contextual material on maori and socio-economic issues in ... · contextual material on maori and...
TRANSCRIPT
- 3 FEB 2006
Ministry of J'ustice WELLINGTON
Wai 1130 # A57
Contextual Material on Maori and
Socio-Economic Issues in the National
Park Inquiry District, 1890 - 1990:
A Scoping Report
Leanne Boulton
February 2006
Commissioned by the Waitangi Tribunal for the National Park
District Inquiry (Wai 1130)
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................7
1. AUTHOR .......................................................................................................................................7
2. THE COMMISSION .......................................................................................................................7
3. METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................................8
A) GEOGRAPHICAL COVERAGE OF THE REPORT ..............................................................................8
B) SOURCES AND SCOPING TECHNIQUE ...........................................................................................9
C) STATISTICAL RESEARCH ..............................................................................................................9
4. CLAIMANT ISSUES .....................................................................................................................10
4.1. GENERAL PREJUDICE SUFFERED .............................................................................................10
4.2. ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES.....................................................................................................10
4.3. LIVING STANDARDS AND SOCIAL SERVICES ...........................................................................14
5. STRUCTURE OF THIS REPORT...................................................................................................15
PART 1: MAORI POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS ..................................18
1.1 MAORI SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN AND AROUND THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY
DISTRICT........................................................................................................................................19
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................19
1.1.2 SOURCES FOR IDENTIFYING SETTLEMENTS AND TOWNSHIPS ...............................................19
1.1.3 SOURCES DISCUSSING FACTORS INFLUENCING MAORI SETTLEMENT PATTERNS ................23
1.1.4 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................25
1.2 MAORI POPULATION TRENDS FOR THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT ...................25
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................25
1.2.2 NATIONAL TRENDS IN MAORI POPULATION .........................................................................26
1.2.3 MAORI POPULATION WITHIN THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT...............................26
1.2.4 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................42
PART 2: ECONOMIC AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR MAORI ..............44
2.1 CUSTOMARY RESOURCE USE.................................................................................................45
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................45
3
2.1.2 IDENTIFYING CUSTOMARY RESOURCES AND THEIR USE IN THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY
DISTRICT, 1890 - 1990....................................................................................................................45
2.1.3 THE IMPACT OF CROWN REGULATION ON CUSTOMARY RESOURCES USE IN THE NATIONAL
PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT, 1890 - 1900...........................................................................................50
2.1.4 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................52
2.2 FARMING..................................................................................................................................53
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................53
2.2.2 MAORI HORTICULTURE .........................................................................................................53
2.2.3 MAORI SHEEP FARMING.........................................................................................................61
2.2.4 MAORI WAGE LABOURING ON FARMS IN THE REGION.........................................................68
2.2.5 DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES & FARM SETTLEMENTS................................................................70
2.2.6 FLAX MILLING.......................................................................................................................70
2.2.7 DAIRY FARMING....................................................................................................................71
2.2.8 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................71
2.3 FORESTRY................................................................................................................................72
2.3.1 INDIGENOUS TIMBER FORESTRY ...........................................................................................72
2.3.2 TIMBER MILLING IN STATE FORESTS ....................................................................................76
2.3.3 EXOTIC PLANTATION FORESTRY ON MAORI LAND...............................................................78
2.3.4 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................78
2.4 TOURISM..................................................................................................................................88
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................88
2.4.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT....................88
2.4.3 MAORI INVOLVEMENT IN TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND.........................................................89
2.4.4 MAORI INVOLVEMENT IN TOURISM IN THE INQUIRY DISTRICT.............................................90
2.4.5 MAORI TOURISM VENTURES IN THE INQUIRY DISTRICT.......................................................91
2.4.6 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................94
2.5 HYDRO-ELECTRIC CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................................97
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................97
2.5.2 TONGARIRO POWER DEVELOPMENT SCHEME: LOCATION, SCOPE AND DURATION.............97
2.5.3 EMPLOYMENT IN TURANGI DURING AND AFTER THE TONGARIRO POWER DEVELOPMENT
SCHEME ..........................................................................................................................................97
2.5.4 CROWN ASSISTANCE TO UNEMPLOYED TONGARIRO DEVELOPMENT SCHEME WORKERS ..98
2.5.5 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................99
4
2.6 OTHER EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES................................................................................99
2.6.1 PUBLIC WORKS - CONSTRUCTING ROADS AND OTHER STRUCTURES ...................................99
2.6.2 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION.......................................................................100
2.6.3 DEER, OPOSSUM AND WILD HORSE CAPTURE ....................................................................100
2.6.4 OTHER SMALL TOWN JOB OPPORTUNITIES.........................................................................100
2.6.5 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................101
PART 3: LIVING STANDARDS AND SOCIAL SERVICES ...............................................103
3.1 MAORI EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME LEVELS .....................................................................104
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................104
3.1.2 MAORI EMPLOYMENT TRENDS IN NEW ZEALAND ..............................................................104
3.1.3 MAORI EMPLOYMENT TRENDS IN NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT ............................106
3.1.4 MAORI INCOME TRENDS IN NEW ZEALAND ........................................................................108
3.1.5 MAORI INCOME TRENDS IN NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT ......................................109
3.1.6 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................110
3.2 STATE WELFARE BENEFITS AND MAORI ............................................................................111
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................111
3.2.2 SOCIAL WELFARE AND MAORI IN NEW ZEALAND ..............................................................111
3.2.3 STATE WELFARE BENEFITS AND MAORI IN THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT.......111
3.2.4 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................112
3.3 HOUSING FOR MAORI ...........................................................................................................112
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................112
3.3.2 HOUSING POLICY AND MAORI: NATIONAL SOURCES .........................................................112
3.3.3 MAORI HOUSING CONDITIONS: NATIONAL SOURCES.........................................................114
3.3.4 MAORI HOUSING IN NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT ..................................................115
3.3.5 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................118
3.4 MAORI LIVING CONDITIONS IN THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY DISTRICT, 1890 – 1990 122
3.4.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................122
3.4.2 MAORI LIVING CONDITIONS 1890 - 1920............................................................................122
3.4.3 MAORI LIVING STANDARDS AND THE WORK OF THE MAORI COUNCILS, 1920 - 1945 ......125
3.4.4 MAORI LIVING CONDITIONS AND THE WORK OF THE MAORI WELFARE DIVISION, 1945 -
1970..............................................................................................................................................129
3.4.5 MAORI LIVING CONDITIONS 1970 - 1990............................................................................134
5
3.4.6 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................136
3.5 MAORI HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES FOR MAORI IN THE NATIONAL PARK INQUIRY
DISTRICT, 1890 - 1990 ................................................................................................................141
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................141
3.5.2 MAORI MEDICAL OFFICERS AND ACCESS TO DOCTORS .....................................................142
3.5.3 MAORI DISTRICT NURSES....................................................................................................145
3.5.4 HOSPITAL CARE...................................................................................................................147
3.5.5 THE MEDICAL ROLE OF NATIVE SCHOOL TEACHERS .........................................................149
3.5.6 DENTAL CARE .....................................................................................................................150
3.5.7 MAORI HEALTH FILES AT ARCHIVES NEW ZEALAND: AN OVERVIEW ...............................152
3.5.8 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................153
3.6 MAORI AND EDUCATION SERVICES .....................................................................................161
3.6.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................161
3.6.2 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION.........................................................................................161
3.6.3 PRIMARY EDUCATION .........................................................................................................162
3.6.4 SECONDARY EDUCATION ....................................................................................................172
3.6.5 MAORI EMPLOYMENT TRAINING IN NEW ZEALAND...........................................................173
3.6.6 TERTIARY EDUCATION ........................................................................................................174
3.6.7 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................174
4. CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................................178
4.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................178
4.2 SOURCES RELEVANT TO MAORI POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS .......................178
4.3 SOURCES RELEVANT TO ECONOMIC AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES ............................179
4.4 SOURCES RELEVANT TO INCOME LEVELS, HOUSING, HEALTH AND EDUCATION SERVICES 180
5. RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................................................................182
5.1 OPTION 1: PLACING EXISTING MATERIAL ON THE WAI 1130 RECORD OF INQUIRY...............182
5.2 OPTION 2: COMMISSION FURTHER RESEARCH.......................................................................182
5.3 OPTION 3: DEALING WITH ISSUES IN TANGATA WHENUA EVIDENCE ...................................185
5.4 COMMENT ON OPTIONS...........................................................................................................186
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................187
6.1. PRIMARY SOURCES.........................................................................................................187
6.2. SECONDARY SOURCES...................................................................................................210
6
APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH COMMISSION .....................................................................................225
APPENDIX 2: NUMBER OF MAORI VOTERS BY LOCATION AND IWI/HAPU AFFILIATIONS, 1908
......................................................................................................................................................227
APPENDIX 3: NUMBER OF MAORI VOTERS BY LOCATION AND IWI/HAPU AFFILIATIONS, 1919
......................................................................................................................................................229
APPENDIX 4: NUMBER OF MAORI VOTERS BY LOCATION AND IWI/HAPU AFFILIATIONS,
1949-51.........................................................................................................................................230
APPENDIX 5: NUMBER OF MAORI VOTERS BY LOCATION AND IWI/HAPU AFFILIATIONS, 1954
......................................................................................................................................................233
APPENDIX 6: MAORI AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS FROM CENSUS BETWEEN 1890 AND 1911
......................................................................................................................................................236
APPENDIX 7: SHEEP NUMBERS OWNED BY MAORI AND NON-MAORI FARMERS, 1888 – 1911
......................................................................................................................................................237
7
Introduction
1. AuthorLeanne Boulton has a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature and First Class Honours and a Master
of Arts with Distinction in History from the University of Canterbury. She has been a Research
Officer at the Waitangi Tribunal Business Unit since May 2002 and has completed a
commissioned report on Native Townships for the Whanganui (Wai 903) inquiry and co-authored
a report on Trusts and Incorporations for the Central North Island Stage 1 inquiry (Wai 1200).
She has also worked as a facilitator in the Whanganui and Urewera inquiries.
2. The CommissionFollowing a review of the National Park casebook, in his direction dated 15 July 2005 the
presiding officer of the National Park district inquiry, Judge Isaac, considered that the Tribunal
should commission ‘a scoping report on socio-economic issues for the twentieth century, and a
substantive report (source material permitting)’.1
The commission for this report (see appendix 1) required that the scoping report discuss the
‘background contextual material to general socio-economic issues for Maori of the National Park
inquiry district between the period 1890 to 1990’. The author was asked to ‘identify and discuss
the significance of sources relevant to’ three questions:
1) ‘Maori population and settlement within the boundaries of the National Park inquiry district,
including if possible, inward and outward migration and any factors contributing to the
demographic history of the inquiry district.’
2) ‘Economic and employment opportunities available to Maori within the inquiry district and
extent of Maori involvement in the tourist industry, forestry and hydro power development.’
3) ‘The provision and use of health and education services by Maori communities residing in the
inquiry district including any evidence relating to income levels, housing standards and health
status.’
1 Wai 1130, #2.3.20, para. 4.5
8
The author was then asked ‘to make recommendations as to the feasibility of a further report on
specific claim issues and/or case studies illustrative of such issues, based on the sources
identified.’
3. Methodologya) Geographical Coverage of the Report
Significant centres of population lie immediately outside the National Park inquiry boundary.
Geographically these towns are integral to the functioning of the wider district and it is necessary
to consider them as sites of employment, education and health care for Maori living in the inquiry
district. As a consequence this report does not adhere strictly to the boundaries of the inquiry
district but considers sources that deal with Maori population data, economic opportunity and
social services in these townships.
The exclusion of the townships from the inquiry district is a result of inquiry district’s origins as an
overlap district between the Whanganui inquiry district to the south and the Central North Island
inquiry district to the north. The district was proposed because both Ngati Tuwharetoa (involved
in the Central North Island inquiry) and Whanganui people (involved in the Whanganui inquiry)
claimed interests in the mountains Ruapehu, Tongariro and Ngauruhoe. As the issues were
expected to relate mostly to these mountains the boundary of the inquiry district excluded
townships that now lie just outside the inquiry boundary. Although the inquiry boundary was
modified when the overlap district became an inquiry in its own right in February 2004 this did
not change the situation with regard to the inclusion of these townships.
This scoping report has also been mindful that the inquiry district cuts across at least two major
tribal areas. As a result, any exploration of the impact of socio-economic factors on these iwi and
their hapu will ultimately need to connect the research to what was happening for the each iwi
and its hapu in parts of their rohe lying outside this inquiry district.
9
b) Sources and Scoping Technique
The scoping of sources for this report focussed on three key types of sources:
a) Casebook material - from the Central North Island (Wai 1200) and Whanganui (Wai 903)
records of inquiry as well as from the record of inquiry for the National Park itself (Wai 1130).
b) Secondary sources - this was largely confined to what was listed in the National Library and
Alexander Turnbull Library catalogues. Te Puna was used to locate relevant theses and
journal articles.
c) Primary sources - this was confined to Archives New Zealand (Wellington and Auckland) and
manuscripts available at the Alexander Turnbull Library. These are thoroughly listed in the
bibliography. Time did not permit these to be fully explored and priority was given to
assessing files with immediate local relevance. Only a limited sampling of more general files
was carried out to get an indication of their potential usefulness. Annual reports of relevant
government departments in the Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives
were also sampled.
It was hoped that this would identify the majority of the significant sources of material within the
time available for this commission. Various government departments (as discussed in the text)
may also hold records but these could not be assessed in the time available.
c) Statistical Research
In the course of this scoping exercise some limited trial statistical research was undertaken. The
results of this research are presented in the text as tables and graphs. Some basic trends are
identified from the data and presented in bullet point form. The full set of data collected is
presented as tables in the appendices. My thanks to Amanda Gillbertson for her work in
collecting and compiling the initial data.
The following data were collected and tabulated:
• Maori voter number by settlement/township from the Maori Voters’ Rolls for Western
Maori for 1908 and 1919, and Maori Electoral Rolls for Western Maori for 1949 - 51 and
1954.
• Number of Maori voters from the above rolls by iwi and hapu affliation by
settlement/township from the Maori Voters’ Rolls for Western Maori for 1908 and 1919,
and Maori Electoral Rolls for Western Maori for 1949 - 51 and 1954.
• Maori agricultural statistics from the New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings for
1886, 1891, 1896, 1910, 1906 and 1911 (after 1911 these data are no longer available)
10
• Number of sheep owned by Maori and non-Maori farmers near various towns in and
around the inquiry district between 1888 and 1905 (time did not permit data collection
beyond these data).
• Numbers of pupils attending Native schools in and around the inquiry district between
1890 and 1930. Data were tabulated from schedules in the Annual Reports for Native
Schools published in Appendice to the Journals of the House of Representatives (AJHR).
Data were sampled at five yearly intervals from 1890 for this trial tabulation. By 1930
the reports give no local data, only national figures for pupils attending Native schools.
These data tabulations are intended to demonstrate the possibilities for further statistical
analysis and to identify patterns and trends. The compliation of a definitive set of data and
its analysis were beyond the scope of this commission.
4. Claimant IssuesThe Statements of Claim for this inquiry contain a number of claimant allegations regarding
issues that could be broadly termed socio-economic. These include general allegations of
prejudice, allegations relating to the ability to utilise land and other resources for economic
benefit; the provision of, access to and outcomes of health and education services. Below is a
summary of claimant issues relating to socio-economic themes in the National Park.
4.1. General Prejudice Suffered
Claimants cite poor socio-economic status as part of the prejudice suffered as a result of the
actions and omissions of the Crown. These forms of prejudice include the loss of land and
customary resources leading to an inadequate economic base from which to continue
development and participation in the settler economy.2 Claimants allege that this loss of an
economic base resulted in economic marginalisation3, poverty4 and poor health, sickness, high
mortality and population decline.5
4.2. Economic Opportunities
4.2.1 Customary Resources
There are specific and extensive pleadings regarding the Crown’s role in environmental change
and its regulation of wildlife. Allegations also relate to the impact of these on the availability of
2 SOC 2: 20.2(d), 20.5; SOC 3: 56.1; SOC 5: 38.1, 38.5; SOC 6: 14.3; SOC 7: 48(b), 48(d); SOC 14: 144.3, 144.6, 144.7,144.11; SOC 15: 55(j), 79(a), 79(h); SOC 16: 40(c), 40(e), 40(g); SOC 16: 65(h); SOC 17: 101(a), 101(i)3 SOC 2: 20.2(d); SOC 3: 56.24 SOC 2: 20.2(d), 20.7; SOC 15: 55(k); SOC 16: 65(i)5 SOC 2: 20.2(e), 20.7; SOC 14: 144.15; SOC 15:40(i)
11
Maori customary resources and Maori ability to access such resources, both within the boundaries
of the Tongariro National Park and in the broader inquiry district. Claimants allege that in
creating and expanding the Tongariro National Park the Crown failed to appreciate the
significance of customary resources to iwi and hapu and did not adequately assess the impact
land and resource loss would have upon Maori.6 Claimants also allege that the Crown failed to
make legal provision for Maori to continue to access the National Park to gather traditional
resources, such as kai and rongoa, or to visit or care for wāhi tapu oand other sites of
significance7, instead legislating to prohibit the taking of plants or animals from the National Park
thus hindering or prevented Maori from accessing customary resources.8 In addition, they allege
that the Crown failed to protect unique habitats and indigenous flora and fauna of the National
Park by introducing and failing to control or eradicate exotic animals, plants and fish.9
There is a particular focus on the effect of environmental change on indigenous fish species in
Lake Rotoaira and other waterways in the inquiry district, especially the impact of the Tongariro
Power Development scheme and also of the effect of introduced trout on that resource.
Claimants allege that the introduction of trout into Lake Rotoaira and various waterways was
against their express wishes and that trout damaged indigenous fish populations, making
customary fishing practices unsustainable, affecting the ability to trade with other iwi and hapu,
provide hospitality, and feed themselves over the winter months. 10 Claimants also allege that the
Tongariro Power Scheme and associated public works, including the operation of the Otukou
Quarry, polluted waterways, caused silting and encouraged the growth of oxygen weed. These
adversely affected the fish resources.11 The depletion of the trout resource, which became an
important food and income source in its own right, is also included in pleadings related to the
impact of theTongariro Power Development Scheme.
Claimants allege that the Crown failed to adequately assess the environmental and spiritual
impact of the Tongariro Power Development Scheme on Maori land and customary resources 12 or
to protect and preserve Maori rights of access to lands, waterways, customary resources and vital
6 SOC 3: 35.2; SOC 14: 61.17 SOC 3: 35, 35.1, 35.4; SOC 14: 618 SOC 1: 6.2(e); SOC 2: 16.3; SOC 3: 35.3; SOC 14: 61.2; SOC 15: 51(d); SOC 17: 58(e); SOC 15: 50(a); SOC 17: 57(a)9 Specially mentioned are trout, deer, quail, rabbits, opossum, stouts, weasels, wild cats, pheasant, hawks, heather andother noxious weeds (SOC 3: 33.4, 40, 41.1, 41.2, 41.3, 41.4, 41.5, 41.8; 41.9, 41.12, 41.16, 41.7; SOC 14: 62.3.1,62.3.2, 62.3.3, 62.3.4, 62.4, 62.4.1, 62.4.2)10 SOC 2: 17.9, 17.16, 17,19, 17.20, 17.21, 17.2211 Species mentioned include including koaro, trout, crayfish and freshwater snails, (SOC 2: 13.11, 13.19, 17.16, 17.19;SOC 14: 111.1; SOC 15: 57(g); SOC 17: 67(h), 71(h), 71(l), 71(m))12 SOC 2: 13.3: SOC 3: 54, 54.5, 54.6: SOC 14: 103, 103.1, 103.7, 103.7.5, 103.7.6, 111.4; SOC 15: 60; SOC 16: 28(e),29, 39(g): SOC 17: 70
12
food and water resources.13 They also allege that legislation, regulation (including requirements
for entry permits and fishing licences) and prosecution under such regulations impinged upon
and extinguished Maori customary rights and rangatiratanga over indigenous and non-indigenous
fish.14
4.2.2 Farming
There are no specific pleading relating to Maori involvement in farming in the inquiry district.
However, an investigation of farming as an economic opportunity may be relevant to a number of
more general pleadings. In particular, claimants allege that Crown restrictions on alienation
prevented iwi and hapu from developing their remaining land.15 They also allege that the Crown
failed to provide adequate and timely financial assistance to owners of Maori land.16
4.2.3 Forestry
There are a number of claimant allegations relating to the valuation of and price paid for
indigenous timber on land to be purchased by the Crown. Claimants allege that by barring
private purchasers, the Crown could set the prices for Maori land with timber on it and that this
purchase price did not reflect the value of the timber on the land.17 Claimants also contend that
the Crown prohibited commercial timber use during periods of timber shortage and that this had
a financial impact upon the claimants.18 In addition, it is alleged that the Crown placed restrictions
on alienation and logging of some blocks of Maori land in the National Park inquiry district
preventing Maori owners from developing their lands for commercial purposes, and removing
their ability to manage their own property. 19
There are also specific and detailed allegation regarding the Tongariro Timber Company
agreement.20 In general, these pleadings can be summed up in the allegations that the Crown
failed to actively protect Ngati Tuwharetoa interests with respect to the agreement, failed to
facilitate the implementation of the agreement, and acted in ways which impeded the chances of
the agreement being successfully implemented.21 With regard to the Lake Rotoaira Forest Trust
some claimants allege that the driving force behind the creation of the forest was the Crown’s
concern to obtain land around Lake Rotoaira and stabilise the soil so erosion could not damage
13 SOC 1: 8.1(g), 8.1(h); SOC 2: 13.4; SOC 3: 54: SOC 14: 103.7.7, 111: SOC 16: 16, 39(i)14 SOC 2: 17.5, 17.10, 17.11, 17.12, 17.13, 17.14, 17.23(d), 17.30. 17.3115 SOC 2: 9.8, 9.11; SOC 14: 58.1, 69.11; SOC 15: 59(e), 59(f) & 59(l); SOC 17: 35(j), 50(d)16 SOC 7: 24, 47(d); SOC 14: 91, 91.1, 91.217 SOC 2: 11.2; SOC 14: 117.2; SOC 17: 7318 SOC 14: 117.3; SOC 17: 7319 SOC 2: 11.4, 11.4(a) - 11.4(f); SOC 14: 116 - 117; SOC 15: 62; SOC 17: 7320 For full pleadings see National Park Statement of Issues, December 2005, 7.1.28 - 7.1.37
13
the Tongariro Power Development Scheme.22 They allege that through the establishment of the
Trust the Crown was dictating to Maori the way they could use their land. The conversion of the
land to exotic forest is alleged to have benefited the Crown more than Ngati Hikairo, and to have
prevented Ngati Hikairo from using the land in the ways they wished.23
4.2.4 Tourism
Claimant pleadings regarding Maori involvement in tourism are few and general. Claimants allege
that the Crown failed to ensure that iwi and hapu were able to benefit from the economic
opportunities centred on the Tongariro National Park (especially employment in the ski industry).
