canary yellow, royal
purple, fire-engine red and electric blue. These individuals also appeared to be more receptive to
print, and the researcher observed floral as well as graphic prints.
Three out of the eight respondents were wearing jeans and a top, one was wearing a dress, two were
wearing pant suits and two were wearing skirt suits. In the case of the dress and skirt suits, the skirts
were all knee-length. The silhouette was form fitting across the board. None of the respondents was
wearing loosely fitted clothing. The fabrics were mostly synthetic or a blend of natural and synthetic
fibers. It was however, not possible to identify the particular fibers.
All the respondents wore or carried at least one accessory. Each interviewee wore at least one pair of
earrings, and carried either a purse or a handbag. Gold studs were most common. Only two
respondents wore rings, four wore a neckpiece and four wore an adornment at the wrist. Six out of
eight wore some form of hair accessory, the most common being bobbin pins and Mary Jane bows.
Hair accessories were more of functional than decorative. Five respondents were wearing closed
pumps with a heel, one was wearing strappy heels and two were wearing flat pumps. It was noted
that those in the more formal occupations such as banking, auditing and insurance dressed more
formally than those in the creative occupations.
52
10.3 Limitations of the study
It was the intention of the researcher to record visual observations regarding the interviewees’ form
of dress by the use of both narrative and photographs. The use of photographs was dispensed of by
the researcher since the respondents were not entirely comfortable with the idea. To protect the
anonymity and privacy of the respondents, the researcher opted to solely use a descriptive narrative
to present the information obtained from the interviewees.
Since the study was cross-sectional in nature, it involved only one contact with the study population.
Therefore, change in the opinions of the respondents cannot be measured. To measure change, at
least two cross-sectional studies, on the same population would be required, at two points in time.
It was the intention of the researcher to present data obtained from written documents in the form
of photographs and a narrative. The researcher obtained this information but chose to include it in
the second chapter, the review of literature. Information obtained from audiovisual material was
meant to be presented in form of transcribed notes and narrative. This information was similarly
included in the second chapter.
Due to limitations in time and resources, the researcher was not able to sample a larger population of
young Kenyan professionals. The sample was based on the convenience of the researcher, and was
therefore not representative of the whole population.
10.4 Summary
Based on the findings presented above, it may be concluded that young professionals draw loads of
influence on what they wear from Western trends. They do not base what they wear on their own
cultural heritage, partly due to ignorance, and partly due to the idea that it is not trendy enough for
them. Another mitigating factor is the cost of clothes manufactured in Kenya. The respondents do
not see the need to buy made-in-Kenya, which is expensive and considered rather drab, as opposed
to that which is imported and second-hand, which is cheaper and trendier.
Virtually no thought exists as to the disposal of textiles at the end of their life cycle. Consumers buy
new clothes depending on how fashionable they are, paying no mind to their impact throughout their
life cycle and at the end of it.
There lies potential in the use of kanga or kitenge as a national symbol or dress, since the mwananchi
can already relate to it.
53
CHAPTER SIX
Recommendations
54
11 RECOMMENDATIONS
11.1 Introduction
The end objective of the study was to propose ways in which a contemporary Kenyan aesthetic may
be applied in designing fashion for young professionals in Kenya. The researcher’s recommendations
are discussed below.
11.2 Recommendations
As narrated in the findings, young professionals in Kenya use current trends as the main determinant
of their clothing choices. Cultural heritage is also largely ignored, with young people preferring to
dress in Western styles and cuts, rather than adaptations of what was traditionally Kenyan. Little or
no attention is paid to the environmental implications of the purchasing decisions they make in
homage to fashion. This phenomenon is fast creating a culture of fast fashion in Kenya. This trend
must be reversed before it becomes a huge problem, like it is in the UK. Kenyan consumers should
be made more aware of the implications of their purchasing decisions, and encouraged to be more
responsible. It is the responsibility of the designers to get the concept of sustainability out there.
It is recommended that fashion designers who design clothes and accessories for young professionals
in Kenya source inspiration from traditional Kenyan garments and ornamentation. This would have
to be an innately creative undertaking, since these ideas have to be executed in a way that is
fashionable enough for the young crowd. The interpretation should not be literal; rather, traditional
forms should be blended with Western styles to create a contemporary collection. The intrinsically
Kenyan and unifying aesthetic of garments wrapped or draped across the body then comes into play.