They further allege that the Crown failed to protect Maori rights to develop their customary lands
and resources to take advantage of the recreational use of their traditional lands.24 The only other
specific pleading relating to tourism is the allegation that the Lake Rotoaira ‘world-renowned
[trout] fishery’, a Ngati Tuwharetoa tourist venture, was irreversibly destroyed as a result of the
Tongariro Power Development Scheme causing a ‘serious economic downturn to the Lake
Rotoaira Trust as owners of the Lake’.25
4.2.5 Hydro Electric Construction
There are a small number of claimant pleadings relating to the socio-economic impact of the
Tongariro Power Development Scheme on Maori in the inquiry district. The majority of these
allegations are very general. Claimants contend that the Crown failed to properly assess and
protect Maori from social, economic, spiritual and cultural upheaval and acted in disregard of the
social and cultural impacts of the scheme.26 They also allege that the Crown failed to fulfil
promises it made to Ngati Tuwharetoa prior to the establishment of the scheme, such as
development of the economy and infrastructure within the region, and the continuing economic
and social advancement of Ngati Tuwharetoa.27
In relation to the 1964 relocation of a Maori community at Huimako (near Otukou) so that
blasting at Huimako ‘Otukou Quarry’ could take place,28 claimants contend that the Crown failed
to provide assistance for residents living within the site of the Otukou Quarry to resettle to
Turangi.29 Claimants allege that members of Ngati Hikairo were issued letters stating that they
21 SOC 2: 11.14; SOC 14: 114; SOC 15: 62; SOC 17: 7522 SOC 2: 11.9.11.1123 SOC 2: 11.1224 SOC 2: 2.7.11, SOC 14, 63, 64; SOC 15: 51(d); SOC 17: 58(e)25 SOC 14: 109.2.3, 111.5, 111.626 SOC 2: 13.3; SOC 3: 54.1. 54.2; SOC 14: 103.104 ; SOC 18: 6.2; SOC 19: 8.127 SOC 14: 103.228 SOC 2:13.16(c); SOC 14: 106, 107.1; SOC 17: 71(d)). (SOC 2: 13.16, 13.16(a).(b), 13.18; SOC 14: 107.2.107.3;SOC 17: 71(e)29 SOC 2: 13.17; SOC 17: 71(e)
14
had to accept the housing provided in the Turangi Township in order for them to retain
employment with the Ministry of Works and Development.30
4.3. Living Standards and Social Services
4.3.1 Living Conditions and Housing
Aside from the general pleadings relating to prejudice which allege that claimants suffered
poverty, there are no pleadings relating to the living conditions and housing in the inquiry district.
4.3.2 Health
Claimant pleadings regarding health services are very general. Claimants allege that the Crown
made little response to health problems amongst hapu and failed to provide vital health services
for Maori during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.31 With regard to tohunga (spiritual
and physical health experts) claimants contend that the Tohunga Suppression Act 1907 made it a
criminal offence for any Maori to perform traditional Maori forms of healing and use of
knowledge. In so doing, the Crown failed to protect and provide for the practice of their religion
and tikanga.32 Claimants allege that the threat of the Act’s enforcement had a detrimental and
suppressive effect on the cultural and spiritual practices of Ngati Hikairo, including the loss of
traditional knowledge, tikanga and kawa.33
4.3.2 Education
Claimant pleadings regarding education are general, citing no specific school or examples of what
is alleged. The pleadings relate to the timely provision of primary schools in the nineteenth and
early twentieth century in the inquiry district. There is also a general allegation that the Crown
failed to provide adequate education systems and services to Maori to the same standard as to
Pakeha. 34 The remaining claimant issues relate to Maori academic achievement and to the loss of
matauranga Maori and te reo Maori. Claimants allege that the Crown created, and encouraged, a
disparity between the educational achievement of Maori and non-Maori by actively encouraging
Maori children to undertake non-academic study.35 They also contend that the Crown utilised
processes of marking, including scaling, which impeded Maori academic achievement.36 It is also
alleged that the Crown’s intention was to create an assimilationist education system by legislating
to exclude te reo Maori and matauranga Maori from the curriculum and made schooling
30 SOC 2: 13.15, 13.20.13.2131 SOC 15: 55(g), 55(h); SOC 17: 65(e), 65(f)32 SOC 2: 18.7-18.8; SOC 15: 6833 Examples of the types of knowledge that were lost including whakapapa/cosmology, Maori values, rongoa and otherphysical and mental healing techniques (SOC 2: 18.11)34 SOC 15: 55(e), 55(f), 55(i); SOC 17: 65(c), 65(d), 65(g)35 SOC 15: 66(b); SOC 17: 79(b)
15
compulsory for Maori. It is alleged that imposing European ideologies, values and culture on
Maori children further undermined the culture and value system and experience of Maori in their
communities.37 In particular, claimants contend that the Crown regularly punished Maori children
for speaking Maori on school grounds.38 In relation to this, it is also contended that the Crown
undermined the tino rangatiratanga of Maori by taking the control of education out of the hands
of Maori and their elders.39
So in conclusion, socio-economic allegations are very general in nature. The following section
outlines how this report will identify and assess the sources available for addressing those
allegations.
5. Structure of this ReportThis scoping report is divided into three parts. Part 1 - Maori Population and Settlement patterns
contains two chapters. The first deals with the sources available for establishing Maori
settlement patterns in and around the National Park inquiry. This section begins by examining
sources for the names and locations of townships and Maori kainga throughout the period. This
is followed by an investigation of sources that provide background material about factors that
have influenced the size, location and distribution of these townships and kainga. The second
chapter in this section identifies and discusses the sources of data for Maori Population in the
National Park inquiry district. Secondary sources both for material on trends in New Zealand
Maori population and Maori population data for the area covered by the inquiry district are
examined. This is followed by a discussion of census data, Native school records and Maori
voters’ and electoral rolls as sources of Maori population data for the inquiry district.
Part 2 - Economic and Employment Opportunities for Maori contains five chapters: Customary
resource use, farming, forestry, tourism, hydro construction and other economic opportunities.
The first identifies and discusses sources relating to the use of customary resources by Maori in
the district, particularly those that served as a food source. This section identifies and evaluates
the sources in terms of what they are able to say about the types of customary resources utilised
by Maori living in the National Park inquiry district and the duration and extent of that resource
use. This is followed by a discussion of sources regarding the impact of Crown wildlife
management policies and practices upon Maori customary resource used in the district.
36 SOC 15: 6537 SOC 14: 143.2; SOC 15: 64, 64(c), 65(a), 66(a); SOC 17: 77, 7838 SOC 15: 64, 65(b); SOC 17: 77, 78, 79
16
The second chapter identifies and assesses the sources on economic and employment
opportunities available to Maori in the inquiry district in the agricultural sector both as farmers
utilising Maori land, and as labourers on Pakeha owned farms in and around the National Park
inquiry district. The chapter begins with an examination of sources relating to small scale
domestic horticulture in and around Maori kainga in the district. This is followed by a discussion
of sources of data on Maori agriculture, Maori sheep farming, Maori dairy farming and flax
milling.
The third chapter investigates the sources of information available on the location and scale of
the indigenous timber milling industry in the district. It also examines the sources available for a
discussion of timber leases on Maori land as a means for Maori communities to secure income
from royalties and employment in timber milling. This is followed by a discussion of the sources
relating to Maori employment in the State Forests adjacent to the inquiry district.
The fourth chapter in this part of the report deals with sources that outline the development of
various types of tourism in and around the inquiry district from 1890 to 1990. This is followed by
an assessment of sources of information regarding Maori involvement in those tourism ventures
as employees and as owners of tourism businesses, both in New Zealand and in and around the
inquiry district. In particular this chapter looks at sources that discuss Maori opportunities to
develop thermal springs at Tokaanu and Ketetahi, and trout fishing in Lake Rotoaira and other
waterways in the district, as tourist attractions.
The final chapter in this part identifies and discusses sources relating to the types of employment
created by the Tongariro Power Development Scheme based at Turangi and Maori employment
on the scheme. This is followed by a review of sources that discuss the impact of the completion
of the scheme upon Maori previously employed in its construction. It also looks at sources that
document the nature, scope and success of government programmes to address employment in
Turangi and the surrounding area after the completion of the scheme.
Part 3 - Living Standards and Social Services for Maori contains five chapters: Employment and
Income Levels, Housing, Living Conditions, Medical Services and Education. Chapter one begins
by examining sources that deal with Maori employment and unemployment levels for Maori in
New Zealand as whole and then for Maori in the inquiry district specifically. A similar section
relating to Maori income levels follows.
39 SOC 15: 67; SOC 17: 80
17
The second chapter in this part of the report deals with sources on the housing conditions of
Maori in the National Park inquiry district. The first section of this chapter explores sources that
provide an overview of the Crown’s policy with regard to Maori housing and identifies trends and
issues that may be relevant to this district. The remainder of the chapter assesses the sources
available for an investigation of housing standards in the inquiry district. This includes sources on
the role played by Maori Councils and, later, the Maori Affairs Welfare Division (and its associated
Welfare Officers and Tribal Committees) in improving Maori housing conditions in Maori
settlements.
Chapter three complements the preceding chapter on housing as it deals with sources relating to
sanitation, water and food supplies in these homes, and various initiatives to improvethese
ammenities. The chapter is structured chronologically. It deals first with sources related to these
issues from the 1890 to 1920 period. This is followed by a discussion of the Maori councils and
health councils’ period from 1920 to 1940. The chapter concludes with an assessment of sources
relating to the period 1945 - 1970 when tribal executives, tribal committees and welfare officers
under the Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act 1945 were active. Finally, there is a brief
section on the post 1970 period.
Chapter four identifies and discusses the significance of sources relating to the provision and use
of health services by Maori in and around the National Park inquiry district. This chapter begins
by examining sources relating to the provision of medical officers/doctors and dispensers to Maori
in the National Park inquiry district. Subsequent sections of the chapter discuss sources related
to Maori district nurses, the medical role of Native school teachers, hospitals and dental services.
The final chapter of part 3 of this report deals with sources on Maori access to and participation
and achievement in early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education between 1890
and 1990. As participation in tertiary education was, until the last few decades of this period,
limited to few Maori, sources on trade and other post-secondary training for Maori are also
discussed. A conclusion and recommendations follow this.
18
Part 1: Maori Population andSettlement Patterns
19
1.1 Maori Settlement Patterns in and around the NationalPark Inquiry District
1.1.1 Introduction
The commission for this scoping report requires that the report identifies and discusses the
significance of sources relating to ‘Maori population and settlement within the boundaries of the
National Park inquiry district’. The commission asks that comment be made on any sources that
contain material relating to ‘inward and outward migration and any factors contributing to the
demographic history of the inquiry district.’ Baseline population and settlement data about the
number, distribution and iwi/hapu affiliation of Maori living in and around the National Park
inquiry district is important in assessing the impact of socio-economic issues upon tangata
whenua living there in the twentieth century. Therefore, it would also be useful to have some
analysis of how Maori population in townships and settlements in and around the inquiry district
changed over this period and the iwi and hapu affiliations of that population. This chapter
identifies and examines the sources for such information and provides some conclusions as to
their usefulness and limitations.
1.1.2 Sources for Identifying Settlements and Townships
This section of the report considers sources for the names and locations of two types of
settlements in the district: towns which were essentially Pakeha settler towns in which there was
also a Maori population, and those settlements that were essentially Maori kainga.
a) Townships
Contemporary maps are an obvious starting point for locating townships and settlements. ‘Maps
of the National Park Inquiry District: A Thematic Overview Map Book to Support Waitangi
Tribunal Hearings’, Crown Forestry Rental Trust, June 2005 (Wai 1130 #A48) provides the most
comprehensive compilation of maps of the district. The most useful maps for establishing the
location of townships are the topographical maps in plates 21 - 30. The maps show only
contemporary townships and features. However many current placenames mark settlements that
have disappeared and should be noted and checked against historical maps (see below).
Alexander Turnbull Library Pictorial Collection contains many photographs of townships in and
around the inquiry region. Many are undated but appear to be from the 1900 - 1930 period.
They are helpful in assessing the size of townships in different periods.
Two of particular interest are:
20
• F3004 ½ - photograph Taupo County, Tokaanu 'Tokaanu with thermal area in foreground
(telephoto shot), July 1952, Nat Pub Studios' is typed on a sticker on back. This shows some
rather poor housing in the foreground. There is also a photograph of Tokaanu in 1890 in
Barbara Cooper, The Head of the Lake = Te Mata O Tauponui: a history, Turangi Historical
Society, Turangi, 1981.
• F33013 ½ - photograph Taupo County, Turangi, 1962 'Aerial view of Bridge Lodge -
Turangi Jan 1962, Nat Pub studio' is typed on a sticker on back. This shows Turangi before it
was redeveloped as a hydro town.
b) Maori Kainga/Settlements
i) Secondary Sources for Identifying and Locating Maori Kainga
Ann Williams and Tony Walton, Early Landuse Patterns in the Lake Taupo Area, Science for
Conservation 222, Department of Conservation, Wellington, 2003 is the principal secondary
source available for naming and locating Maori kainga in the inquiry district. Although their
discussion of the pattern of Maori kainga in the district relates primarily to the nineteenth century
they emphasis that the location of Maori kainga has remained stable and twentieth century
kainga are generally on or close to the site of earlier settlements. Williams and Walton provide a
critical review and synthesis of what is known about Maori settlement patterns in the Lake
Taupo/Lake Rotoaira district. They summarise and critically evaluate the evidence from
archaeological surveys, ethnographical and early historical accounts by Europeans in the area.
They analyse and discuss the evidence regarding settlements from early maps (ML 2177, ML
2178 & SO 14534) discussed further below. The report has a good bibliography, including two
sources that may be worth pursuing to locate further Maori kainga in the inquiry district:
D C Nevin & G E Nevin, Archaeological Site Survey - Rotoaira State Forest 141, June 1979, New
Zealand Forest Service Report.
R G Ward, ‘Maori Settlement in the Taupo County 1830 - 1880’, Journal of the Polynesian Society,
65, 1956, 41 - 44.
Williams and Walton, 2003, should be read in conjunction with the detailed material on Maori
archaeological sites in the northern portion of the inquiry district in Mary Newman, Archaeological
Investigations in the Vicinity of Lake Rotoaria and the Lower Tongariro River, 1966 - 1971, New
Zealand Historic Places Trust, Wellington, 1988. The term ‘archaeological site’ as used by
Newman includes pa, kainga, pits, ditches, banks, traditional sites, burial sites, artefact findspots,
miscellaneous sites (tracks, springs, mutilated trees) and sites associated with farming, timber
21
and flax milling. Newman provides a discussion of the archaeological sites discovered during
several archaeological surveys carried out during the construction of the Tongariro Power
Development scheme. The cicumstances surrounding this salvage archaeology are discussed in
the Waitangi Tribunal’s, Turangi Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, pp 155-160. This
discussion notes that archaeological sites of significance to Maori in Turangi were lost, as the
archaeological surveys did not begin until February 1966, some time after earthmoving
commenced. Newman includes a list of all the registered archaeological sites in the area with
site numbers, grid references and descriptions.40 These are shown plotted on a map, however the
site numbering on the map is difficult to follow as the two sequences of site numbers listed in the
text are not clearly distinguished from one another. Some grid reference checking would be
necessary to ensure accurate site identification. There are also brief chapters on the findings of
excavations at the Opotaka and Poutu kainga on the shores of Lake Rotoaira. The changing
location of Opotaka kainga is documented in an article: Tony Walton, ‘Settlement at Opotaka’,
New Zealand Historic Places, Jul 1994; 48, pp 39-41.
ii) Historical Maps
As discussed in Williams and Walton, historical maps also provide an important tool for locating
Maori kainga in the inquiry district. The historical maps located so far cover the northern part of
the inquiry district. ML 2178 a ‘Plan of Okahukura Blocks’ from 1883 shows the bush line and
remnant areas of bush and the names and locations of many Maori kainga.
The CFRT map book reproduces an 1886 map of the Tauponuiatia block:
• ‘Plate 35 - Map of Tauponuiatia Blocks ML 5995D - 1886 External Boundaries
• ‘Plate 36 - Plan of Tauponuiatia Shewing Subdivisions, As adjudicated - ML 5995B’
Unfortunately the detail on neither reproduction can be read, although ML 5995B looks to contain
more place-name information that ML 5995D. Better copies of both are probably available
through Land Online.
ML 2177, a ‘Plan of Subdivision of Okahukura Block’ from 1895 covers much of the same area as
shown on ML 2178. Unfortunately it is quite difficult to read but does provide a useful
comparison of bush line and kainga. It also shows a number of sheep yards and shepherd’s huts
40 As archaeological sites are located and described they are registered with the New Zealand Archaeological Association.Each site in the country has a unique number, for example N112/75 Kotukutuku kainga is site number 75 the imperialsurvey map N112 (these numbers have since been converted to an equivalent metric map series)
22
that are important evidence of sheep farming on this block. These could be mapped and used in
conjunction with the sources on Maori sheep farming discussed later in this report.
SO 14534, a ‘Topographical Plan of Pihanga Survey District’, from 1900 covers only the area
immediately around Lakes Rotoaira and Rotopounamu and land on either side of the Tongariro
River as far south as the Ohurire Stream. This map shows a number of old Maori tracks as well
as the dray tracks that were being used at that time, and some place names.
A lithograph of the Pihanga Survey District (Alexander Turnbull Library Map collection 932/1 WN-
10) from 1924 shows a number of place names in the northern part of the district around Lake
Rotoaira. Further twentieth century maps may also be available from the Alexander Turnbull
Library Map Collection.
iii) Contemporary Maps
The contemporary topographical maps in plates 21 - 30 of the CFRT mapbook, 2005, show some
old timber mill sites and disused quarries. These sites could be mapped alongside sites identified
from Williams and Walton, 2003 and Newman, 1988. This would build a picture of industry sites
that may have provided employment for Maori in nearby townships and settlements. These
maps are also useful for identifying the location of current tourist facilities such as ski fields, ski
villages, fishing camps, boating facilities and outdoor recreation centres.
iv) Historical Photographs
There are a few photographs of Maori kainga in the inquiry district; these helpful in asessing the
size of Maori settlements at different dates. Alexander Turnbull Library Pictorial Collection PA1-q-
913 contains a 1913 photograph album that includes a group of images of Maori at Otukou, the
meeting house there known as Okahukura, images of Otukou village and hot springs, and
Ketetahi Springs and cookhouse/shelter. There are also a number of photographs of Otukou in
Deirdre Gardiner, He Ohaki na nga matua tupuna ko Okahukura: The Story of a Tuwharetoa
Wharepuni, Otukou Marae Committee, Turangi, 1993, including a view of the settlement in 1905
(p 61), photographs of Otukou Native school in 1949 (p 89), and Otokou marae in 1993 (p 110 -
11).
23
v) Contemporary Accounts
Contemporary accounts often provide descriptions of the location and size of Maori settlements at
a particular date. Although there are a number of well known historical accounts by European
travellers, explorers, scientists and missionaries in the Taupo/Rotoaira area for the period from
1840 to 1880, there seem to be few for the early 1900s. There may be some accounts in
newspapers of the period but locating them would require considerable time combing through
reels of microfilm. Four that may be worth pursuing are:
• K [Kennedy], ‘A Visit to Lake Rotoaira', printed at the Daily Telegraph Office, Napier, 1885.
• ‘Pakeha and Maori: A narrative of the Premier’s Trip through the Native Districts of the North
Island’ in AJHR 1895 G-1. Describes Seddon’s visit and meeting with Maori at Moawhango,
also describes Karioi, a Maori Kainga called Waione (two miles west of Karioi), Ohakune, a
Maori Kainga called Toanui (six miles west of Ohakune), and Raetihi.
• ‘Up the Wanganui River to Tokaanu’ in the New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1900, pp 509 -
519.
• MSY-4600, Alexander Turnbull Library Manuscripts Collection, New Zealand Journals/Dudley
Alexander [aide-de-camp to Governor General Lord Ranfurly], journal of a March 1901 tour
on the Governor’s train through the Central North Island to Lake Taupo.
1.1.3 Sources Discussing Factors Influencing Maori Settlement Patterns
1.1.3(a) Introduction
In addition to locating settlements and townships within and around the National Park inquiry
district, it is necessary to discuss some of the factors that shaped that settlement pattern. In
particular background material is needed on the effects of the physical environment, changing
land-use patterns and land alienation had upon the location and viability of settlements and
townships.
1.1.3(b) Physical Geography and Landuse Patterns
Russell Kirkpatrick, Kataraina Belshaw and John Campbell, ‘Land-based Cultural Resources and
Waterways and Environmental impacts (Rotorua, Taupo and Kaingaroa), 1840 - 2000’, December
2004, Wai 1130 #A7(a) investigates the prejudice suffered by Maori as a result of the impact of
environmental change in the Central North Island inquiry district from 1840 to the present.
Section 2.1 outlines the physical geography of the Central North Island, that is, the impact of the
physical environmental on land use potential, vegetation cover and Maori population. In particular
they discuss soil types, drainage and fertility; topography, temperature, and vegetation cover.
24
Kirkpatrick et al’s discussion of these factors is interspersed with full colour maps in which these
data are represented visually (figs 2.2 to 2.12).
With regard to the areas within the National Park inquiry district they concluded that the ‘free-
draining pumice soil of low natural fertility’ in the area should be considered as a constraining
factor when looking at opportunities for land development and employment. However, the note
that this soil is particularly suitable for forestry.41 Low average annual temperatures in much of
the inquiry district compound these soil quality limitations. ‘Figure 2.3 shows that the annual
temperature over the National Park inquiry district mountains and plateau surrounding Ruapehu,
Tongariro and Ngaruruhoe and Pihanga is under 10 degrees Celsius. However the area around
Lake Rotoaira and the fringes of the inquiry district is lower and therefore ‘mild’ with annual
temperatures between 10 and 12.5 degrees Celsius.’42 This suggests a climatic explanation for the
concentation of Maori settlement on the blocks around Lake Rotoaira.
In his 1955 MA thesis ‘Land Development in the Taupo County’ R G Ward briefly discusses the
tendency for settlements to be built around lakes and along the bush line (p 29). These patterns
are discussed in slightly more detail in Williams and Walton, in their sections on the
archaeological evidence, early European historical accounts, and evidence from early maps. In
particular they discuss the impact that clearance of the bush from pre-history to the twentieth
century has had on Maori settlement landuse and patterns. These sources provide a useful
context for factors that shaped Maori settlement in the area.
1.1.3(c) The Development of Infrastructure and European Settlement
The pattern of townships in and around the inquiry district was significantly influenced by the
way in which patterns of infrastructure such as coach routes, roads and railway lines developed.
Townships sprung up to construct and service these routes. This is particularly obvious in the
south and west where almost all the current towns began as stations on the Main Trunk Railway
Line. In turn this infrastructure made it possible to clear and mill indigenous forests and, later, to
farm land adjacent to these routes.
Local histories are a particularly good source of dates for the establishment of railway, road and
coach links between various settlements and townships. The Waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi
Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, pp 9-12 provides a summary of the Maori and
41 Russell Kirkpatrick, Kataraina Belshaw and John Campbell, ‘Land-based Cultural Resources and Waterways andenvironmental impacts (Rotorua, Taupo and Kaingaroa), 1840 - 2000’, Wai 1130 #A7(a), pp 48, 52 and 6442 Kirkpatrick, Belshaw and Campbell, 2004, Figure 2.6, p 54
25
European settlement in and around Turangi and Tokaanu. There are also two books by Barbara
Cooper on the Taupo-Turangi area: The Head of the Lake, 1981 and The Remotest Interior: A
History of Taupo, Moana Press, Tauranga, 1989. For the Karioi, Raetihi and Ohakune area
Elizabeth C Allen, In the Hills of the Waimarino: the human story of the development of the
district, Wanganui Newspapers Ltd, Wanganui, n/d and R H Volkerling, and K L Stewart, From
Sand to Papa: A history of the Whanganui County, Wanganui, 1986 are useful. For Raurimu Kate
Hill, Raurimu Frontier Town 1900 - 1925: A social archaeological perspective, Dept of
Anthropology, University of Auckland, 1999, for Kakahi Peter McIntyre, Kakahi New Zealand, AH
& AW Reed, Wellington, 1972 deal with the railway construction and the timber and farming
industries. There is also a history of Owhango: Owhango, spanning 100 years: Owhango School
& District Reunion, February 6th - 8th 2004, Owhango School reunion committee, 2004. The
development of sheep farming and transport links to the Taihape and Whanganui River are deal
with in R A L Batley, Moawhango Valley and School: a short history of the inland Patea published
to commemorate the diamond jubilee of the Moawhango Maori School, 1897 - 1957, Moawhango
School Jubilee Committee, 1958.
1.1.4 Conclusion
There is a significant set of sources that would enable Maori kainga, townships and associated
industrial sites to be identified and plotted to produce a comprehensive maps giving a good
picture of the settlement pattern in the district. However, this exercise is designed simply to form
a context for the Maori population data, so would only be worth completing if there was
adequate Maori population data available. Sources for population data are examined in the next
chapter.
1.2 Maori Population Trends for the National Park Inquirydistrict
1.2.1 Introduction
Maori population data and Maori population trends for the National Park inquiry district need to
be viewed in the context of national and regional Maori population data and trends. Therefore
key national and regional Maori population sources are considered briefly in this chapter as a
preface to a more detailed discussion of Maori population sources for the National Park inquiry
district. Some Maori population data for settlements and townships in and around the inquiry
district derived from Maori voters’ rolls and electoral rolls for Western Maori is also presented and
discussed below.
26
1.2.2 National Trends in Maori Population
There is an abundance of secondary sources relating to Maori population data at a national level.
The most comprehensive presentation and discussion of national population data for Maori can
be found in Ian Pool, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Projected,
Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1991. Pool covers the period from 1840 to 1986. He
presents tables and graphs showing population figures and age structure, population growth, life
expectancy, mortality and fertility. These are accompanied by analysis of the trends in these
data and a discussion of the reasons for these trends, especially in terms of urbanisation and
migration. Although this provides a comprehensive contextual overview, further primary data
could be located by using C N Mako, A Directory of the Location of Statistics on the New Zealand
Maori Population from Official Sources, Ministry of Maori Affairs, Wellington, 1991.
Pool could also be supplemented by a number of sources that discuss Maori and urbanisation.
The Hunn Report (J K Hunn, Report on the Department of Maori Affairs, Government Printer,
Wellington, 1960) tabulates and briefly discusses the percentage of total Maori population in
cities and boroughs for the period 1926 to 1956 (p 19). The statistical Supplement at the back of
the report provides graphs, tables and notes on Maori population (pp 107 - 114). J R McCreary,
‘Population Growth and Urbanisation', in Erik Schwimmer (ed) Maori People in the Nineteen-
Sixties: A Symposium, Auckland, 1968, pp 187 - 204 presents and discusses Maori population
data In a similar way to Pool. However, he also includes data on Maori urbanisation as well as a
discussion of reasons for increasing Maori urbanisation but he only covers the period between
1936 and 1961. There is also brief discussion of Maori urbanisation (p 110) in Ernest Beaglehole,
‘The Maori in New Zealand: A Case Study of Socio-Economic Integration in International Labour
Review, vol. 76, No. 2 (August 1957), pp 103 - 123, 106 - 107; and in John Forster, ‘The Social
Position of Maori’ in Erik Schwimmer (ed), Maori People in the Nineteen-Sixties: A Symposium,
Auckland, 1968, pp 97 - 117. Emma Stevens, ‘Socio-Economic Consequences of Land Loss for
Maori in the Whanganui, Rangitikei, Manawatu and Horowhenua Districts’, Wai 903 #A32, June
1997 argues that Maori urbanisation in the Whanganui, Rangitikei, Manawatu and Horowhenua
districts in the late 1920s and early 1930s. It is not clear whether this was also the case in the
National Park inquiry district.
1.2.3 Maori Population within the National Park Inquiry District
1.2.3(a) Secondary Sources on Regional Population Change
Secondary sources draw on Maori population data published in the New Zealand Census of
Population and Dwellings. To evaluate these secondary sources is necessary to give a brief
history of Maori census data. The Census Act 1877 ‘provided for general censuses to be taken in
27
1878 and 1881, and every fifth year from then on.’ The only exception to this provision was in
1931 when the census was postponed owing to the economic depression; the 1941 census was
postponed until 1945 owing to wartime conditions and the pattern of five yearly censuses was
resumed in 1951.43 From 1886 and for subsequent censuses, books were supplied to officers of
the Native Department in each district.’ Maori were recorded by county, age, sex and iwi up until
1901 and by county, age and sex until 1921. From 1926 the Maori census was taken in one
night (though not on the same night at the general census) and Maori completed their own
census form for the first time. From the 1950s the Maori census was fully integrated into the
general census.44 From the 1981 census onwards population data are presented for each
Territorial Authority (TA) area. This section identifies and evaluates these sources and discusses
the limits of the data they present in terms of the data’s ability to provide a complete and
accurate picture of Maori population in the inquiry district over the 1890 to 1990 period.
Several secondary sources provide an overview of changes in the general population of the
Central North Island, and change in the Maori population of the region from the mid-1980s
onwards. Kirkpatrick et al includes a map showing Territorial Authority areas and total population
density for 2001 (Figure 2.14). This is acommpanied by a ‘cartogram’ in which each Territorial
authority area is shown coloured and sized according to its percentage of population growth.
Areas with high population growth are shown as large while those with low or negative growth
(net population loss) are shown as small (fig 2.16). They also offer a brief discussion of general
population growth in the Taupo district between 1991 and 2001.
R Bedford, J Lidgard, B McLaughlin and J Newell, Demographic Change and Employment in the
Central North Island, 1986 - 1996, Department of Geography, University of Waikato, Hamilton,
2001 discuss and map Maori population growth in the wider Central North Island region taking in
‘the lowlands of the Waikato basin and the coastal plains of the Bay of Plenty, as well as the
rolling hills and steeper slopes in the “King Country”, through the Coromandel, around Rotorua
and Taupo, and along the northern perimeter of East Cape.’ This region takes in the whole of
the National Park inquiry district as well as the major population centres of Rotorua, Tauranga
and Hamilton and their extensive hinterlands.
43 ‘POPULATION’, from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A H McLintock, originally published in 1966. Te Ara -The Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, updated 11-Ju-2005 URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/1966/P/Population/en44 Tahu Kuutai, Ian Pool & Janet Sceats, ‘Central North Island Iwi: population Patterns and Trends’, April 2002, Wai 1200#A44, p 16
28
Within that area Bedford et al calculate the percentage of the total population of the area living in
five levels of settlements: major cities, other towns (3,000+ pop in 1996), nucleated settlements
(between 500 and 3,000 pop in 1996), densely settled rural areas (6 or more people per square
km) and sparsely settled rural areas (less than 6 people per square km). They then look at how
those proportions have changed over the 1986 to 1996 period for the total population and for the
Maori population. They also use Territorial Authority area and calculate the percentage of
population change for the total population and for the Maori population across this period.
There are several highly technical papers that attempt to model internal migration/mobility. They
are useful in both identifying regional migration patterns and explaining the factors that cause
individuals to become mobile.
• David C Maré and Wai Kin Choy, Regional Labour Market Adjustment and the Movement of
People: A Review, Treasury Working Paper 01/08, 2001.
• Suzi Kerr, Dave Maré, William Power and Jason Timmins, Internal Mobility in New Zealand,
Treasury Working Paper, 01/4, 2001.
It is possible that there is more accessible general material, particularly studies by geographers,
on regional migration trends and population density.
1.2.3(b) Secondary Sources on Taupo-Tongariro Maori Population
R J Lowe, He Kaupapa Korero Te Puawaitanga o Nga Iwi 1874 - 1951: Iwi in Demographic
Change, 1874 - 1951, a working paper for the Department of Maori Affairs, June 1989 uses Maori
population data for counties from census records. He creates regions for which he tabulates total
Maori population, recorded Maori population (excluding half-castes living as Europeans) and
recorded half-castes living as Europeans. The three districts relevant to the inquiry district
defined by Lowe are ‘Rotorua-Taupo’, ‘West Taupo’ and ‘Whanganui’. However, these data only
covers the 1891 to 1951 period and because it covers such large areas it cannot provide an
accurate data set for Maori population in the inquiry district.
The area considered in Kukutai et al’s report includes some but not all of the National Park
inquiry district (see Fig 1.1. on p 8). Essentially Kukutai et al worked on a premise that the
Central North Island inquiry region took in Lake Rotoaira and small area to the west of that lake.
Therefore, the Maori population data Kukutai et al produced for their report is of not very useful
in mapping Maori population and settlement patterns in the National Park inquiry district because
it excludes significant areas and includes large area that lie outside the National Park inquiry
district.
29
However, Kukutai et al do provide some data for the period after 1981 for the Taupo Territorial
Authority area (part of the inquiry district) in ‘Appendix 9A(i): CNI Maori, 1906 - 1996’. There are
tables showing the percentage of the Maori population in the Taupo TA in each age group (male,
female and total) for 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996. ‘Appendix 11A: Net Migration of CNI Maori by
TA, 1981 - 96’ provides tables showing the number and percentage of Maori (male, female and
total) in each age group that migrated in/out of the Taupo TA (a negative figure represents a net
loss while a positive figure represents a net gain). Tables are provided for the 1981 - 1886, 1986
- 1991 and 1991 - 1996 inter-census periods. Census data for 1991 for the Taupo Territorial
Authority area is collected together and summarised in Lesia Hay Small, Census Data: a graphical
representation, Taupo District Council, Taupo, 1998. Again, these data are not particularly useful
because it only covers a brief time period and includes only part of the inquiry district.
Peter Crawford, Turangi 1975: Ministry of Works & Development Town, Community and Service
Centre: a survey of the social and economic problems of the community of Turangi and a
discussion of the future development of the settlement, Taupo Regional Development Committee,
1976 provides tables showing total population and the Maori population. His data are tabulated
from the census and take into account all town areas, camps, prisons and localities across the
Taupo and Taumaranui counties, Turangi township, and the wider area of Southern Taupo-
Tongariro for 1966 and 1971. This is a better indication of population in the inquiry district but
still includes figures for counties and boroughs, areas too large to accurately count Maori in the
inquiry district.
1.2.3(c) Primary Sources for the Maori Population of the National Park Inquiry
i) Census Data
As the secondary sources demonstrate there are a number of difficulties in using Maori census
data to construct a time series of Maori population for the National Park inquiry district:
1) INHERENT INACCURACIES IN THE CENSUS DATAThe accuracy of census data before 1926, when Maori began to complete their own census
forms, was very dependent upon the observer or government official’s sources of information and
how much they could travel in the district. The relative isolation of districts like the Tongariro
National Park area could restrict both the numbers of observers or government officials who
settled there and how easily they could travel. Kukutai et al also noted that some censuses seem
to provide better coverage than others. They concluded that the 1881, 1891 and 1901 censuses
30
are better than those from 1878, 1886 and 1896. They estimate that ‘even as late as 1926, the
level of under-enumeration nationally might have been as high as 10%.’
Whether Maori were willing to supply information also affected the accuracy of the census data.
In places like the Taupo and Tongariro districts where there were strong links to the Rohe Potae
and to the Kingitanga reluctance and refusal to supply information were not uncommon. Kukttai
et al state that the 1916 census ‘was notable for under-enumeration’ especially for counties like
West Taupo where there were strong affiliations with the Kingitanga. They also cite evidence
from district enumerator’s reports that suggests that fear of recruitment during World War I,
particularly in Waikato and West Taupo, made Maori reluctant to take part in the census.4546
2) THE INQUIRY DISTRICT TAKES IN PORTIONS OF FOUR COUNTIESThe census records Maori population at county level until 1981. However, while it is certainly
possible to tabulate these county figures for Maori population they have little value in establishing
an accurate series of data recording Maori population in the inquiry district. This is because the
inquiry district is split over four counties. Many of these counties include significant population
centres and large hinterlands that are not within the inquiry district. Thus the use of Maori
population figures for the counties that the inquiry district crosses as population figures for this
inquiry would be rather misleading.
From 1981 onwards the boundaries of territorial authorities (TA) are used to record census
population data; these match District Council boundaries. The National Park inquiry falls within
two of these: Taupo and Ruapehu. Though TA area are a better match to the shape of the
inquiry district than the old counties, they are still not a perfect fit and Maori population figures
from censuses from 1981 onwards still do not provide an accurate indication of Maori population
in the inquiry district.
3) COUNTY BOUNDARIES CHANGE OVER TIMEIn any case, the configuration of these counties changed considerably over time. For example, up
to and including the 1921 census the Taupo region was split over two counties: East and West
Taupo. In the 1926 census a Taupo county was created and some of the land from the former
West Taupo County was included in the Taumaranui County. Other more minor boundary
adjustments happened on a regular basis. By the 1950s the census shows separate population
figures for town districts, boroughs and urban area. In some census tables these are included in
45 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 1646 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 16
31
the county figure, in other all are excluded or only ‘dependant’ town districts or boroughs are
included in the county totals.47 This makes comparing Maori population figures for whole counties
over time impossible.
4) DEFINITIONS OF WHO IS COUNTED AS ‘MAORI’ CHANGE OVER TIMEOne of the greatest difficulties with Maori population census data is that the official definition of
whom is counted as Maori changed considerably from census to census. The other difficulty with
census data is that county tallies of Maori include all Maori not just tangata whenua of the
county.
Overall an exploration of the census data for Maori population leads to the conclusion that
Kukutai et al reached in their report, that the changing nature of the census ‘make time-series
analysis impossible at a sub-national level.’ 48 Aside from census data there are several other
primary sources that could provide an indication of the Maori population of certain kainga and
show when certain settlements and townships contained Maori inhabitants.
ii) Native School Records
Native School’s records may prove to be a source of Maori population data for small Maori
settlements. Archives New Zealand Auckland files for a number of Native schools in and around
the inquiry district provides some raw data for pupils attending. Registers of admissions, progress
and withdrawals, for example, list each child in the index and give them a register number.
Those examined during this scoping exercise suggest that many Maori pupils (and their families)
moved frequently. The register includes ‘Last school attended before admission to this school’
and ‘destination’ of those leaving (this can be a place or an occupation). These data could be
tabulated to chart patterns of migration in and out of these settlements over time as well as to
give a rough count of child population.
However some of the files are bound and/or fragile and cannot be photocopied so tabulation
would have to be done in-situ at Archives New Zealand Auckland. Rolls, registers and letters
regarding how many children required transport to school are available for the Native schools at
Tokaanu (1985 - 1944), Otukou (1926 - 1946) and Moawhango (1897 - 1951). These files are
listed in the education chapter.
47 A good explanation of counties, boroughs and town districts can be found in A H McLintock (ed), Encyclopaedia of NewZealand, Government Printer, Wellington, 1966 under ‘Local Government’48 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 16
32
iii) Data from Maori Electoral Rolls
Maori voters’ rolls and electoral rolls for Western Maori from 1908, 1919, 1949-51 and 1954 give
the name of the person who voted or registered to vote, their iwi, their hapu, their address (town
or kainga or general locality) and their gender. These data have a significant number of
limitations for showing Maori population. Firstly, only those over the voting age are recorded (this
excluded children and youths) and secondly, not all Maori living in those places registered on the
Maori roll. In addition, it is unknown what proportion of the Maori population those names that
appear on the rolls represent. In most cases the number of Maori voters for each town or
settlement is too small to treat the sample as a reliable indication of the patterns in the whole
Maori population of the township. Where the data show changing numbers of Maori in a
settlement it can not be assumed that this reflects a rise or drop in the Maori population of a
settlement. It may be that it simply reflects changing trends in the number of Maori choosing to
enrol to vote in the Western Maori seat. Bearing these limitations in mind these data do at least
indicate which kainga and townships had at least some Maori inhabitants in these years, and
some cautious observations regarding change in Maori population numbers and iwi composition
can be made.
The data presented below have been adjusted for accuracy. This involved making the spelling of
place names and iwi and hapu name consistent where it was obvious that the names are the
same. Where the address includes the name of a town and another place names the entry is
counted under the name of the town. Therefore the data indicate Maori voters living in and in
close proximity to towns and settlements. Aside from clearing up obvious spelling
inconsistencies, iwi and hapu affiliations have not been adjusted in any way, simply tabulated as
they appear on these rolls. It is acknowledged that electoral procedures may not have enabled
Maori voters to indicate the full range of their iwi and hapu affliations. It should also be noted
that iwi and hapu identity is dynamic, and definitions of what constitutes an iwi and a hapu are
subject to political and cultural change. Therefore, these data should be viewed as a snapshot of
a sample of the Maori population of these settlements from official records at certain dates, not
as indications of current iwi and hapu identities in the inquiry district.
In keeping with the purposes of a scoping report, the graphs below intend simply to indicate
patterns and to point to anything interesting in terms of a change in population numbers or
composition that might be worth further investigation. Therefore analysis of the data is restricted
to a discussion of general trends. However, the full data set is shown in appendices 2 - 5 of this
report.
A. SIGNIFICANT SOUTHERN POPULATION CENTRES (KARIOI, RAETIHI AND OHAKUNE)
Source: Maori Voters Rolls for Western Maori 1908, 1919 and Maori Electoral Rolls for Western
Maori, 1949-1951 and 1954)
Raetihi
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1908 1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati UenukuNgati RuakawaNgai TahuWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaWaikarapuUritakiwhaTe AtiawaNgawairikiNgati TuwharetoaNgati RaukawaNgati ManiapotoNgati KahungunuNgapuhiMuaupoko
Karioi
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1908 1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati TukoreheNgati RuahineNgati KorokiNgati RuakawaNgati RangiNgati ApaWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaTaranakiNgati TuwharetoaNgati RaukawaNgapuhiHinuawai
34
Ohakune
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati HauNgati HineNgati RuruNgati UenukuNgati RuakawaNgati RangiNgati AwaNgati ApaWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaWaikatoTe AtihauTe AtiawaTaranakiRakaipakaNgati TuwharetoaNgati RaukawaNgati PorouNgati ManiapotoNgati KahungunuNgaruahineNgapuhiMuaupoko
The numbers of Maori voters living at Raetihi increased from just 15 on the 1908 Maori voters roll
to 184 on the 1954 Western Maori roll. A similar pattern is found in Ohakune, although the
numbers of Maori on the 1919 Maori voters roll were much lower (just one person) and by 1954
there were 120 Maori from the township on the Western Maori roll. These increases may reflect
a growth in Maori population in the townships.
In comparison, the number of Maori on voters rolls and Western Maori electoral rolls living in
Karioi remained more or less static between 1908 and 1954 (varying between 59 and 45 people).
This might suggest that the Maori population of the township was also static.
The great majority of Maori voters living at the three southern centres gave their iwi as
Whanganui or Wainui-a-Rua (which appears, from an examination of hapu affiliations, to be
Whanganui iwi). Of those who identified as Whanganui or Wainui-a-Rua in Raetihi, the majority
identified their hapu as Ngati Uenuku. The pattern in Ohakune was significantly different, those
identifying as Whanganui iwi (also including Ati Hau, Ngati Hau, Wainui-a-Rua) making up just
over 50 percent of the Maori voters. Hapu affiliation amongst those who identified as Whanganui
was decidedly more mixed with the largest single group identifying as Ngati Rangi hapu. In Karioi
amongst those who identified as Whanganui iwi there was a predominance of those identifying as
Ngati Rangi hapu (including those who identified as Ngati Rangi jointly with other hapu and the
occasional person who identified their iwi as Ngati Rangi).