Further inspiration for a collection that would be considered contemporary Kenyan may come from
the elaborate and sophisticated ornamentation that formed part of outfits from all Kenyan
communities. The result of such an initiative would be a collection representative of and honoring
Kenyan history.
Fabric crafts such as weaving, crocheting, embroidery, knitting, and macramé may be adapted into
contemporary forms and silhouettes. Fabrics manufactured in Kenya have long employed dyeing
methods such as tie and dye and batik, an influence which should be retained to produce psychedelic
patterns on fabric. Traditional weaving patterns from communities such as the Kamba and Kikuyu
may be incorporated into accessories such as bags, belts and jewelry for young professionals, as may
beading techniques from communities such as the Maasai and Turkana.
55
The contemporary Kenyan aesthetic thus conceived should be used in sync with the Cradle to Cradle
theory generate fashion for young professionals in Kenya. A Cradle-to-Cradle mindset considers the
entire life cycle of the product, not just from cradle to grave but from cradle to cradle. The researcher
suggests the use of polyester fabrics. The spun fiber is strong and relatively inexpensive. It is also
abrasion-resistant, stain resistant, fade resistant, wrinkle resistant, insect resistant and mold resistant.
The maintenance of polyester in its life cycle is of lower environmental impact than that of cotton in
terms of energy and water consumption. It can be washed in cold water, dries quickly and does not
require ironing. Cotton, on the other hand, must be washed more frequently, in hot water to remove
stains, and wrinkles easily. Polyester wears better than cotton and lasts longer. It can also be recycled
at the end of its life cycle to near-virgin quality.
11.3 Suggestion for further study
Due to limitations in time and finances, as well as the breadth of the topic at hand, the researcher
was not able to comprehensively cover all aspects of the study. There is room for further research
that would weigh in on literature available on this expansive topic at present. The researcher suggests
the following areas for further study.
In the quest to create Kenyan national dress, the design team should study success stories and try to
replicate the same to Kenya. For example, why is it that virtually every Ugandan woman can relate to
the gomesi? Why are the Nigerians always so proud to wear the buba, and South Africans the madiba
shirt? Aspects such as relevance to the community should also be studied. The North African
djellaba, for example, features a baggy hood that protects the wearer from the sun, and can be used
as a defense against wind and sand. It is made of either cotton (for summer) or coarse wool (for
winter). Sometimes the hood is used as a pocket; it can fit even loaves of bread! The garment is
unisex, and since it covers the entire body, it is acceptable to the Islamic culture prevalent in the
North African region. Any proposal put forward regarding the Kenyan national dress would
therefore attempt to replicate the success of any of these African national dresses.
Further study should be conducted into how the Kenyan fashion and textiles industry can be made
more sustainable. A Cradle to Cradle system would be beneficial to the environment, since it would
altogether eliminate waste from the system. It would be constructive to study the Cradle to Cradle
model to come up with practical solutions as to how the concept may be successfully applied to the
Kenyan fashion and textile industry.
56
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13 APPENDICES
13.1 Interview guide
Age 20 - 24 Occupation
25 - 29
30 – 34
35 - 39
Level of education
Primary Secondary College/University Post-graduate
Salary bracket
Below Ksh. 25 000 Ksh. 26 000-Ksh. 50 000 Ksh. 51 000-Ksh. 75 000
Ksh. 76 000-Ksh. 100 000 Above Ksh. 100 000
1. Describe your dressing style. What influences it? (e.g. Comfort, fashion, codes at the
workplace etc.)
2. Do you believe that the way you dress has an impact on your success at the work place?
Explain.
3. In your opinion, what may be defined as Kenyan fashion?
4. What is your opinion on the Kenyan national dress?
5. Do you believe in creating identity through dress? Explain.
6. Where do you shop for clothes?
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13.2 Observation guide
Type of outfit
Suit (Specify if pant or skirt suit)
Blouse and skirt/pants (If skirt, specify length)
Dress (Specify length)
Other (Specify)
Description
Fabric (Natural/Synthetic: If possible, identify particular fabric)
Colors (Specify as per item of clothing)
Prints (If any)
Silhouette (Loosely fitted/ Form fitting: Specify as per item of clothing)
Accessories
Earrings (Studs/Dangling, etc.)
Bracelet/Cuff/Other adornment at wrist/arm
Neckpiece
Rings
Hair accessory (Clip, pins, hair comb or other)
Purse/Handbag (Specify size)
Shoes (Sandals/Heels/Flat pumps, etc.)