B) RAILWAY AND MILLING TOWNS ON THE WESTERN BOUNDARY (HOROPITO, POKAKA, ERUA,NATIONAL PARK, RAURIMU, OWHANGO & KAKAHI)(Source: Maori Voters Rolls for Western Maori 1908, 1919 and Maori Electoral Rolls for Western
Maori, 1949-1951 and 1954)
Horopito
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati MaruWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaWaikatoNgati TuwharetoaNgapuhi
National Park
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati WaiNgati HauaNgati RuakawaWhanganuiWhakatereWaikatoTuhoeTe ArawaTaranakiNgati TuwharetoaNgati PorouNgati ManiapotoNgapuhiMuaupoko
36
Owhango
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1908 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati HauaNgati WhatuaNgati AwaWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaWaikatoTe AtiawaTe ArawaNgati TuwharetoaNgati ManiapotoNgapuhi
Raurimu
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati TamateraWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaWaikatoTe ArawaNgati TuwharetoaNgati RuanuiNgati ManiapotoNgapuhi
37
Kakahi
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1908 1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
WhanganuiWaikatoTeaupouriNgati-TuwharetoaNgati-RuakawaNgati-RaukawaNgati-PorouNgati-ManiapotoNgati-AwaNgati TuwharetoaNgapuhi
These towns were all stations on the Main Trunk Line. Only in the two northern-most townships
(Owhango and Kakahi), where there were permanent timber mills, did Maori voters register
before 1949-51.
The number of Maori voters living in Kakahi increased substantially between 1908 when only
three Maori voters appear on the roll and 1949 –50 when 81 Maori were registered on the
Western Maori roll. This declined to 55 in 1954. This peak and decline may reflect the peak and
decline of the operation of timber mill in the township. The pattern is unclear in the case of
Owhango where just 17 Maori were registered to vote on the Western Maori roll in 1954.
The number of Maori voters registered on the Western Maori electoral roll increased between
1949 – 51 and 1954 in the three southern-most townships, Horopito, Pokaka and Erua.
However, in all cases the total number of Maori voters remained 10 or less in 1954.
By comparison, the number of Maori voters registered on the Western Maori electoral roll
decreased between 1949 – 51 and 1954 in Raurimu and National Park. In both these townships
Maori voter numbers were significantly higher (between 16 and 68) than for the three southern-
most settlements. Of the two townships, there were significantly more Maori voters in National
Park than in Raurimu.
38
As the graphs demonstrates Maori voters living in these towns affiliated to a wide range of iwi,
with this diversity becoming more obvious by 1954. Of the railway and timber-milling towns
along the western boundary of the inquiry district, Owhango and Raurimu had the most diverse
group of voters. This diversity is probably the result of migration into the area by Maori working
on the railway and in timber mills.
Kakahi had a clear predominance of voters affiliated to Ngati Tuwharetoa (the majority of these
affiliated to Ngati Manunui, Ngati Hikairo and Ngati Turumakina).
There were also significant numbers of voters at National Park who affiliated to Ngati Tuwharetoa
(the most common affiliations were to Ngati Kurauria, Ngati Hikairo, Ngati Hinemihi, Ngati Hine,
Ngati Manunui and Ngati Marangataua).
By 1954 the majority of voters living in Horopito identified as Wainui-a-Rua (Whanganui iwi).
These handful of voters identified their hapu as Ngati Hau or Ngati Uenuku.
C) MAORI SETTLEMENTS IN THE NORTH AND WEST OF THE INQUIRY DISTRICT (TAUREWA,KETETAHI, PAPAKAI, TONGARIRO AND OTUKOU)
(Source: Maori Voters Rolls for Western Maori 1908, 1919 and Maori Electoral Rolls for Western
Maori, 1949-1951 and 1954)
Taurewa
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati RuapaniNgati TamateraNgati RuakawaWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaTe ArawaNgati TuwharetoaNgati RaukawaNgapuhi
39
Ketetahi
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati MaruNgati ApaWhanganuiWainui-a-RuaTaranakiNgati TuwharetoaNgati RuanuiNgapuhi
Tongariro
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1908 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati HauaNgati TuwharetoaNgapuhi
40
Otukou
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1908 1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
WaikatoNgati Tuwharetoa
A very small number of Maori voters living at Papakai were registered on the 1908 and 1919
Maori voters rolls (two and one respectively). But after 1919 no Maori voters giving their address
as Papakai appear on the Maori rolls up to 1954.
The number of Maori voters residing at Otukou is remarkably stable across the 1919 – 1954
period (10 appear on each roll, apart from 1919 when there is a decrease to just six people).
The number of Maori voters who gave their address as Taurewa, Ketetahi and Tongariro showed
a decline between 1949 and 1954. This decline was particularly marked in the case of Ketetahi.
This may suggest that timbers mills in those settlements had begun to wind down their
operations by 1954.
Patterns of iwi affiliation amongst Maori voters in settlements in the north and west of the district
general show that the majority of those on the electoral rolls identified as Ngati Tuwharetoa.
This is most pronounced at Tongariro and Otukou where only a handful of voters did not identify
as Ngati Tuwharetoa. At both Tongariro and Otukou these Ngati Tuwharetoa voters most often
identified as Ngati Hikairo.
The voters at Taurewa (in 1949-1951 and 1954) and Ketetahi (1919, 1949-51 and 1954) were
more diverse in their iwi affiliation than those at Tongariro and Otukou, although about half of
those registered to vote at Taurewa identified as Ngati Tuwharetoa. Those voters living at
41
Taurewa who identified as Ngati Tuwharetoa in 1949-1951 and 1954 most often identified their
hapu as Ngati Manunui or Ngati Hikairo. There were too few Ngati Tuwharetoa voters at
Ketetahi in these years to detect a pattern in hapu affiliations. In both these settlements Ngapuhi
voters were a significant group (making up about a third of voters in Taurewa and between a
third and two-thirds of voters in Ketetahi over the 1949 – 1954 period).
There was a significant change in the iwi affiliation of voters in Ketetahi between 1919 and 1949.
In 1919 about half of the Maori voters registered as living at Ketetahi identified as Ngati Ruanui
(six of the 13 voters), the remainder being Ngati Apa (six of the 13 voters) and Taranaki (one of
the 13 voters). This completely changed in 1949 and 1954 when the majority of voters were
Ngapuhi with smaller numbers of Ngati Tuwharetoa, Whanganui/Wainui-a-Rua. It is unclear why
this change occurred and whether it reflects a change in the composition of the Maori population
of settlement.
D) MAORI SETTLEMENT IN THE NORTHERN POPULATION CENTRES (TURANGI AND TOKAANU)
(Source: Maori Voters Rolls for Western Maori 1908, 1919 and Maori Electoral Rolls for Western
Maori, 1949-1951 and 1954)
Turangi
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
WhanganuiNgati TuwharetoaNgapuhi
42
Tokaanu
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1908 1919 1949 1954
Num
ber o
f Vot
ers
Ngati UenukuNgati WhatuaNgati AwaTe Whanau-a-ApanuiTe ArawaTaranakiNgati TuwharetoaNgati ManiapotoNgapuhi
It is clear from these figures that Tokaanu was a more significant and established centre for
Maori population than Turangi. Maori voters living in Turangi only begin appearing on the Maori
electoral rolls in 1949. However, there was a significant leap in their numbers by 1954 (up from
17 in 1949-51 to 57 in 1954). This may indicate that Turangi experienced an influx of Maori in
the early 1950s.
By contrast the number of Maori voters living in Tokaanu remained stable at between 61 and 71
between 1919 and 1954. However, there was an unexplained leap in numbers (up to 89) in
1919.
In both Turangi and Tokaanu the majority of Maori voters identified as Ngati Tuwharetoa. In
Turangi the hapu groups to whom most Ngati Tuwharetoa voters affiliated were Ngati Turangi,
Ngati Hine and Ngati Rongomai. In Tokaanu the largest number of Ngati Tuwharetoa voters
identified as Ngati Kurauria, Ngati te Rangiita, Ngati Turangi[tukua] and Ngati Turumakina.
1.2.4 Conclusion
The sources are insufficient to provide an accurate time series of data for Maori population in the
National Park inquiry for the period 1890 to 1990 because the census data can only provide Maori
population statistics at the county and territorial authority level. These are too broad to
accurately calculate Maori population in the inquiry district. The census data themesleves have a
number of limitations in terms of accuracy, changing county boundaries and definitions of who is
43
counted as Maori. This leads to the conclusion that Kukutai, Pool & Sceats reached in their report,
that is the changing nature of the census ‘make time-series analysis impossible at a sub-national
level.’49 As the inquiry district takes in parts of four counties, even tabulating Maori populations
for those counties can not produce a set of data that accurately reflects Maori population in the
inquiry district.
Maori voters rolls and electoral rolls for Western Maori from 1908, 1919, 1949-51 and 1954
cannot give a Maori population figure for settlements and townships, but simply indicate which
kainga and townships had Maori inhabitants in these years and which iwi and hapu those voters
affliated to. Native school registers of admissions, progress and withdrawals could be statistically
analysed to chart patterns of migration of those pupils to and from destinations within and
outside the inquiry district. However only the Otukou, Tokaanu and perhaps Moawhango Native
schools have enough data for such an analysis and the numbers of pupils who did move may
actually be too small to be statistically significant. In the absence of accurate population data, a
useful analysis to determine migration trends is not possible.
49 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 16
Part 2: Economic and EmploymentOpportunities for Maori
45
2.1 Customary Resource Use2.1.1 Introduction
The commission for this scoping report requires that sources relating to economic and
employment opportunities for Maori within the inquiry district be identified and their significance
discussed. A section on customary resource use has been included in this scoping report under
economic opportunities because the gathering of fish, birds and possibly game formed part of a
mixed economy for Maori in some parts of the inquiry district until the 1950s. Customary
resource use provided food for communities and should be considered alongside the other
avenues open to Maori for economic support such as small scale subsistence agriculture around
kainga and settlements, Maori-owned and run farms, income from rents and licences on farm and
bush lands, and wages from labouring in public works, farming, forestry, hydro construction and
other sectors. This section identifies and evaluates sources in terms of what they are able to say
about the types of customary resources utilised by Maori living in the National Park inquiry district
and the duration and extent of that resource use within the 1890 to 1990 period. Finally, these
sources are considered in terms of what they are able to show regarding the impact of Crown
wildlife management policies and practices upon Maori customary resource use in the inquiry
district.
2.1.2 Identifying Customary Resources and their Use in the National Park Inquiry
District, 1890 - 1990
2.1.2(a) Introduction
Particular statements of claim for Wai 1130 provide an indication of the range of customary
resource use that may have taken place in and around the inquiry district.50 This includes:
In general:
• Gathering of medicinal plants from the forest
• Harvesting foods from forests and waterways to be used in trade with other hapu, to provide
for whanau and hapu, and to host manuhiri
In particular:
• Harvesting traditional foods such as pikopiko and komata (plants), and kereru (bird) for the
sustenance and good health of pregnant women, the elderly and the sick
• Bird species gathered also included kaka, tui and bellbirds
• Uncultivated mahinga kai included birds, fernroot, berries and kiore
50 Wai 37, 833 & 933, Ngati Hikairo consolidated SOC, 22 July 2005; Wai 575, 61, 226, 269, 480, 490 & 502,comprehensive claim on behalf of Tuwharetoa, 4th amended SOC, 26 July 2005; Wai 1260, hapu of Ngati Waewae,amended SOC, 5 August 2005 and Wai 1262, hapu of Ngati Hikairo ki Tongariro, amended SOC, 12 August 2005
46
• Resources, including feathers and raupo, used for making tools, clothing, and to support
other economic activities
• Use of feathers of the kiwi and the kereru for garments
• Gathering of timber to build whare
• Fishing for koaro in waterways but especially in Lake Rotoaira and the Wairehu Stream
• Fishing of trout as source of food in the waterways of the district as indigenous fish stock
became depleted by the introduction of trout into those waterways
• Tuna fishing on streams using hinaki
2.1.2(b) Nineteenth Century Customary Resource Use
The taking of customary resources for food had a strong basis in traditional knowledge and
practice. While these practices were not static and were subject to changes as the environment
was modified, populations relocated and new technology was introduced, many of the resources
Maori in the inquiry district had depended upon in the nineteenth century remained important
into the twentieth century. Therefore, sources which discuss Maori customary resource use in the
National Park inquiry district during the nineteenth century provide information that has some
relevance to the types of customary resources, their location, methods of gathering, preservation
and use in the inquiry district.
Williams and Walton provide the best summary of what is known about customary resources in
the nineteenth century in the Taupo-Tongariro area. They review evidence regarding the use of
aquatic resources. This includes fish, particularly koaro, common bully and inanga (whitebait),
shellfish, principally freshwater mussels, and koura (freshwater crayfish). They also summarise
the evidence regarding eels and waterfowl as well as the trade in pumice and obsidian from the
area as materials for tool making.
Casebook research for the National Park inquiry examines Maori Land Court minute books as a
source of information regarding customary resource use in the nineteenth century. This is useful
in supplementing the list of resources that have traditional been important to Maori in the inquiry
district. Robyn Anderson, ‘Tongariro National Park: An Overview Report on the Relationship
between Maori and the Crown in the Establishment of the Tongariro National Park’, April 2005
(Wai 1130 #A9) draws on a considerable body of Native Land Court minutes from the 1870s -
1880s. This evidence provides details of birding, eeling, rat catching, dressing of flax, digging for
47
ochre, collecting fern root, and the taking of titi (mutton bird) from ledge on the mountain.51
These court minutes include those for the Okahukura Block where a witness from Ngati
Waewae/Ngati Rongomai described working of ochre at Ngaroro-o-nga-whenua and collecting of
fern root at Owharoa and other sites on the Ngapuna and Papakai blocks.52 Anderson discusses
the limitation of these accounts as evidence but concludes, despite those limitations, that, ‘most
witnesses in the blocks around Tongariro and Ruapehu gave the impression of the continuing
collection of resources in the area well into the nineteenth century and up to the land being put
through the court.’53 She also concludes that ‘European visitors tended to confirm that the area
was still being utilised for traditional resources - if not entirely in traditional ways - in the third
quarter of the nineteenth century.’54 She cites Kerry-Nicholls who listed berries and fruit species
still being gathered in forests round Tongariro and Ruapehu in 1884. These berries provided bait
for Kereru and other birds, dyes, and special woods, as well as fodder for cattle and horses.55
2.1.2(c) Twentieth Century Customary Resource Use
There are a number of sources that provide fragmentary data on the nature, location and extent
of Maori customary resource use in the inquiry district during the twentieth century. All of these
sources relate to the period up to about the 1950s.
i) General
Kukutai et al make brief reference to twentieth century customary resource use. Pool’s
interviews with kaumatua in the Taupo area about the 1920s - 1950s period indicate that while
housing, water supply and sanitation was very poor, in any settlements food ‘appeared to have
been plentiful right up to the 1950s. Native fish species were harvested until about that time,
when the combination of introduced species and rising lake levels, reduced stocks significantly.
Wild pig and cattle provided the necessary sources of protein.’56
ii) Birds
Anderson, 2005 provides important information about the harvesting of titi (mutton bird) within
the Tongariro National Park in the 1920s. A 1923 report stated that, ‘All the birds originally
51 Robyn Anderson, ‘Tongariro National Park: An Overview Report on the Relationship between Maori and the Crown inthe Establishment of the Tongariro National Park’, April 2005, Wai 1130, #A9, p 2352 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 2553 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 2654 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 2855 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, pp 28 - 29 citing Kerry-Nicholls, King Country, Christchurch, first published1884 reprinted 1974, pp 267, 352 - 35456 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 89
48
known in the park are still represented there. Mutton-birds, or ocean petrels, also come to rest in
the slopes if the mountains. The young birds area delicacy with the Maoris, who often take them
before they are ready for flight to the sea.’57
Anderson notes that:
It is unknown whether park officials took active steps to prevent Maori from taking
resources such as mutton-bird from the mountain. The first annual report of the park
board [cited above] suggests that the practice had continued, but this does not accord
with either the official record, or the current understanding of claimants. The issue was
never mentioned in Cullen’s reports, and indeed, the species was rarely mentioned at all.
It would seem that traditional harvesting had already declined by the early twentieth
century; Richard Akipita of Ngati Rangi and Ngati Rangiteauria stated, in 1997, that he
had been surprised to learn from his uncle, in the 1960s, that ‘the old people used to
hunt mutton birds on Mount Ruapehu.58
Anderson considers that it is likely that this decline in customary harvesting had resulted from the
damage inflicted on the species by the Norwegian rat, the changing lifestyle of local Maori, and
the general withdrawal from the area, rather than from active policing by the park warden. She
also notes that, in 1959, the Wildlife Service conducted an unsuccessful search for nesting
grounds of the black and mottled petrels which were ‘thought to have nested there in the past’.59
It is clear from Gardiner, 1993 that bird hunting remained important at Otukou near Lake
Rotoaira throughout the first half of the twentieth century. She cites an account by James
Cowan who visited the settlement in 1900 that mentions fowling pieces (rifles used for shooting
birds) hanging in the in wharenui at Otukou. This is certainly circumstantial evidence that birds
remained a source of food. In addition, Gardiner provides a rich description of birding practices
at Otukou up till the 1950s. Her account of the taking of titi (mutton bird or taiko) on Mount
Tongariro in the early decades of the twentieth century verifies and amplifies the account given
in sources cited by Anderson. Gardiner also discusses the taking, preserving and use of kereru,
also known in the area as kukupa, as well as tui, komako, tieke and kakariki.
57 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 216 citing a Report of the Board of the Tongariro National Park, AJHR,1923, sess II C - 13, p 258 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, pp 221 - 222 citing Aotea Maori Land Court Minute Book, 70, 28 January1997, p 9959 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 222 citing the Report of the Department of Internal Affairs, AJHR 1959,H-22, p 25
49
iii) Fish
Both indigenous fish species and introduced trout (from about 1920) were used by Maori in the
inquiry district as a source of food in the twentieth century. There are scattered references to
Maori fishing for indigenous fish species and later for trout in a number of casebook and other
secondary sources, almost all of these relate to Lake Rotoaira and its tributaries. Tony Walzl,
‘Hydro-electricity Issues: The Tongariro Power Development Scheme, February 2005 (wai 11300
#A8) cites a number of pieces of evidence that indicate that koaro from Lake Rotoaira were an
important food source for Maori in the area. He discusses a 1905 petition by 138 Maori
requesting that trout not be introduced, and expressing fears that this would endanger
indigenous fish. Walzl also cites evidence from 1919 - 1920 of koara being count frequently and
in good numbers by Maori living around the lake. He cites a 1919 report by R J Tillyard that
makes it clear that kaoro were an important food source for Maori. 60 Copies of all source material
cited by Walzl are available in the document bank that accompanies his report.
There are indications that kaoro formed an important part of the customary trading pattern
amongst the iwi of the region. Cathy Marr, ‘Crown Impacts on Customary Maori Authority over
the Coast, Inland Waterways (other than the Whanganui River) and associated mahinga kai in
the Whanganui Inquiry District’, June 2003 (Wai 903 #A36) mentions that ‘the upper Whanganui
people traded piharau for a particular koaro unique to Lake Rotoaira on the edge of the district.’61
Several other secondary sources provide evidence that is helpful in assessing the nature, location
and extent of customary fishing in the inquiry district, and its importance as a food source for
Maori in the twentieth century. John Te H Grace, Tuwharetoa: A History of the Maori People of
the Taupo Area, Reed, reprint 2005 (first published 1959) has a chapter entitled ‘Native Fish of
Taupo’. This provides the names, descriptions and location of various indigenous fish species in
waterways in the Taupo region and detailed material on customary fishing methods. The
Waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, pp 132 - 133 includes a
discussion of the impact of the Tongariro Power Development Scheme on the Tokaanu River.
The report cites tangata whenua evidence from that inquiry regarding the types of fish and plants
gathered from the river and the practices surrounding this customary harvesting. Gardiner also
provides a description of the taking, drying and smoking of koaro from Lake Rotoaira and other
waterways and states that this was practiced at Otukou through to the 1950s. It is possible that
60 Tony Walzl, ‘Hydro-electricity Issues: The Tongariro Power Development Scheme, February 2005, Wai 1130 #A8,pp 8 - 10
50
Reverend H J Fletcher, 1919: ‘The Edible fish of Taupo-nui-a-Tia’, Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute, 51: 259 - 264 may provide further material on customary fishing in the inquiry
district.
It is not possible to tell from these limited sources whether there were significant changes in
customary resource usage over the twentieth century. Anderson, 2005 outlines evidence from
the National Park Board’s annual reports from 1930s that noted the loss of bird and indigenous
fish species and numbers due to stouts, fires from Maori land, railways and the prison
construction.62 She also records that
‘[Elsdon] Best in 1929, had described how Maori caught large numbers of whitebait in
Taupo and Rotoaira, but by the 1970s, native species remained abundant only at
Rotopuanamu, surrounded as it was, by dense bush cover and where trout had not been
introduced. McDowell was to comment in his 1978 study on New Zealand’s freshwater
fishes, that there were no longer the numbers to merit any traditional fishing activity in
the Central North Island District.’63
The impact of the introduction of trout and of the construction of the Tongariro Power
Development Scheme on the availability of indigenous fish species is also a significant issue. This
will be addressed in an upcoming gap filling research on environmental impact of the Tongariro
Power Development Scheme.
2.1.3 The Impact of Crown Regulation on Customary Resources use in the National
Park Inquiry District, 1890 - 1900
2.1.3(a) Introduction
Crown regulation of customary resources had the potential to significantly impact upon the ability
of Maori in the inquiry district to utilise customary resources as a food source during the
twentieth century. This section examines sources that may provide an indication of what
regulations the Crown put in place, when and how they applied to Maori use of customary
resources in the inquiry district and what impact this had upon individual Maori using such
resources. This includes the introduction of fishing seasons, fishing regulation and licences for
trout and indigenous fish species, as well as restrictions and/or prohibitions on the taking of
various species of native birds and plants (inside and outside the Tongariro National Park).
61 Cathy Marr, ‘Crown Impacts on Customary Maori Authority over the Coast, Inland Waterways (other than theWhanganui River) and associated mahinga kai in the Whanganui Inquiry District’, June 2003, Wai 903 #A36, pp 28 - 2962 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, pp 216 - 21863 Anderson,Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 218
51
2.1.3(b) Secondary Sources
Key policies, administrative agencies and legislation regulating Maori ownership control and
access to customary resources in New Zealand over the twentieth century are well documented
in a number of research reports on Tribunal records of inquiry. In particular, two volumes
produced for the Wai 262 (Flora and Fauna) inquiry provide an excellent overview:
• C Marr, R Hodge, & B White, ‘Crown Laws, Policies and Practices in relation to Flora and
Fauna, 1840 - 1912’, (Wai 262 #K5).
• R McLean and T Smith, ‘The Crown and Flora and Fauna: legislation, Policies and Practices,
1983 - 1998’, July 1999, (Wai 262 #H6).
Both volumes have comprehensive footnotes and bibliography should any further sources need to
be located.
With regard to how these regulations may have been implemented within the Tongariro National
Park, Anderson provides an outline of the way in which the Tongariro National Park was
regulated from the first Tongariro National Park by-laws in 1908 to the Conservation Act 1987.
Anderson concluded that:
The lack of consideration of Maori customary righyts for much of the park’s history was
partly because their [Maori] title had already been extinguished to the bulk of the lands
contained within it; and while the maunga were “auspicious in Maori tradition” they had
not themselves, been used intensively for mahinga kai. Thus, there was little need, in
official thinking, for reference to Maori views. Nor was there the same sort of criticism,
by Maori, of the policies introduced for the preservation of flora and fauna in the case of
Tongariro as there had been, for example, at the central laes and Whanganui National
Park where customary fishing practices had been severely eroded by exotic introductions
and other ‘improvements’ followed by scenery preservation measures.64
Anderson’s examination of the regulation of the National Park is supplemented by Nicholas Bayley
and Mark Derby, ‘Tongariro National Park Management from 1980 to the Present: A Scoping
Report’, September 2004, (Wai 1130 #A6). Bayley and Derby primarily focus upon the building of
a relationship between the Department of Conservation and tangata whenua in terms of
conservation and concrete initiatives to involve iwi in the management of the Park. Therefore,
there is not much discussion in the report regarding customary resource use, other than citing
mentions in legislation and in Tongariro National Park management plans.
64 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 221
52
2.1.3(c) Primary Sources
The Crown’s regulation of trout fishing in the inquiry district, and the provision for Maori both to
take trout and to exercise certain powers over the trout fishery at Lake Rotoaira under fishing
regulations became intertwined with Ngati Tuwharetoa attempts to develop trout fishing at Lake
Rotoaira as tourist venture in the twentieth century. This is discussed further in the chapter on
tourism and many of the sources listed and discussed in that chapter are also relevant to the
issue of the impact of regulation on Maori customary fishing.
A number of general files at Archives New Zealand Wellington were also identified but not
examined during this scoping exercise. These may contain material about the impact of Crown
regulation of customary fish, birds, game and plants on Maori in the inquiry district:
• AANS W3546 box 3 WIL 1/6/17 Legislation - breaches and prosecutions of wildlife legislation
- Waimarino Acclimatisation Society district 1969 - 1975
• AANS W3832 box 4 2/19/6 Waimarino Acclimatisation Society - Game Season 1967 - 1977
• ADOE 16612 M1 1/7/56 Fishing regulations: Waimarino Acclimatisation Society complaint of
management 1923
• BAHT 5118 box 6a 2/19/5 pt 1 Acclimatisation Societies - Waimarino Acclimatisation Society
Appointment of Rangers 1969 - 1985
• IA1 46/16/17 pt 1 Wildlife - Shooting Season - Game - Waimarino Acclimatisation Society
1937 - 1954
• IA1 49/2/3 Wildlife - Opossums - Season - Waimarino Acclimatisation Society, n/d
• IA W5278, 79/72, Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Rotopounama [sic] (1929 - 38), ANZ Wellington.
This is a slim archival file that provides ranger’s reports of the state of fish and wildlife in and
on Lake Rotopounamu from 1929 - 1938 as well as some discussion of how that wildlife was
to be managed by the Department of Internal Affairs.
The following sources should be considered:
• Records Held at Fish and Game Council regional offices
• Annual Reports of the Department of Internal Affairs (AJHR)
• Records held by Department of Conservation Offices (Turangi and Wellington)
2.1.4 Conclusion
This scoping exercise has uncovered only scattered information indicating the nature, extent,
duration and location of customary resource use by Maori in the National Park inquiry district
during the twentieth century. These limited sources indicate that there was ongoing customary
53
resource use by Maori in the inquiry district and that the gathering of indigenous fish (particularly
at Lake Rotoaira) and trout, muttonbirds and other forest birds continued into the 1950s. The
sources identified so far are too limited to provide strong evidence regarding how widespread
customary resource use was, or its economic significance in sustaining Maori communities. Nor
can these sources provide a clear picture of how customary resource use by Maori in the inquiry
district changed over time between 1890 and 1990. The sources so far identified are also too
limited to document how Crown regulation of these resources affected Maori in the inquiry
district.
There is a significant body of research on Crown legislation, policy and practice with regard to
flora and fauna which could be coupled with the sources on trout fishing discussed in the chapter
on tourism to produce a wider case study of Maori use of the trout fishery at Lake Rotoaira both
as a food source and as an opportunity to develop a tourist venture. Further research to fill
these gaps would be time consuming, require negotiating access to records held by various
bodies, and would probably not yield a useful body of data. Tangata whenua evidence, however,
may supply further information on these issues at hearings.
2.2 Farming2.2.1 Introduction
This chapter identifies and assesses the sources relating to economic and employment
opportunities available to Maori in the inquiry district in the agricultural sector between 1890 and
1990. The chapter is deliberately broad in focus and examines sources that relate to Maori both
as farmers utilising Maori land, and as labourers on Pakeha owned farms in and around the
National Park inquiry district. The chapter begins with an investigation of sources relating to
small-scale domestic horticulture in and around Maori kainga in the district. This played an
important role in supporting Maori communities in an economy that was often a mix of cash and
subsistence until well into the twentieth century. This section is followed by a discussion of
sources of data on Maori agriculture and Maori sheep farming in the region. Sources that provide
information about development schemes, Maori dairy farming and flax milling are also briefly
discussed.
2.2.2 Maori Horticulture
2.2.2(a) Overall Patterns in Maori Agriculture
There are some general figures for Maori crops and livestock in the central North Island from
census data from 1891 to 1911 (see appendix 6). It should be noted that the original data was
collected by census emunerators. As already noted, officials often had difficulty reaching all parts
54
of the district and sometimes found Maori reluctant to give information. It also appears that
enumerators found it difficult to discover which crops and livestock belonged to individuals and
which the hapu or whanau owned collectively. For these reason stock numbers and acreages are
best treated as estimates rather than exact figures. The data are also for the county level only
and so can not give a picture of Maori agriculture in the inquiry district. Nevertheless, these
statistics do tell us something about the relative importance of various types of agriculture and
how this changes during this brief period. Maori agricultural statistics ceased to be collected in
the census after 1911.
i) Livestock
A) SHEEP(Source: Maori Census of Maori Population and Dwellings 1886 – 1911, AJHR H-26)
The county in which Maori owned the least sheep was East Taupo, where the total number of
sheep owned by Maori remained under 10,000 until 1911. The trend in that county was for slow
growth in sheep numbers with the most significant growth period between 1906 (7,334 sheep)
and 1911 (17,812 sheep). It unclear what caused this sudden increase in sheep numbers.
Sheep
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
Num
ber
West Taupo East Taupo Waimarino Wanganui
Wanganui 12,065.00 14,145.00 15,395.00 17,200.00 9,054.00 18,936.00
Waimarino 10,608.00 19,832.00
East Taupo 1,000.00 3,105.00 2,560.00 7,700.00 7,334.00 17,812.00
West Taupo 60.00 3,628.00 27,430.00 20,107.00 1,400.00 5,680.00
1886 1891 1896 1901 1906 1911
55
The pattern in Maori owned sheep numbers for the West Taupo county is significantly different.
In 1886 Maori in this county owned just 60 sheep, but Maori sheep farming rapidly expanded so
that Maori owned sheep numbers in the county peaked at 27, 430 in 1896, declining slightly by
1901 but reducing dramatically to just 1,400 in 1906. There was a small recovery and by 1911
Maori owned 5,680 sheep in the county (less than a quarter of what they had owned in 1896).
In comparison, Maori sheep farming in the Wanganui county was established earlier, by 1886
Maori already owned 12,065 sheep, and these numbers rose steadily till they reached 17,200 in
1901. Statistics show a sudden drop in 1906, down to just 9,054 sheep (almost halving Maori
owned sheep numbers between the two censuses). However, by 1911 the number of sheep
owned by Maori in the Wanganui county had recovered and slightly exceeded the 1906 figure.
It is unclear what caused the rapid decline in Maori owned sheep numbers between the 1901 and
1906 censuses. That a decline is shown in all three counties suggests that this was not an
enumeration error but represents an actual decline in sheep numbers. Neither is it clear why
Maori sheep farming in the Wanganui and West Taupo Counties grew even faster after this
downturn, but the same did not happen in East Taupo county.
B) CATTLE(Source: Maori Census of Maori Population and Dwellings 1886 – 1911,
AJHR, H-26)
Cattle
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
Num
ber
West Taupo East Taupo Waimarino Wanganui
Wanganui 1,438.00 1,061.00 568.00 548.00 1,551.00
Waimarino 1,363.00
East Taupo 1,325.00 1,058.00 223.00 344.00 1,230.00
West Taupo 1,052.00 1,946.00 1,466.00 3,087.00 1,298.00
1886 1891 1896 1901 1906
56
In general the figures for the number of Maori owned cattle do not follow the same pattern as
Maori owned sheep numbers. There is a similar slump in cattle numbers but this occurred
between 1891 and 1896, earlier than for sheep. This was followed by a period of strong growth
between the 1901 and 1906 censuses. In the case of sheep numbers this growth occurred later,
between 1906 and 1911.
Maori owned cattle numbers followed a very similar pattern in both the Wanganui and East
Taupo counties. There was a small decline between 1886 and 1891. This accelerated between
1891 and 1896 when cattle numbers in these two counties more than halved, the decline being
more dramatic in the East Taupo county. There was relatively little change between 1896 and
1901 but strong growth in 1906 when Maori owned cattle number in both these counties more or
less tripled. As in the case of Maori sheep farming, the pattern in the West Taupo county is
considerably different from the two other counties. In this county Maori cattle numbers are
higher than in the other two counties before 1906. They peak in 1891 and again, more sharply,
in 1901, but fall by about a third by 1906 (against the trend in the other two counties). By 1906
the Maori owned cattle numbers in the East and West Taupo and Waimarino counties are almost
the same (between 1,230 and 1,363). By 1906 Maori owned cattle numbers were slightly higher
at 1,551 for the Whanganui county.
C) SOWN GRASS(Source: Maori Census of Maori Population and Dwellings 1886 – 1911, AJHR, H-26)
Sown Grass - Individual
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
Acre
s
West Taupo East Taupo Waimarino Wanganui
Wanganui 91.00 2,496.00 7,311.00 13,387.75 12,045.00
Waimarino 4,361.00 6,409.00
East Taupo 44.00 0.00 22.00 1,799.00 6,743.00
West Taupo 570.00 1,205.50 524.00 171.00 2,222.00 12,344.00
1886 1891 1896 1901 1906 1911
57
It may be expected that the acreage in sown grass would have some correlation to changes in
stock numbers.
However, what we see is a a very strong exponential growth in the amount of Maori land in sown
grass (pasture) between 1886 and 1911 in all four counties, perhaps far more so than the stock
numbers might have suggested.
By 1911 the rate of increase in the acreage of Maori land in sown grass in the Wanganui county
had slowed, with a small drop in acreage recorded from 1906 to 1911. The rate of increase in
the acreage in pasture land was strongest in the West Taupo county in the 1906 – 1911 period,
leaping from 2,222 acres in 1906 to 12,344 acres in 1911.
D) PIGS(Source: Maori Census of Maori Population and Dwellings 1886 – 1911, AJHR, H-26)
Pigs
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
Num
ber
West Taupo East Taupo Waimarino Wanganui
Wanganui 2,178.00 2,180.00 2,214.00 2,688.00 1,298.00 1,192.00
Waimarino 1,573.00 1,104.00
East Taupo 4,144.00 6,134.00 1,500.00 269.00 820.00 3,381.00
West Taupo 3,761.00 7,577.00 6,906.00 3,264.00 957.00 2,802.00
1886 1891 1896 1901 1906 1911
Maori owned pig numbers in the Wanganui county remained relatively stable (between 2178 and
2688) between 1886 and 1901. In 1906 there was a significant drop and a further decline by
1911.
58
Maori owned a significantly larger number of pigs in the West and East Taupo counties in the
1880s. Maori owned pig numbers in these counties peak in 1891. By 1896 numbers have
declined slightly in the West Taupo county but have dropped dramatically in East Taupo county.
This dramatic decline continues in East Taupo between 1896 and 1901. A similar pattern of
decline takes place in West Taupo county, with a particularly marked decline between 1901 and
1906. However, by contrast there was very strong growth in Maori owned pig numbers between
1906 and 1911in the Wanganui county.
ii. Crops
The extent of maise, wheat and other crops grown by Maori in the Taupo and Whanganui regions
was relatively limited.
A) POTATOES(Source: Census of Maori
Population and Dwellings 1886 – 1911, AJHR, H-26)
Potatoes - Collective
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
Acre
s
West Taupo East Taupo Waimarino Wanganui
Wanganui 306.50 0.00 50.00 32.00
Waimarino 9.00
East Taupo 384.00 870.00 228.50 35.50
West Taupo 318.50 325.00 0.00 306.50 147.50
1886 1891 1896 1901 1906
59
Potatoes - Individuals
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
Acre
s
West Taupo East Taupo Waimarino Wanganui
Wanganui 339.50 293.00 469.75 329.25
Waimarino 266.50
East Taupo 891.00 46.00 181.00 239.50
West Taupo 28.00 211.25 640.00 493.50 276.00
1886 1891 1896 1901 1906
However potato crops were far more extensive and appear to have been a significant food crop
for Maori communities, particularly in the early twentieth century (see discussion on the 1905 –
1906 potato blight in chapter on Living Conditions).
The variation in the pattern of potato crops grown by Maori across the three counties suggest
that the extent of potato crops was subject to local conditions.
The extent of potato crops were small and relatively stable in the Wanganui county between
1886 and 1896 (the total crop, i.e. that shown as grown by individuals and collectives, ranging
between 293 and 339.5 acres). However, there was significant growth in this combined acreage
between 1896 and 1901 (up to 519.75 acres) before a sharp fall to 361.25 acres in 1906.
However, even with this fall the area in potatoes was still slightly greater than it had been
between 1886 and 1896.
In the East Taupo county the combined acreage in potatoes grew rapidly between 1886 and
1891 (from just 383 acres to 1761 acres). However, this was followed by a sharp decline back
down to just a total area of just 181 acres in 1901. There was a slight rise between 1901 and
1906 up to a total area of 275 acres (this occurred despite the 1905 – 1906 potato blight).
In the West Taupo county there is a pattern of sustained growth in the total acreage in potatoes
from 346.5 acres in 1886 to 800 acres by 1901. However this was almost halved to 423.5 acres
60
by 1906. The potato blight seems to have been responsible for this dramatic decline in potato
crops.
2.2.2(b) Domestic Horticulture
It is clear from secondary sources that Maori horticulture in the Southern-Taupo-Tongariro region
was well established by the end of the nineteenth century. Several secondary sources discuss
the nature, extent and location of Maori horticulture in the area. Williams and Walton provide a
review of the historical and archaeological evidence of Maori horticulture in the northern part of
the inquiry district in the nineteenth century. Cooper, 1989, notes as early as 1841 European
visitors to the region commented on the intensive horticulture on the Tongariro River delta
between Waihi and Tokaanu. She states that there were also cultivations on the eastern slopes of
the Hauhungaroa Range to the west of the lake [Lake Taupo], and on the slopes to the north of
Rotoaira.’65
Discussion of Maori horticulture in the inquiry district during the twentieth century is limited.
Gardiner provides a very useful description of the types and extent of crops and domestic
livestock around the Otukou settlement in the first half of the twentieth century. Kukutai et al
2002 interviewed a number of ‘Tuwharetoa (or Arawa) elders in the wider Central North Island
region and noted that none of those they spoke with ‘recalled ever going without food. Kai
appeared to be plentiful right up to the 1950s … There were extensive cultivations on
communally owned land around the lake [Lake Taupo], in which whanau were allocated plots ….
Smoking in the chimney, or drying in the sun preserved various types of food. Kopura (sweet
potatoes from the previous year) were fermented in streams to make kotiro (rotten potato),
along with rotten corn and pig preserved in its own fat.’66
2.2.2(c) Maori Wage Labouring in Horticulture
Wage labouring on Chinese market gardens at Ohakune and Raetihi just outside the southern
boundary of the inquiry district appears to have been a significant avenue for Maori employment
from the 1920s onwards. An article in the Maori Affairs Department’s magazine Te Ao Hou (E
Schwimmer, ‘In the Shadow of Ruapehu’, Te Ao Hou, No. 14, April 1956, pp 28 - 31) points to
the importance of the market gardens to Maori and to the likelihood that many Maori from the
National Park district either travelled to work on them or relocated to Ohakune or Raetihi. The
article states that:
65 Barbara Cooper, The Remotest Interior: A History of Taupo, Moana Press, Tauranga, 1989, p 89.66 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 89
61
In the twenties, the Chinese market gardeners who had exhausted all the virgin land
around Wanganui, discovered the rich flats of volcanic loam and began to grow
vegetables on a big scale. Taking land on three year leases they stumped the soil after
burning, grew their crops and put down grass without charge to the owners. In this way
Maori farming in the area began. Maoris from all over the North Island found jobs on
the market gardens of Raetihi and Ohakune. For those local people who did not have
farms, such jobs became the main livelihood67
It is not clear what proportion of those employed were Maori from the National Park inquiry
district.
Several further sources relating to Maori working on Chinese market gardens have been identified
but not viewed during this scoping exercise:
• Suzanne Margaret O’Neill, ‘The Okahune Area: its market gardens, their significance, and the
reason for their location’, Research paper, BA (Hons), Massey University, Palmerston North,
1976
• Committee on employment of Maoris on market gardens, AJHR 1929 G - 11
• MA 31, 35, - File on Maori employment in Chinese market gardens, n/d, Archive New
Zealand, Wellington
• H 1, 194/4 (11685), Employment of Maoris in market gardens, 1929 - 1939, Archive New
Zealand, Wellington
2.2.2(d) Maori-owned Commercial Horticultural Ventures
Kathryn Rose, ‘Whanganui Maori and the Crown: Socio-economic Issues’, March 2004 (Wai 903
#A61) provides a detailed discusses of largely unsuccessful attempts by Maori at Ohakune and
Raetihi in the 1950s to establish their own market gardens, following their experience as wage
labourers on Chinese owned market gardens.
2.2.3 Maori sheep farming
2.2.3(a) Introduction
It is clear from the agricultural statistics above and from the secondary sources examined below
that sheep farming was a major economic activity in the National Park inquiry district, one in
which Maori had a significant involvement as farmers. This section will identify and assess
sources relevant to the location, scale and duration of Maori sheep farming in and around the
inquiry district. This is followed by a trial set of data tabulating and comparing numbers of sheep
67 Erik Schwimmer, ‘In the Shadow of Ruapehu’, Te Ao Hou, No. 14, April 1956, p 28
62
owned by Maori and Non-Maori farmers by location from the 1888 to 1910 period. Some brief
observation of the trends in this data will be offered. Finally, the chapter will assess the sources
in terms of information about Maori wage labouring in the farming sector in the inquiry district.
2.2.3(b) Patterns in the Location, Scale and Duration of Maori Sheep Farming
i) Development of Sheep Farming in the Region
Maori sheep farming ventures need to be viewed in the context of the development of sheep
farming in the region generally. This context is provided by a number of secondary sources.
When combined these sources would form an adequate background. Cooper, 1989 provides a
narrative of sheep farming in the Taupo region from the 1850s to World War I (she suggests that
sheep farming collapses after that date). She ranges as far afield as Moawhango and Karioi in the
south. Cooper deals with the same material more briefly in Cooper, 1981. However, it is worth
checking both these sources as some details may feature in only one of the publications.
R G Ward’s 1955 MA thesis (op. cit.) gives a three page summary of sheep farming development
and trends from 1890 to 1910 and a series of maps showing the distribution of sheep in the
Taupo county (including southern Taupo and Rotoaira). Each dot on the map represents 100
sheep. There are maps for sheep distribution for 1897, 1925, 1935 and 1952. These are most
useful and would complement the sheep return data presented below. Grace, reprint 2005 (first
published 1959), recounts the involvement of the Grace family in sheep farming in the Taupo and
deals only with blocks around Lake Taupo. A paragraph in Batley, 1958 gives a good account of
the development of sheep farming at Moawhango.
ii) Maori Sheep Farming in the Region
There is very little secondary material on Maori sheep farming in the inquiry district. Rose, 2004
discusses Studholme’s sheep station at Murimotu in the late 1890s and Maori sheep numbers for
Whanganui, Karioi, Raetihi and Ohakune areas in the 1920s and 30s (she takes her figures from
annual sheep returns in AJHR). A paragraph in R H Volkerling and K L Stewart, From Sand to
Papa: A history of the Whanganui County, Wanganui, 1986 records comments made in the 1880s
about the extent and success of Maori sheep farming around Raetihi and on the Waimarino block
until the 1900s.
The Stout Ngata Commission report, ‘Native Lands in the Whanganui District (Interim report on)’,
AJHR 1907, G – 1A, 1B & 1C provide some schedules for blocks at the very southern fringe of the
63
inquiry district such as Waimarino, Raetihi, Urewera and Rangiwaea. They show which partitions
were leased, farmed and used for kainga. Unfortunately, they did not report on other blocks
within the inquiry district.
Annual sheep returns printed in AJHR have the potential, when combined, to provide a clear
picture of the pattern of Maori sheep farming in the inquiry district for the first two or three
decades of the twentieth century. These are arranged by county and give the name of the sheep
owner and the number of sheep owned at 30 April of that year and the proceeding year and the
name of the nearest settlement (occasionally the name of the farm or station is given instead).
For the period up to 1910, for which the researcher has tabulated data (see Appendix 7), Maori
farmers were identified by Maori names. This may not be the case later in the century. While
there were some Maori with English names at this time, their numbers were likely to have been
relatively few. So while this may have created some level of error in the categorisation of the
data, the error is likely to be small in magnitude.
The data do have a few limitations. In some years for some individuals no data are recorded or
the sheep numbers are recorded as ‘nil’. Often the following year there are significant numbers
of sheep recorded. This suggests that a return was not received rather than that there were
actually no sheep owned. Location data are not very precise and it appears that the location
given is more likely to be the nearest settlement than an exact location. Finally, county
boundaries and listings vary over time so it is important to be thorough in checking all possible
counties.
The data presented below were collated from Annual Sheep Returns published in AJHR. They are
included here as an illustration of the type of analysis that may be done with the data and also to
indicate some trends in Maori and non-Maori owned sheep numbers between 1886 and 1905. In
this period Maori and non-Maori were farming sheep in and around Moawhango, Karioi, Raetihi
and Tokaanu. In addition, there were a small number of Maori/non-Maori joint sheep farming
ventures in or near Moawhango and non-Maori were farming in two locations, Waiouru and
Ohakune, where Maori names are not listed on the sheep returns. It should be noted that the
scale of sheep farming varied considerably from location to location. Flock numbers in Karioi and
Raetihi were considerably smaller than in Moawhango and Tokaanu, hence the two sets of data
have been graphed on separate axes in the comparative graphs below.
64
(Source: Annual Sheep Returns, AJHR, 1887 – 1906, H-23)
Sheep Owned by Maori
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
Moa
wha
ngo
and
Toka
anu
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
Karioi and R
aetihi
Moaw hango Tokaanu Karioi Raetihi
Moaw hango 21,7021,03 46,0459,5970,0191,71 86,9999,02107,7 90,6752,8150,64 39,614,6114,3992,775 1,799
Tokaanu 0 150 1,600 985 2,5337,479 17,2018,1723,32 24,7230,3922,87 14,489,0349,3115,605 4,847
Karioi 0 408 943 1,3581,3011,750 1,7931,9473,523 2,9911,6811,787 1,5621,2991,071 858 1,505
Raetihi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 468 626 457 818 863 1,285 1,093
1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
Sheep Owned by Non-Maori
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
Moa
wha
ngo
and
Toka
anu
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
Karioi and R
aetihi
Moaw hango Tokaanu Karioi Raetihi
Moaw hango 35,0640,8325,7149,0039,7244,9642,5958,6651,97 59,1855,4963,4662,2320,5616,80
Tokaanu 0 0 3,1562,0503,0001,2204,6854,0351,090 1,370 946 304 0
Karioi 0 0 51,0052,2847,4548,7147,0446,6948,09 54,062,77150,6451,5148,394,6681,889 931
Raetihi 0 0 0 0 0 152 871 1,4151,424 1,0812,4853,9054,0615,7075,5225,9946,726
1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
65
Sheep owned by Maori and Non-Maori at Tokaanu
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
Shee
p Nu
mbe
rs
Maori Farmers Non-Maori Farmers
Maori Farmers 0 150 1,600 985 2,533 7,479 17,20 18,17 23,32 24,72 30,39 22,87 14,48 9,034 9,311 5,605 4,847
Non-Maori Farmers 0 0 3,156 2,050 3,000 1,220 4,685 4,035 1,090 1,370 946 304 0
1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
Maori and Non-Maori Sheep Numbers for Moawhango
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
Shee
p Nu
mbe
rs
Maori Farmers Non-Maori Farmers
Maori Farmers 21,70 21,03 46,04 59,59 70,01 91,71 86,99 99,02 107,7 90,67 52,81 50,64 39,61 4,611 4,399 2,775 1,799
Non-Maori Farmers 35,06 40,83 25,71 49,00 39,72 44,96 42,59 58,66 51,97 59,18 55,49 63,46 62,23 20,56 16,80
1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
66
Sheep owned by Maori and Non-Maori at Karioi
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000Sh
eep
Num
bers
Maori Farmers Non-Maori Farmers
Maori Farmers 0 408 943 1,358 1,301 1,750 1,793 1,947 3,523 2,991 1,681 1,787 1,562 1,299 1,071 858 1,505
Non-Maori Farmers 0 0 51,00 52,28 47,45 48,71 47,04 46,69 48,09 54,06 2,771 50,64 51,51 48,39 4,668 1,889 931
1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
Maori and Non-Maori Sheep Numbers for Raetihi
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
Shee
p N
umbe
rs
Maori Farmers Non-Maori Farmers
Maori Farmers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 468 626 457 818 863 1,285 1,093
Non-Maori Farmers 0 0 0 0 0 152 871 1,415 1,4241,081 2,4853,905 4,0615,707 5,5225,994 6,726
1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
67
The following observations can be made:
There is a marked difference in the change in sheep numbers over the 1886 to 1905 period
between Maori and non-Maori farmers.
Maori owned flocks rapidly increased and declined in numbers, particularly in the most favoured
locations.
By contrast, non-Maori owned flocks tended to increase rapidly in locations they favoured, then
stabilise over a significant period before a sudden and sharp decline. Non-Maori sheep numbers
in less favoured locations tended to grow and decline slowly.
There is also a marked difference in the pattern of sheep numbers between Maori and Non-
Maori farmers from location to location over the 1886 – 1905 period.
Non-Maori sheep farming was concentrated in and around Moawhango and Karioi while Maori
sheep farming was concentrated around Moawhango and Tokaanu.
The Raetihi area was an increasingly important sheep farming area for both Maori and non-Maori
farmers after 1898. After 1903 non-Maori owned sheep numbers in the Raetihi area were higher
than for Karioi. The number of Maori owned sheep at Raetihi outstripped the numbers at
Tokaanu by 1901, at Moawhango by 1902 and Karioi by 1904 (although numbers at Karioi
bounced back by the following year).
Moawhango was a key location for sheep farming in the wider National Park area in this period
for both Maori and non-Maori farmers. Here the number of sheep owned by Maori outstripped
those owned by non-Maori between 1887 and 1898-99 but after 1899 numbers of sheep owned
by non-Maori were larger than those owned by Maori.
The number of sheep owned by Maori at Moawhango peaked in 1898 (at 90,678) and rapidly
declined until 1901 (to 39,610) when the decline slowed, but by 1905 sheep numbers were as
low as 1,799. By contrast the number of sheep owned by non-Maori at Moawhango did not
peak until 1900 (at 63,462) then fell only slightly in in 1901 (to 62,232) after which decline was
slowed, but falling as low as 16,800 in 1903.
68
For Maori farmers sheep farmers on the Okahukura Block the raw data from the sheep returns
could be used in conjunction with an analysis of evidence of sheep farming activity (sheep yards
and shepherd’s huts) on maps of the block. Williams and Walton give a comprehensive analysis
of these early maps of the Okahukura block with regard to sheep farming structures such as
shepherd’s huts and sheep yards. This could then be used with Newman’s list of archaeological
sites associated with farming in the area north and west of Lake Rotoaira (see settlement section
of this report). Gardiner also cites an extract from a 1901 account by James Cowan who noted
that empty sheep dip drums were being used as fireplaces at Otukou.
The sources discussed above do give some explanations for the decline in Maori sheep farming in
and around the inquiry district but none examine trends and explanations in any real depth. So
far only a small body of material dealing with the barriers Maori farmers faced has been located.
There are several CNI casebook reports that provide a detailed account of the Crown’s Maori
Land Development Policy in the twentieth century and Ngati Tuwharetoa response to that policy.
In particular, Michael Belgrave, David Young & Anna Deason, ‘Crown Policy with respect to Maori
Land 1953-1999’, September 2004 (Wai 1200 #A66) and Terry Hearn, ‘Taupo-Kaingaroa
Twentieth Century Overview: Land Alienation and Land Administration: 1900-1993’, September
2004 (Wai 1200 # A68) may provide general material on barriers facing Maori farmers in the
wider Taupo region.
There is a good general paper on the history of lending to Maori land owners and some of the
barriers Maori land owners faced in accessing finance by G B Ogle, Lending to Maori farmers,
MAF Technical Paper 91/9, July 1991, MAF, Wellington, 1993. There is also some brief general
comment on the problems of getting finance for land development in the 1890s in Emma
Stevens, ‘Socio-Economic Consequences of Land Loss for Maori in the Whanganui, Rangitkei,
Manawatu and Horowhenua Districts’, June 1997, (Wai 903 #A32). Rose, 2004 briefly discusses
a petition from Whanganui Maori in 1903 asking for Government assistance in developing their
land in the upper Whanganui River and Raetihi areas. There is some discussion of the costs
Maori faced in getting title to the Rangiwaea block in Stout and Ngata 1907. This may be useful
as an indication of some of the typical costs and difficulties Maori farmers faced.
2.2.4 Maori Wage Labouring on Farms in the Region
There are very few sources of data regarding Maori wage labouring on farms in the inquiry
district. All mentions come from secondary sources and are of a general nature. Stevens makes
brief comments about the types of wage labour Maori were engaging in the Whanganui district in
69
the 1890s and early 1900s. This provides an indication of the types of farm labouring that Maori
in this inquiry district may have been engaged in. Volkerling and Stewart make important but
general comments about Maori wage labouring on Pakeha farms in the Raetihi and Waimarino
areas in the 1880s - 1910 period. Rose, 2004 notes that the Karioi Native School Logbook makes
occasional reference to pupils absent from school assisting with shearing on local farms in the
early 1900s.
The only other sources relating to the extent of Maori wage labouring in the farming sector come
from two recent studies of the central North Island. They provide an indication of general trends
and issues in farm labour but are for the total population and in any case present data for
Territorial authority areas that are far wider than the inquiry district. R Bedford, J Lidgard, B
McLaughlin and J Newell, Demographic Change and Employment in the Central North Island,
1986 - 1996, Department of Geography, University of Waikato, Hamilton, 2001 include a table
showing full and part-time employment in Central North Island Territorial Authority area for 1996.
They give the name of the Territorial Authority area (those relevant to the inquiry district are
‘Taupo’ and ‘Ruapehu’) the number of people employed in ‘rural industry’. They then tabulate the
percentage of that group involved in the following types of farming:
• Dairy
• Sheep/beef
• Other Livestock
• Horticulture/Orchards
• Forestry/Logging
• Other (hunting, fishing, trapping and ‘agricultural’)
Unfortunately these figures are for the total population, not the Maori population. Bedford, A
Joseph and J Ligard, Rural Central North Island: Studies of Agriculture-Community Linkages,
Department of Geography, University of Waikato, Hamilton, 1999 provide some perspectives on
changing rural labour patterns in the latter half of the twentieth century. They also give an
analysis of what the 1996 census shows about employment and unemployment in rural areas of
the central North Island.
It may be possible to do a cohort analysis of the Western Maori electoral roll to investigate Maori
farm employment in the National Park inquiry district over time. Tony Walzl has used Maori
electoral rolls as a source of data for a cohort analysis of Maori forestry employment in the CNI
inquiry district (see Tony Walzl, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo-Rotorua-Kaingaroa), 1890 - 1990:
Supplementary Report, April 2005, (Wai 1200 #G16) pp 418 - 438). This method, as Walzl
70
notes, has a number of limitations - the Maori rolls do not capture all Maori living in the inquiry
district as many are registered on the general roll, while others do not appear on any electoral
roll. Farm work is often casual and part time and many people who did the occasional farm-
labouring job will not have listed themselves as farm labourer. Still, this would give relatively
accurate trends even if the data is subject to under-enumeration for the reasons just noted.
However, a cohort analysis would be very labour intensive.
2.2.5 Development Schemes & Farm Settlements
The Crown’s Development Schemes represented a potentially significant avenue for Maori
farming and employment from the 1920s onwards. Only one development scheme, at Taurewa,
was established in the National Park inquiry district. Anne Beaglehole has been commissioned to
produce a report on that scheme for the Wai 1300 inquiry. The Waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi
Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, pp 13-20 gives an excellent brief history of the
Tokaanu Development Scheme drawing on a research report by Paul Hamer, ‘Report of Paul
Hamer on the Tokaanu Development Scheme, 1930 - 1968 (Wai 84 #B12). Several maps of the
scheme included in this portion of the Tribunal’s report indicate that the scheme included blocks
of Maori land in the Turangi and Tokaanu area. Of these blocks only Ohuanga North blocks 1B2,
3A2 and 3B strictly fall within the boundaries of the National Park inquiry district (this is shown on
plate 11 of the CFRT National Park Map Book). These blocks were incorporated into the Tokaanu
Development Scheme in 1937.68
Development schemes have been economically significant for Ngati Tuwharetoa in the Central
North Island inquiry district. Ashley Gould, ‘Maori Land Development Schemes: generic
Overview, c. 1920 - 1993’, September 2004 covers the legislative and policy background to
development schemes and Ngati Tuwharetoa responses to those policies. Hearn, 2004 includes
case studies of a large number of these Taupo development schemes. In addition, Grace
provides a brief but useful overview of development schemes in the Taupo district (pp 525 -
529). A map in R G Ward, ‘Land Development in the Taupo County’, MA thesis, University of New
Zealand, 1955 titled ‘Land Development Blocks’ is useful in locating both Maori Affairs and Lands
and Survey administered land development schemes in the Taupo County (up to 1955).
2.2.6 Flax Milling
Short-lived flax mills at Otukou, Tokaanu and Waitahanui provided employment opportunities for
Maori. However, there is a little detail on their operation, or on how many people they employed
68 Paula Berghan, ‘Block Research Narratives of the Tongariro National Park District, 1865 - 2000, July 2004, Wai 1130,#A5, p 75
71
(particularly how many Maori were employed). Ward, 1955 notes the location of the flax mills
and their short lived operation and states that the flax mill at Otukou was still operating in 1925.
Cooper, 1989 briefly notes that flax mills in the area started operating in 1880 and peaked in
about 1905 but continued until the 1930s. Gardiner mentions that by the 1920s timber milling
had taken over from the flax mill at Otukou as the main employer.
2.2.7 Dairy Farming
It is not clear whether there was any dairy farming in the actual National Park inquiry district.
However, a dairy factory was built at Waihi in 1920, and according to Ward, 1955, ‘ Cream was
supplied by Maori farmers at Tokaanu and Tauranga-Taupo, while other supplies were sent by
launch from Poukura, Whanganui and Waihaha. Pack horses also carried cream from small farms
west of the lake’.69 He also provides a photograph of the dairy factory. Cooper, 1989 also
mentions the dairy factory at Waihi but focuses on the role of Father Langerwerf, the Catholic
priest at Waihi during its construction and operation. The Waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi Township
Report 1995 states that ‘the factory operated for eight years and was then coverted to a sawmill.’
They concluded that the reason for the failure of the venture was that ‘the remoteness of the are
from markets and the inadequate area available for suitable pasture meant that butter production
was uneconomic. The Tribunal’s report also notes that diarying was introduced to the Tokaanu
Development Scheme in 1943 but that ‘transport costs were considerable because the nearest
dairy factory was at Kaitieke, 69 kilometres (43 miles) away.’70 Rose, 2004 includes discussion
about barriers faced by Maori in the Whanganui inquiry district (including the Raetihi and
Ohakune areas) in trying to run dairy farms in the 1920s and 30s. Barriers she identified include
the economic depression, increasing debts and noxious weeds.
2.2.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, the sources relating to Maori participation and success as farmers and as wage
labourers in the agricultural sector in the National Park inquiry district are too fragmented to
provide a clear and comprehensive account. Annual sheep returns offer a rich source of
statistical data that if fully tabulated and analysed could provide an accurate and detailed picture
of Maori sheep farming in the inquiry district over the first half of the twentieth century.
However, there is little secondary research that explains the trends indicated in the statistics.
69 R G Ward, ‘Land Development in the Taupo County’, MA thesis, University of New Zealand, 1955, p 3770 Waitangi Tribunal, Turangi Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, p 16
72
2.3 Forestry2.3.1 Indigenous Timber Forestry
2.3.1(a) Introduction
Indigenous timber milling, and later exotic timber planting and milling, was one of the most
significant economic activities in and around the National Park inquiry district in the twentieth
century. The first part of this chapter identifies and discusses primary and secondary sources
available for an investigation of the location and scale of the indigenous timber milling industry in
the district. It also examines the sources available for a discussion of timber leases on Maori land
in the district that provided royalties as well as employment opportunities for Maori owners. This
section excludes sources that deal with Ngati Tuwharetoa’s agreement with the Tongariro Timber
Company and subsequent dealings as Tony Walzl has provided extensive coverage of this issue in
his forestry reports for the Central North Island Inquiry.71 The second part of this chapter
identifies and discusses sources that provide an overview of State Forests in the inquiry district
and the employment opportunities they offered Maori.
2.3.1(b) Indigenous Timber Milling
i) Location and Extent of Indigenous Timber Milling in the Inquiry District
Employment opportunities for Maori in the timber milling industry depended on the establishment
of a timber milling industry in and around the inquiry district. Therefore, a clear and
comprehensive picture of the industry - when and where timber mills were established, what
blocks of land they were milling and whether that land was Crown or Maori land - is important if
employment opportunities for Maori are to be investigated further. This section identifies and
discusses sources that deal with timber milling in the district from the early years of the twentieth
century until the early 1960s.
There are a number of secondary sources that discuss the development of timber milling in the
region. Cooper, 1989 gives a general idea of the timing and extent of the timber milling industry
in the northern part of the inquiry district. Cooper notes that timber milling on Ngati Tuwharetoa
land in the northern Taupo region began in 1902 with the establishment of the Taupo Timber
Company. However, she states that ‘At the southern end of the lake there was a later
development of the timber industry. By the 1940s about 30 mills were operating.’72
71 A plan attached to the Stout-Ngata Commission Report ‘Native Lands and Native-Land Tenure: Report of Native LandCommission, on Agreement by Ngati Tuwharetoa Tribe and a Company for Sale of Timber and Construction of Railway’ inAJHR 1908, G-1T shows that parts of the Waione, Waimanu and Okahukura blocks inside the National Park inquiry districtwere included in the Tongariro Timber Company lands72 Cooper,The Remote Interior, 1989, p 92
73
There are a variety of local, community and school histories that provide details of the
establishment of timber mills on the southern and western fringe of the inquiry district. Elizabeth
C Allen, In the Hills of the Waimarino: the human story of the development of the district,
Wanganui Newspapers Ltd, Wanganui, n/d discusses and names a number of timber mills
established around the Ohakune and Raetihi areas between 1905 and 1910. She also discusses
the growth of Rangataua as a timber milling centre and produces statistics for feet of timber per
annum taken out through Raetihi and Ohakune Railway stations from 1908 (when the Main Trunk
Line opened) to 1945.
Owhango, spanning 100 years: Owhango School & District Reunion, February 6th - 8th 2004,
Owhango School Reunion Committee, 2004 contains a useful discussion of each of the sawmills
in the vicinity of Owhango. It gives few dates in the text but there is a good timeline at the back
of the book that should be used in conjunction with the section on sawmills. There is also a
history of timber mills at Kakahi: William Williams and Davis Lowe, The Kakahi Sawmills, Lodestar
Press, Auckland, 1978. Hill, 1999 provides some details of sawmills and Raurimu and Kakahi and
their dependence on the railway line. There is a brief history of indigenous timber logging within
the boundaries of what is now the Tongariro State Forest between 1903 and 1978, including
names and dates of companies and the location of their mills, in Tongariro State Forest: A
management plan for the forest areas and Raurimu and Taurewa farm settlements, NZ Forest
Service/Dept of Lands and Survey, Wellington, 1986.
The other means of identifying saw mills and finding out about their operations, including
possibly material on Maori employment, is Forsetry Department files sawmill registration files for
the Wellington Conservancy at Archives New Zealand, Wellington. Time did not permit these files
to be sampled but their references are arranged alphabetically by township in List A at the end of
this chapter.
ii) Leasing of Indigenous Timber Rights by Maori Land Owners
A search of Forestry Department files at Archives New Zealand has revealed that the owners of a
number of blocks of Maori land in the north and north-west of the district had entered into leases
with milling companies for timber rights on their land. These were important commercial
agreements entered into by Maori owners for the economic benefit that royalties and
employment would provide. These files could provide a case study that would look at:
a) The terms of the lease agreement
b) What income these leases provided for Maori owners and whether it was what was agreed to
74
c) The nature, extent and duration of employment opportunities for Maori owners
d) The nature of the role played by the District Maori Land Board and the Maori Trustee as
agents for the owners.
These leases will need to be placed in the context of the Crown’s regulation of the indigenous
timber milling industry. An important resource here is Walzl, October 2004. Section 1 Part A of
this report deals with Crown regulation before 1920, Part C provides details of various Crown
policies and practices with regard to Maori indigenous timber industry for the same period.
Timber leases on the Okahukura block serve as an example of the way in which sources might be
combined to allow a case study that places the lease in the wider context of the overall socio-
economic status of a community. Walzl, October 2004 provides a narrative of the involvement of
the Crown in the two leases: Okahukura 8M2B3B (2,222 acres) held by Mr J Bishara of
Taumaranui under a five year lease from January 1936 and Okahukura 8M2C2C (1,915 acres)
held by the Otukou Timber Company for ten years from May 1931.73 As Walzl is primarily
concerned with issues surrounding Crown attempts to acquire the land involved, his source is
MA-MLP 1, 1911/26, Archive New Zealand Wellington.
A Justice Department Companies file, BADZ 5181, 585, 3593, Otukou Timber Company Limited
(1929 - 41), Archives New Zealand, Auckland provides a further source for the 8M2C2C lease to
the Otukou Timber Company. The file almost entirely comprises legal documents relating to the
lease in 1929 to Samuel Bishara, Taumaranui Commission Agent and Harry Simpson, Taumaranui
Sawmiller and their subsequent subletting of the timber rights to the Otukou Timber Company.
There are also documents dealing with the liquidation of the company in 1939. The file clearly
shows that the royalties were being paid to the Maori owners via the Aotea District Maori Land
Board.
Several files dealing with the marae and the Native School at Otukou provide further information
about the importance of the timber mills near the settlement as a source of employment.
Correspondence in BAAA 1001, 878a, 48/8 pt 1 Maori schools - Conveyance & board, school
transport - Otukou (1930 - 1937), Archives New Zealand, Auckland indicates that there were
Maori communities living at the timber mills near Otukou in the 1930s. For example, in August
1930, nine European and six Maori children were living at the Otukou Timber Company Mill (three
miles from the school). In February 1931, there were 18 children living over three miles from the
75
school: ‘Ten at Bishara’s saw-mill beneath Mt Tongariro about three and a quarter miles away
and the other eight at ‘Kapoa’s’ mill about seven miles away in the direction of National Park.’
There is also some discussion of the place that the timber mills held economically and socially in
the Otukou settlement in Gardiner, 1993. ABJZ 4948, 28a, 8/3/5 pt 1 marae - Otukou (1949 -
91), Archives New Zealand, Auckland contains a very informative letter from H G Schroder,
Otukou Maori School, on 13 November 1952 to Mr Corbett, Minister of Maori Affairs outlining his
fears for the community as the timber milling industry winds down in the next decade. He states
that:
With the drastic reduction in timber cutting necessary during the next ten years these
people - the parents - realise that the outlook for their children is fairly grim. They are
feeling the pinch at present as the youths and daughters who have left school are in
most cases lolling around the homes doing nothing. Some have been employed in the
adjacent timber mills but have proved unreliable and the mill owners have resorted to
the erection of state houses to attract married Pakeha families.74
Schoder speculates on alternative economic ventures that could support the community once the
timber mills close. He tells Corbett that:
I have pointed out that they [Maori] are surrounded by fertile land capable of being
developed into excellent sheep and cattle country. I have had opinions on this from very
efficient farmers of the Taihape district. They - the Maoris admit this - but - no money
and who will lend to them? 75
Corbett’s reply to Schoder on 1 December 1952 is also on file. He agrees that ‘the future of the
children of that district will not be encouraging when the timber milling ceased. The inevitable
drift to the towns and cities in search of work must take place, unless other forms of employment
are to replace the timber mills.’ He is unwilling to consider a development scheme for farming
when ‘there are large areas of land that are more suitable for development than what is found
around Rotoaira’. These letters place the decline of the timber mill within the wider context of
avenues open to Maori, particularly school leavers, at Otukou in the 1950s. A revealing letter
dated March 1990 from the Otukou Marae Training Trust to the Iwi Transition Agency asking for
resources to run a Tongariro Outdoor Guides training course indicates the struggle of the
community at Otukou to find economic opportunities:
73 Tony Walzl, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo, Kaingaroa, Rotorua), 1890 - 1990’, October 2004, Wai 1200 #A80, pp 342 -347.74 H G Schroder, Otukou Maori School, to Mr Corbett, Minister of Maori Affairs, 13 November 1952, ABJZ 4948, 28a, 8/3/5pt 1, Archives New Zealand, Auckland75 Mr Corbett, Minister of Maori Affairs to H G Schroder, Otukou Maori School, 1 December 1952, ABJZ 4948, 28a, 8/3/5pt 1, Archives New Zealand, Auckland
76
Over the past few years, employment within our region has come to virtually nil with the
completion of the Power Development, corporatization of the forestry and the closing of
many of the service industries. We feel that now we must look to tourism as the future
for employment for our young and in so doing we must look to providing some training
to gear our young people to that end.76
There are also a large number of Archives New Zealand, Wellington files on timber leases on
other Maori land blocks in the inquiry district. These files are listed alphabetically by land block
at the end of this chapter as List B.
2.3.2 Timber Milling in State Forests
2.3.2(a) Introduction
The establishment of state forests at Rangataua, Karioi, Erua, Taurewa and Tongariro in the
twentieth century may also have provided employment for Maori in the inquiry district. This
section assesses the sources available to summarise their establishment, location and extent, and
place these forests in the broader context of the development of state forestry in New Zealand.
This is followed by an examination of the primary sources relating to the operation of each of
these forests in terms of their usefulness in providing information on the nature and extent of
Maori wage labouring.
2.3.2(b) State Forestry in New Zealand: The National Context
The description for the New Zealand Forest Service record group ADSQ on Archives New Zealand
online catalogue provides a very useful summary of the development of the Forest Service and
the matters over which they hold jurisdiction. Again, the most comprehensive source of
information on the development of exotic forestry in New Zealand is Walzl, October 2004. Section
3 of this report deals with exotic timber afforestation and Central North Island Maori between
1890 and 1990. Part A provides a very useful chronological overview of the development of
exotic timber afforestation in New Zealand. This could be drawn on to put the development of
state forests in and around the inquiry district in a national context. If further background is
required there are a number of histories of exotic state forestry in New Zealand, including:
76 Okutou Marae Training Trust to Tuwharetoa Tari Maori [Iwi Transition Agency], Turangi, March 1990, ABJZ 4948, 28a,8/3/5 pt 1, Archives New Zealand, Auckland
77
• F Allsop, First fifty years of New Zealand's Forest Service: a history from the time of its
setting up in 1919 to the celebration of its fiftieth anniversary in 1969, A R Shearer,
Government Printer, Wellington, 1973
• Andrew Kirkland, A Century of State-honed Enterprise: 100 years of state plantation forestry
in New Zealand, Profile Books, Auckland, 1997
• M M Roche, History of New Zealand Forestry, NZ Forestry Corporation in association with GP
Books, Wellington, 1990
• M M Roche, Forest Policy in New Zealand: an historical geography 1840 - 1919, Dunmore
Press, Palmerston North, 1987
2.3.2(c) Maori Wage Labouring in State Forests in and around the Inquiry District
Sources discovered during this scoping exercise have not been able to provide any specific
information about Maori employment in the state forests adjacent to the National Park inquiry
district. Roche, 1990 briefly discusses the numbers employed by the Forest Service nationally
between 1921 and 1929 and gives some details of the 1931 ‘No. 5 Scheme’ and the numbers
employed on it in 22 local authority areas during the Depression.
However, the most relevant information comes from Walzl, October 2004. Section 3, Part C deals
with Maori labour in the exotic forestry industry in the Central North Island between 1890 and
1990. This contains no material specific to the inquiry district but may be useful for identifying
trends and patterns of Maori wage labour in state forests. Walzl also deals with the restructuring
of the forestry sector in the 1980s and 1990s in the above reports and in further detail in Tony
Walzl, April 2005. In this supplementary report he provides a cohort analysis of forestry workers
using Maori electoral rolls for the Eastern Maori. His method suggests a means of calculating the
number of Maori in the National Park inquiry district employed in forestry. Despite capturing only
those Maori on the Maori roll, and with occupation self-identified, this could provide data that
would show trends and give an approximation of the size of the Maori forestry work force.
However a cohort analysis requires considerable time and effort.
Walzl’s research is supplemented by two reports from the 1980s: Employment in the Forestry and
Logging Industry, Research and Planning Division, Department of Labour, Wellington, 1974 and
Charles Crothers, and Cluny McPherson, Selected Demographic and Social Characteristics of the
Forestry and Logging workforces and comments on their possible social significance, Department
of Sociology, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1984. These provide a national analysis of the
78
types of occupations, age, gender, educational qualifications, geographic location, housing and
amenities of forestry workers.
There are a number of Archives New Zealand Wellington files that deal specifically with the
operation of each of the state forests in and around the inquiry district. The limited sampling
undertaken for this scoping report did not reveal any information regarding employment in the
state forests generally, or about employment of Maori specifically. These files are listed by state
forest and type of file at the end of this chapter as List C.
2.3.3 Exotic Plantation Forestry on Maori Land
The issue of exotic forestry on Maori land in the National Park inquiry district is to be addressed
by Tony Walzl in a gap-filling research report on exotic forestry leases commissioned for this
inquiry.
2.3.4 Conclusions
The primary sources regarding indigenous timber-milling companies and state forests located
during this scoping exercise do not appear, from the limited sampling that has been possible, to
contain a large amount of material about Maori employment in either of these parts of the
forestry sector in this inquiry district. The archives files on timber leases on Maori land appear to
be a more fruitful avenue for further research. These leases represent significant commercial
ventures by Maori landowners as well as providing what was often the only employment in
isolated Maori kainga in the first half of the twentieth century. The leases and timber mills at
Otukou appear to have the most comprehensive set of sources but other lease files may be
equally fruitful. If the Maori Trustee (as successor to the district Maori land board) was acting as
an agent for Maori owners then there may be important files at the Office of the Maori Trustee in
Wanganui and/or Rotorua.
79
List A: Saw Mill Registration Files - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
Erua
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/154 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Mountain Timbers
Limited/ Wanganui Sash and Door - Erua - Block VIII, Manunui Survey District, 1943-1961
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/78 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Retaruke Timber
Company/Hopkins Spier and Winger Martin Sash - Erua - Block VIII, Manganui Survey
District, 1943-1967
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/63 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Truck Sawmilling
Company - Erua - Section 31, Block VII, Manganui Survey District, 1943-1960
Horopito
• F1, W3129, 158. 19/3/328 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - E H Cole/E W J
King/National Park Timber Company/Horopito Sawmilling Company - Horopito - Section 20, Block
XVI, Manganui Survey District, 1957-1970
Ohakune
• F1, W3129, 158, 19/3/365 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Carter Merchants
(Ohakune) Limited - Ohakune - Section 5, Block VI, Karioi Survey District, 1967-1970
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/52 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Carter Merchants
(Ohakune) Limited/ Bennett and Punch Limited - Ohakune - Section 2, Block V, Karioi Survey
District, 1943-1970
• F1, W3129,157, 19/3/277 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - W. Crighton and
Son Limited/Renown Timber Company/Lloyd and McKenzie - Ohakune, 1952-1965
Mangahouhou Block
• F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/244 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - J M
Bishara/Cherrie Sawmilling Company/Ruapehu Timber Company - Mangahouhou - Block IV,
Puketi Survey District, 1950-1961
80
Mangatepopo (Okahukura Block)
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/68 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Ketetahi Timber
Milling Company - Mangatepopo - Okahukura, Block VII, Tongariro Survey District, 1943-
1962
National Park
• F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/239 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Pokaka Timber
Company - National Park, 1949-1966
• F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/421 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Waterson
Brothers and MacDonnell - National Park - Section 42, Block XIII, Tongariro Survey District,
1949-1967
Otukou
• F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/249 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Waimanu
Sawmilling Company/Hopkins, Speirs and Winger Limited - Otukou - Waimanu 2F, Block I,
Pihanga Survey District, 1950-1960
• F1, W3129 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Weir and Kenny Limited - Otukou
- Section 2E, Block I, Pihanga Survey District, 1943-1965
Raurimu
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/56 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Kings Speirs and
Company - Raurimu - Section 31, Block XII, Katieke Survey District, 1943-1963
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/164 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Raurimu
Sawmilling Company - Raurimu - Section 26, 27, Block XII, Katieke Survey District, 1943-
1963
Taurewa
• F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/172 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Pokaka Timber
Company - Taurewa - Block II, Tongariro Survey District, 1943-1963
Turangi
• F1, W3129, 158, 19/3/343 Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Fletcher Timber
Company - Turangi, 1960-1972
81
List B: Indigenous Timber Milling Leases on Maori Land - Archives New Zealand,
Wellington
General Files
• F1W3129, 145, 18/3 pt 3 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy -
general, 1957-1961
• F1W3129, 145, 18/3 pt 4 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy -
general, 1961-1972
Lease Files (organised alphabetically by land block)
Block unknown
• F1 18/3/232 Marton Sash and Door Timber Company Limited and Hopkins Spiers and Wanger
Limited, Mill number 64 National Park Wellington Conservancy (Question of black marketing),
1943 -1952
• F1, 19/3/129 Dominion Timber Company Limited, Mill number 129 Wellington Conservancy -
contains lengthy review of sawmilling operations on Egmont Box concession area, 1943-1952
Hautu Block
• F1W3129, 146, 18/3/84 pt 2 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Hautu Blks - Blks IV, VIII, XII Pihanga SD & Blks I, II, V, IX, Waiotaka SD,
1955-1960
• F1W3129, 146, 18/3/84 pt 3 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Hautu Blks - Blks IV, VIII, XII Pihanga SD & Blks I, II, V, IX, Waiotaka SD,
1960-1965
Mangahouhou Block
• F1 18/3/209/2 Incorporated owners. Valuation for Maori Land Board. Mangahouhou 2B
Wellington Conservancy, 1948-1954
• F1 18/3/209/5 Lake Timber Co. Mangahouhou 2B lots 5 - 5A Wellington Conservancy, 1952-
1954
82
• F1 W3129, 147, 18/3/235 pt 1 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - J N Bishara/Cherrie Sawmilling Company - Mangahouhou 3D blk - Blk VIII,
Puketi SD, 1954-1961
• F1W3129, 146, 18/3/210 pt 1 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Henderson & Pollard - Mangahouhou 3A blk - blks IV, VIII Puketi SD, 1953-
1961
Ohuanga Block
• F 1, 9/2/9 Pukawa and Ohuanga Blocks, 1920-1942
Okahukura Block
• F1W3129, 147, 18/3/242 pt 2 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington
Conservancy - Weir and Kenny Limited - Okahukura 6A2 Blk - Blks III, IV Tongariro SD,
1960-1961
• F1, W3129, 147, 18/3/242 pt 1 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Weir and Kenny Limited - Okahukura 6A2 Block - Blocks III, IV Tongariro
Survey District, 1960-1961
Pukawa Block
• F 1, 9/2/9 Pukawa and Ohuanga Blocks, 1920-1942
• F1 18/3/87/9 Lake Timber Company Limited sale Maori Land Pukawa 2G2 Lot 9 Wellington
Conservancy, 1951-1954
• F1 18/3/97 Hopkins, Spiers and Winger, Pukawa 2F, Wellington Conservancy, 1948-1957
Taurewa Block
• AADY W3564, 15, 6/3/42/4 pt 1 Taurewa SF 42 - East and West Blocks - Wellington
Conservancy (Maori Leases), 1920
Urewera Block
• F1 19/3/65 Molt and Sons Urewera Block 2E, 1C1, 1C2, 1C3 Wellington Conservancy, 1952-
1954
83
• F 1, 18/3/232 Timber Appraisal Urewera Blks 2E, 1C1, 1C2 & 1C3 Maori Land, Wellington
Conservancy, n/d, ANZ Wgt
Waimanu Block
• F1W3129, 146, 18/3/83 pt 1 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington
Conservancy - Waimanu Sawmilling Company/Hopkin, Spiers and Winger - Waimanu 2F
Block, Block VIII Puketi SD 4 Blk 1, Pihinga SD, 1947-1964
• F1W3129, 146, 18/3/83/0 pt 1Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Forest Service Timber Appraisal - Waimanu 2F Blk - Blk VIII, Puketi SD and Blk
I Pihanga SD Copies of Maori Trustees versus Waimanu Sawmilling Company, 1960-1961
• F1W3129, 146, 18/3/83/2 pt 1 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington
Conservancy - Waimanu Sawmilling Company - Waimanu 2F Block, Lot 2 - Block I Pihanga
SD, 1951-1962
• F1W3129, 147, 18/3/234 pt 1 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington
Conservancy - Waimanu 2G3 Block - Blocks V, VI Waimanu SD & Blks III, IV, Tongariro SD
& Blks VII, IX Puketi SD & Blks I, II Pihanga SD, 1950-1963
• F1W3129, 147, 18/3/234 pt 1 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Waimanu 2G3 Blk - Blks V, VI Waimanu SD & Blks III, IV Tongariro SD & Blks
VIII, IX Puketi SD & Blks I , II Pihanga SD, 1950-1963
• F1W3129, 147, 18/3/243 pt 1 Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington
Conservancy - Mountain Timbers Limited - Waimanu 2G1 Blk - Blk VI, Puketi SD, 1960-1961
• F1, 18/3/66 Weir and Kenny Limited, Native timber sale Waimana 2D Wellington
Conservancy, 1943-1947
84
List C: State Forest File - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
General
• AAAC W3207, 57, WIL 22/8/5 State Forest Lands - Wellington Conservancy, 1978-1982
• Also see Annual Reports (NZ Forest Service) for Wellington Conservancy 1961-1975 (F 1
W3129 files, ANZ Wgt)
Miscellaneous
• F1, 19/3/53 Pokaka Timber Company Mill Number 53 Wellington Conservancy (policy of
selling State Forest cutting areas to large or small companies), 1943-1956
• F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/88 pt 1 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Kaitieke, 1923-
1961
• F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/66 pt 1 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Oio, 1921-1968
Karioi State Forest
General Files
• AADY W3564, 15, 6/3/100 pt 2 Karioi SF 100 - Wellington Conservancy, 1948-1961
• AADY W3564, 26, 36/3100 pt 1 Working Plan - Karioi S.F. [State Forest] 100 - Wellington
Conservancy, 1948-1962
• AANQ W3797, 19, 30/100/5/3 Re-establishment of Karioi SF 100, 1968-1969
• AANQ W3797, 25, 92/1/100 Karioi SF 100 roads and bridges, 1977-1979
Operational Files
• F1W3129, 211, 30/3/100/1 Forest Management - silvicultural Management - period reports
- State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Karioi Nursery, 1931
• ADSQ 17639, F1W3129, 211, 30/3/100 pt 6 Forestry management - silivicultural
management - period reports - State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Karioi, 1953-1963
85
• F1W3129, 280, 67/3/100 Departmental Logging Operations - Wellington Conservancy - Karioi
State Forest, 1955-1978
Privileges and Contracts Files
• F1W3129, 165, 20/3/100/1 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - G Syme
and Company - Sawmill Site Lease - Blk XII Karioi SD - Karioi SF, 1927
Rangataua State Forest
General Files
• F1, W3129, 54/6/3/85 pt 2 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Rangataua, 1948-
1974
Operational Files
• F1W3129, 240, 36/3/85 Forestry operation and management - Wellington Conservancy -
Rangataua State Forest, 1952-1969
• F1W3129, 280, 67/3/85 Departmental Logging Operations - Wellington Conservancy -
Rangataua State Forest, 1952-1958
Privileges and Contracts Files
• F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/85/1 pt 1 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Rangataua
Contracts for Post Splitting and Delivery, 1948-1958
Erua State Forest
General Files
• F1W3129, 217, 31/3/97 Foresty Inventory - Wellington Conservancy - Erua, 1925-1959
• F1, W3129, 55, 6/3/97, pt 6 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Erua, 1957-1969
Privileges and Contracts Files
• F1W3129, 165, 20/3/97/2 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - C McDonnell
- Tramway Licence - Blk VIII, Eru SF - Manganui SD, 1930-1934
86
• F1, W3129, 165, 20/3/97/5 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Marton
Sash and Door - Sawmill Site Lease - Tramway Licence, Block VIII Eura State Forest
Manganui Survey District, 1936-1960
• F1, W3129, 165, 20/3/97/4 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Marton
Sash and Door-Housing Site Lease - Block VIII Eura State Forest Manganui Survey District,
1947-1950
Tongariro State Forest
General Files
• F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/42/4 pt 2 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Tongariro -
Taurewa East and West Blocks, 1920-1962
• F1, W3129, 53, 6/3/42/2 pt 1 State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Tongariro -
Taurewa number 4 Block, 1947-1948
Operational Files (Timber Sale Files)
• F1, W3129,178, 23/342/339 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
Dominion Timber Company - Sawmill Area 339 - Blocks II, VI - Tongariro State Forest -
Tongariro Survey District, 1964-1966
• F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/360 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
Dominion Timber Company - Sawmill Area 360 - Block IV, Waimanu Survey District and
Blocks II, III - Tongariro State Forest, 1965-1969
• F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/329 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
K.R. Kapoor Limited - Sawmill Area 329 - Blocks VI, X - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro
Survey District, 1963-1965
• F1, W3129,178, 23/3/42/249 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
K.R. Kapoor Limited - Sawmill Area 349 - Block X - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro Survey
District, 1966-1968
• F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/232 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
King Speirs and Company - Sawmill Area 232 - Block IX Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro
Survey District, 1958-1964
87
• F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/257 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
Pokaka Timber Company - Sawmill Area 257 - Block I - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro
Survey District, 1958-1964
• F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/314 Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy -
Raurimu Sawmilling Company - Sawmill Area 314 - Block IX - Tongariro State Forest -
Tongariro Survey District, 1962-1966
Privileges and Contracts Files
• F1W3129, 165, 20/3/42/2 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - A J Hinds -
Tramway Licence - Blk VIII, Manganui SD - Tongariro SF, 1947-1949
• F1W3129, 165, 20/3/42/4 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - G McDonnell
and Waterson Brothers - Roadway Licence - Blk XVI, Kaitieke SD - Blk XIII Tongariro SD -
Tongariro SF, 1948
• F1, W3129, 165, 20/3/42/5 Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - King Speirs
and Company - Roadway Licence - Block XII, Katieke Survey District - Block IX, Tongariro
Survey District - Tongariro State Forest, 1948-1954
88
2.4 Tourism2.4.1 Introduction
An important aspect of economic opportunities available to Maori in the inquiry district are those
provided by tourism, particularly, but not exclusively, those provided by the Tongariro National
Park and other adjacent conservation areas currently administered by the Department of
Conservation. This chapter identifies and assesses sources that provide a summary of the
development of various types of tourism in and around the inquiry district. This is followed by an
assessment of sources of information regarding Maori involvement in tourism ventures as
employees and as owners of tourism businesses, both nationally and in and around the inquiry
district. In particular this chapter looks at sources that discuss Maori opportunities to develop
thermal springs at Tokaanu and Ketetahi, and trout fishing in Lake Rotoaira and other waterways
in the district, as tourist attractions.
2.4.2 The Development of Tourism in the National Park Inquiry District
There is abundant secondary material documenting the development of tourism in the Tongariro
National Park area. Cybéle Locke, ‘Maori and Tourism (Taupo-Rotorua), 1840 - 1970’, September
2004 (Wai 1200 #A69) was prepared for the generic stage of the Central North Island inquiry. It
examines the nature and extent to Maori involvement in tourism in the two regions from 1840 to
1890, the changing nature of that involvement post-1890 and the role of the Department of
Tourism and Health Resorts. Locke’s report is mainly focused on Rotorua but there is some
material on the development of the Taupo district in terms of European settlement and its
connection with tourist ventures and tourist traffic to and through the southern Taupo area. This
could be supplemented by the two local histories by Barbara Cooper, 1981 and 1989. These
provide a significant amount of detail about the development of roads, coach, steamer and hotel
services, as well as summaries of the development of accommodation, climbing, skiing and other
recreational activities.
Several other articles usefully summarise the development of alpine sports within the Tongariro
National Park and their economic impact on the district:
• John R Lythgoe, The History of Recreation and Development at Turoa, Mt Ruapehu, John R
Lythgoe, 1985
• Stephanie K Cheetham, ‘The development of Turoa Skifield and its economic implications
upon Ohakune’, a research report presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of Bachelor of Resource and Environmental Planning, Massey University, Palmerston
North, 1994
89
• Peter William John Clough, Whakapapa Area Economics Benefits Study, Winter 1985 and
Summer 1985/86, Department of Conservation, Wellington, 1989
• Alistair Hall, ‘Ski Clubs on the Ski Slopes', New Zealand Wilderness, August 2004, pp 25-29
• Graham Langton, ‘Early Climbing in Tongariro National Park', New Zealand Wilderness,
January 2002, pp 5-7
Margaret McClure, The Wonder Country: Making New Zealand Tourism, Auckland University
Press, Auckland, 2004 is a chronological overview of the development of tourism in New Zealand,
but provides only minimal material on the Crown’s administration of tourism. However, it does
provide an account of the establishment of the Chateau Tongariro and the National Park from
1929 to 1939. This can be supplemented by Deborah Coddington, ‘Palace of dreams: can they
save the Chateau?’, North & South, August 1992, pp 84-92 which provides a good summary of
the history of the Chateau and the Government’s control over tourist accommodation in the
National Park.
Several recent studies are useful for identifying new types of tourism ventures being considered
in the inquiry district in the 1980s and 1990s. Tongariro State Forest: A management plan for the
forest areas and Raurimu and Taurewa farm settlements, NZ Forest Service/Department of Lands
and Survey, Wellington, 1986 considers existing and future tourist activities in the Tongariro
State Forest given its proximity to the Tongariro National Park and Taupo/Turangi trout fishing
areas. Such activities as tramping, fishing, camping, caving, orienteering, hunting, kayaking and
rafting, horse trekking, four-wheel driving, motorcycling, outdoor education, cultural/educational
tourism centred around the history of forestry, farming and timber milling are considered.
A 1988 study, Tourism in the Eastern and Central North Island: a regional profile prepared by
McDermott-Miller Group Ltd for the New Zealand Tourist & Publicity Department, Research
Section, Wellington, 1988, investigates tourism patterns in the Eastern and Central North Island.
The report provides statistics and observations on tourist numbers, their points of origin, reasons
for visiting the area and amount of revenue generated by their visits.
2.4.3 Maori Involvement in Tourism in New Zealand
There is a growing literature on Maori in tourism, covering trends in Maori participation in tourism
as employers and employees. Although these sources do not discuss Maori and tourism in the
inquiry district they are useful in identifying the barriers Maori face in obtaining employment in
the tourism sector and in operating their own tourism ventures. Presumably Maori in the
National Park Inquiry district face similar general barriers as well as those rooted in specific local
90
circumstances such as their role in the Tongariro National Park and the history of their
involvement with trout fishing.
Hui Taumata ’Maori and New Zealand Tourism’, Ministry of Tourism, 2005 provides statistics for
New Zealand tourism for the year ending March 2003 and figures for Maori employment in
tourism by type of occupation, age, qualifications, part-time/full-time status, income and regional
distribution. There is also discussion of international visitors’ experience of Maori cultural
activities. A Study of Barriers, Impediments and Opportunities for Maori in Tourism, a report
prepared for the Office of Tourism and Tourism and Sport and Te Puni Kokiri, Stafford Group,
June 2001 offers a more detailed study of Maori in tourism, both as business owners and
employees. This includes a discussion of barriers to Maori participation and how these might be
overcome. Also useful is Measurement of Maori Tourism: Te Ahu Mai - He Tatau Taopi Maori,
Ministry of Tourism/Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, October 2004 which draws on census
data to present a statistical snapshot of Maori involvement in the tourism industry, including
demographic and employment characteristics.
2.4.4 Maori Involvement in Tourism in the Inquiry district
Anderson investigates the circumstances, philosophies and policies behind the establishment and
management of the Tongariro National Park. Her research led her to concluded that Maori
involvement in tourism in the Tongariro National Park was minimal up until the last couple of
decades:
There was no parallel development with Tongariro National Park to that in Rotorua of
guiding, the arts and crafts school, and hotel service. In terms of tourist attractions, the
park was seen as a ‘winter’ rather than ‘Maori’ wonderland. The appointment of a Maori
guide was mentioned when the park was first gazetted, but the Department of Tourist
and Health Resorts was more interested in removing Maori from the park than in
fostering their presence.’77
Anderson’s conclusions are echoed by interviews with Ngati Tuwharetoa leaders in Bayley and
Derby, Tuwharetoa spokesperson Napa Otimi claimed that,
There were guarantees (of Maori employment) initially (e.g. when the ski fields were
established). Until the late 1980s - 1990s, there were few Tuwharetoa people employed.
Now it’s a different story. Our people carry with them their traditional culture and it’s
77 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 210
91
starting to pervade the work ethic. Ruapheu Alpine lifts have provided some
opportunities for our people.78
Bayley and Derby give some very useful material on the recent relationship of the Department of
Conservation with various iwi and hapu in the inquiry district, particularly with regard to
consultation over general National Park policy and training programmes for young Maori people
interested in conservation and tourism positions. Bayley and Derby also examine Department of
Conservation policy with regard to granting concessions to companies to operate tourist activities
in the National Park. They examine the criteria for a concession (Draft Tongariro National Park
management plan 2003) and cite the two criteria that allow for Maori input. They note that in
submissions on the draft Tongariro National Park plan both the Tuwharetoa Maori Trust Board
and Ngati Hikairo ki Tongariro Trust reject these criteria as insufficient to form the basis for an
equitable partnership.
From this, and the statements of claim in this inquiry, it is clear that the way in which
concessions have been operating is an issue that needs further research. Bayley and Derby do
not deal with attempts by iwi/hapu to get their own concessions for tourism ventures in the Park
and the kinds of barriers they face. This could be further explored by searching Department of
Conservation files on particular concessions and concession policy at the Turangi and Wellington
Offices. Access would need to be negotiated and it is possible that a large amount of effort may
result in only meagre information.
2.4.5 Maori Tourism Ventures in the Inquiry District
There are a large number of files at Archives New Zealand relating to tourism, and in particular to
Tokaanu and the Tongariro National Park. These general tourism files have been listed in the
bibliography for future reference. However, given that the secondary sources discussed above
indicate that Maori have not been involved in tourism in the inquiry district in any significant way
until the last couple of decades, combing these general files would be very time consuming and
unlikely to yield a significant amount of material.
There are two types of tourism venture that might warrant further research: Ketetahi thermal
springs, and tourist trout fishing and related recreational activities on Lake Rotoaira and other
waterways. For each of these issues a good number of primary sources have been identified in
the footnotes and bibliographies of casebook reports and there is further material in Archives
78 Nicholas Bayley & Mark Derby, ‘Tongariro National Park Management from 1980 to Present: A Scoping Report’,
92
New Zealand Files. Some of this material can be found in the document banks accompanying
those reports. This makes exploring these issues further potentially viable.
2.4.5(a) Ketetahi Thermal Springs as a Tourist Venture
There might be sufficient material to explore the ownership and control of the Ketetahi Springs
and to examine the extent to which Crown policies and practices impacted upon Maori ability to
develop the springs as a tourist attraction. Anderson gives detailed coverage of the numerous
attempts by the Crown to purchase the springs from Maori owners as a potential tourist asset.
Anderson’s report, however, focuses on matters of title and says very little about how the springs
were used by the Maori owners, especially how they were used as a tourist attraction. Further
details of the title history of the springs, and comments from reports and minutes describing the
nature and use of the springs, can be found in Berghan, ‘Block Research Narratives of the
Tongariro National Park District, 1865 - 2000, July 2004 (Wai 1130 #A5) in the block account for
‘Ketetahi’. Something of the customary uses the springs were put to by Maori in the district can
be found in a brief paragraph in Gardiner.
The following Archives New Zealand, Wellington file will provide additional material:
• MA-MLP 1, 1913/10 Notes re Ketetahi Springs c. 17 February 1930, 1930
2.4.5(b) Tourist Trout fishing and related activities on Lake Rotoaira
A number of casebook reports deal with Ngati Tuwharetoa’s struggle to have their title to Lake
Rotoaira formally acknowledge by the Crown. It is clear from Tony Walzl, ‘Hydro-electricity
Issues: The Tongariro Power Development Scheme, February 2005 (Wai 1130 #A8) that the
granting of this title also involved the granting of fishing rights to trout in the Lake. Further
material on the introduction of the trout into Lake Rotoaira is provided by R M McDowell, New
Zealand Freshwater Fishes, a guide and natural history, Auckland, 1978 and the Ministry for the
Environment, Lake Manager’s Handbook. Grace and Cooper, 1981 also include brief sections on
the introduction of trout to the Taupo-Tongariro area.
While trout provided food in lieu of or as a supplement to indigenous fish species, tourist trout
fishing increasingly became a source of income for Ngati Tuwharetoa. However, the Crown
continued to regulate and administer the trout fishery in Lake Rotoaira. There are also
associated issues over the Crown’s management of the environment and over the environmental
impact on the trout fishery from the Tongariro Power Development Scheme. Related to the
September 2004,Wai 1130 #A6, p 31
93
attempts to develop the trout fishery in Lake Rotoaira as a tourist attraction were attempts by
Ngati Tuwharetoa to gain fishing rights to the lakes created by the Tongariro Power Development
Scheme (Lake Otamangakau and Lake Whaiau).
Although Walzl focuses heavily upon arguments over title to the lake, scattered throughout his
narrative are details of fishing rights, regulations, environmental concerns and Ngati
Tuwharetoa’s development of the fishery as a tourist attraction and the income received from this
venture. If this material were extracted and pieced together, a detailed case study of the fishery
as a tourist venture could be constructed. Walzl’s footnotes point to a significant volume of
Archives New Zealand files. Most of these have been included in the document bank that
accompanies his report.
The brief report John Koning, ‘Lake Rotoaira: Maori Ownership and Crown Policy Towards
Electricity Generation, 1964 - 1972’, 1993 (Wai 1130 #A14) covers some of the same territory as
Walzl but using slightly different sources, so Koning’s report should also be checked.
Once the sources used by Walzl and Koning have been combed for details on the trout fishery as
a tourist venture, it may be useful to check that Archives New Zealand, Wellington files have
been covered. These files are listed at the end of this chapter as List B.
A case-study of the Lake Rotoaira trout fishery as a tourist venture ought also to attempt to place
that venture in the wider context of the trout fishing industry in the Lake Taupo, Tokaanu and
Turangi area and Ngati Tuwharetoa involvement in that industry. Many of the secondary sources
and archives files discussed above deal with the Taupo fishery as well so this should provide the
context required. In addition, Deryck J Shaw, M Fletcher, and E J Gibbs, Taupo: A Treasury of
Trout. The Economic Activity Generated by Anglers, their Profiles, Fishing Patterns and Catch in
the Taupo Fishing District, NZ Wildlife Service, Department of Internal Affairs, Central North
Island Wildlife Conservancy Council, Rotorua, 1985 may provide some discussion of
contemporary statistics and patterns, as well as a historical overview. Allan Cooper, Pool of the
Tongariro: some history and humour, Turangi District Historical Society, Turangi, 1975 is a local
history which may provide material on the location of fishing camps and details of non-Maori
involvement in the trout fishing industry on the Tongariro River. There are also some brief
observations on the importance of trout fishing to the economy of Turangi in Helen Bain, ‘Talk of
the Town’, The Dominion, 8 January 2002, p 10.
94
2.4.6 Conclusion
Secondary sources indicate that Maori in the National Park inquiry district had little involvement in
tourism ventures, either as owner-operators or employees, until the last few decades. This lack of
involvement means that a search of general Tourism Department files at Archives New Zealand is
unlikely to be fruitful. However if considered necessary, the sources surveyed suggest that two
tourism case studies are viable in terms of examining the impact of Crown policies and practices
on Maori attempts to develop natural resources as tourist attractions. Iwi/hapu attempts to
develop Ketetahi thermal springs as tourist ventures, and their attempts to develop tourist trout
fishing and related recreational activities on Lake Rotoaira and other waterways, could be
explored as extended case studies. Tangata whenua may be able to present evidence on their
experiences with regard to tourism, including any difficulties they have encountered with regard
to obtaining concessions to operate tourist ventures in the Tongariro National Park.
95
List A: Tokaanu Tourism Files - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
Files dealing with the Tourism Department Administration of the Tokaanu Hotel
• TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 22, 20/27, vol 2 Tokaanu - Turangi, 1911-1969
• TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 48, 63/13/1, vol 2 Tokaanu Hotel, 1964-1973
• AABN 851, W3096, 83, 63/16 pt 1 THC Tokaanu Hotel, 1932-1976
• TO 1, 55/32 Purchase by Government, 1943-1948
• TO 1, 55/33 New hotel, 1942-1950
• TO 1, 55/18 (pt 1?) Hotel licence and health report, 1943-1950
• TO 1, 55/18 pt 2 Hotel licence and health report, 1951-1956
• TO 1, 55/29/1(pt 1?) F W Edkins - sublease, 1944-1949
• TO 1, 55/29/1(pt 2?) F W Edkins - sublease, 1950-1959
Files dealing with development of road access to Tokaanu
• TO 1/80, 1908/513 Tokaanu-Waihi Road, 1908
• TO 1/36, 1902/100 Pipiriki, Waiouru, Tokaanu road, 1902-1910
• TO 1/47, 1903/119 Tokaanu-Kakahi Road, 1903-1906
• TO 1/57, 1905/119 Pipiriki-Raetihi road bush, 1905-1906
Files dealing with other associated amenities at Tokaanu
• TO 1, 55/2/1 pt 1 Fishing Lodges and camps, 1938-1959
• TO 1, 55/6 (pt1?) Bar Trade etc, 1944-1951 & 1952-1954
• TO 1, 55/6 (pt2?) Bar Trade etc, 1955-1960
• TO 1, 55/25/1 Fish store and smoke house, 1910-1950
• TO 1, 55/14 (pts 1 & 2?) Picture Hall, 1944-1950 & 1950-1953
• TO 1, 55/14/1 Sale of Picture Hall, 1953-1955
• TO 1, 55/25 Petrol Pump, 1945-1953
96
List B: The Rotoaira Trout Fishery - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
• AABN 408, 1909/757 Charges made by Maoris for right to fish in Tongariro River, 1909
• AABN 851 W3096, 7, 11/1, pt 5 Fishing regulations and licences and guides, 1979-1982
• IA1 79/69 pt 1 Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Roto-aira - Control of etc., n/d
• IA1, 79/69 pt 2 Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Roto-aira - Control of etc., n/d
• IA1, 79/69 pt 3 Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Roto-aira - Control of etc., n/d
• MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 1 box 178 Lake Rotoaira, 1927-1947
• MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 2 box 178 Lake Rotoaira, 1948-1957
• MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 3 box 178 Lake Rotoaira, 1957-1960
• MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 4 box 178 Lake Rotoaira, 1961-1972
• MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 5 box 178 Lake Rotoaira, 1972-1975
• MA 1, 341, 19/1/11 Tongariro Power Development - Head Office Policy File, 1964-1966
• TO 1, Acc 2954, 11/1 pt 13 Fishing, trout, salmon, river and lake rates, 1974-1979
• TO 1, Acc 2954, 11/1 pt 4 Fishing regulations and licences and licencing guides, 1956-1978
• TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 16, 11/4, vol 11 Fishing - trout - salmon - rivers and lakes, 1970-1972
• TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 16, 11/4, vol 12 Fishing - Licences, 1962-1974
• TO 3, 15/20/1 box 8 Fishing and hunting, 1951-1955
97
2.5 Hydro-Electric Construction2.5.1 Introduction
The construction of the Tongariro Power Development scheme during the 1960s and 1970s
constituted a potentially significant avenue for employment for Maori in and around the National
Park inquiry district. This chapter reviews material that provides an outline of the scope, location
and duration of the Tongariro Power Development scheme. It then goes on to examine the
sources available for investigating the types of employment created, including the size and
composition (ethnicity, origin, gender etc) and occupational structure of the workforce involved in
the construction of the scheme, and how Maori fitted into this wider picture. Finally, it reviews
the sources relating to the impact that the completion of the scheme may have had on Maori
previously employed in its construction. It also looks at sources that document the nature, scope
and success of government programmes to address Maori employment needs in Turangi and the
surrounding area after the completion of the scheme.
2.5.2 Tongariro Power Development Scheme: Location, Scope and Duration
The Waitangi Tribunal, Turangi Township Report 1995, Brooker, Wellington, pp 20 - 31 provides
an excellent overview of the physical layout of the power scheme, its planning and the selection
of Turangi as a site for development. Tony Walzl, ‘Hydro-electricity Issues: The Tongariro Power
Development Scheme’, February 2005 provides a more detailed discussion of the impetus for the
scheme and the various phases of its construction. Most of this paraphrases the section from
John E Martin, (ed), People, Politics and Power Stations: Electric Power Generation in New
Zealand, 1880 - 1998, Electricity Corporation of New Zealand and Historical Branch, Department
of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1991 on the Tongariro Power Development Scheme. Kirkpatrick et
al, 2004, have a useful diagram of the scheme (Figure 9.7 p 395). This should be sufficient to
provide a basic outline of the scheme as a context for a discussion of employment opportunities.
2.5.3 Employment in Turangi during and after the Tongariro Power Development
Scheme
Sources relating to the Crown’s consultation with iwi and hapu at Turangi during the planning
and construction of the power scheme could provide material regarding iwi and hapu
expectations and Crown promises regarding the redevelopment of the township’s ammenities and
employment opportunities. Tony Walzl, February 2005, provides a detailed discussion of the
planning and consultation with Maori carried out by the Crown and most of the sources he cites
are available in the volumes of supporting documents accompanying his report. Also of
significance is the Waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington. The
98
report provides a summary of the meetings held between Maori and the Crown and a detailed
analysis of the undertakings made by the Crown (pp 33 - 65). The report also draws on tangata
whenua evidence to document the perceptions of Ngati Turangitukua people at Turangi of the
social and economic changes brought by the power scheme and their experience of the Crown’s
consultation (pp 201 - 213). However, much of this discussion relates to the impact of loss of
land and issues surrounding compensation.
Sources documenting Maori employment in Turangi on the Tongariro Power Development and
associated businesses are rather meagre. What information there is on employment in the
township during the construction of the power scheme offers little that is specifically about Maori
employment. Several surveys of Turangi inhabitants in the 1970s and 80s provide data on
employment in the township. The general figures and discussion of the employers and types of
employment engaged in are a useful background but none provide any data about Maori
employment. Peter Crawford, Turangi 1975: Ministry of Works & Development Town,
Community and Service Centre: a survey of the social and economic problems of the community
of Turangi and a discussion of the future development of the settlement, Taupo Regional
Development Committee, 1976 includes a table showing the last place of residence for Turangi
residences surveyed. This is very useful and indicates that a high proportion of the workers on
the power scheme came from outside the inquiry district (many having worked on power
schemes in other North Island centres). Crawford discusses the nature and scale of employment
at the Ministry of Works and Development (the major employer), the Forest Service, New
Zealand Electricity Department, the Justice Department, and other production and service
businesses at Turangi. In a similar survey Bill Wasley, Turangi in the 1980s: a study of people,
employment and the future of Turangi, Taupo County Council, Taupo, 1980 discusses various
employment opportunities available in the area (horticulture, forestry, employment in prisons
etc.). This is useful background material but again provides no data on Maori employment.
The limited time available for this scoping exercise did not permit a systematic search of Ministry
of Works files at Archives New Zealand. Such a search may provide further material on Maori
employed on the Tongariro Power Development Scheme.
2.5.4 Crown Assistance to Unemployed Tongariro Development Scheme Workers
Without comprehensive data on Maori employment on the scheme it is difficult to know how
many local Maori were left unemployed once the scheme was completed. However, there seems
no doubt that the completion of construction was followed by a downturn in the Turangi
economy. Several newspaper articles give some indication of the socio-economic status of
99
Turangi residents after the completion of the power scheme. Graham Reid, ‘A River flows through
it; Turangi: The town that could have been', the New Zealand Herald, 10 April 1999, J:1-2
describes a visit to Turangi, charts its history and described its current problems, particularly
unemployment and crime. Philip Kitchin, ‘Power to the People', the Dominion, 23 March 2001, p 9
reflected on the impact of the Tongariro Power Development on Turangi, and Helen Bain, ‘Power
to the People', the Dominion, 8 January 2002 p 10 outlines the history of Turangi and its citizens
and comments on economic opportunities and disparities in socio-economic status between the
unemployed, and wealthy tourists and skiers.
It is difficult to piece together a picture of Crown assistance to unemployed workers in the
Turangi-Tongariro region in the wake of forestry restructuring and the winding up of the
Tongariro Power Scheme construction. In part this is because this is recent history. There are a
number of files at Archives New Zealand, Auckland from Te Puni Kokiri Turangi Office that deal
with various government and community employment schemes and youth programmes and
initiatives for Maori between 1987 and 1990 in Turangi. These are listed at the end of this
chapter. Overall, these files mostly contain administrative material with only a few scattered
references to Maori individuals offered training.
2.5.5 Conclusion
Sources examined during this scoping exercise indicate that the material relating to Maori
employment on the Tongariro Power Development scheme, and other employment this scheme
generated in Turangi and the surrounding area, is insufficient to provide a clear and
comprehensive account. Likewise, the material relating to the Crown responses to Maori
unemployment in the wake of the scheme’s completion is too fragmented to provide a reliable
account.
2.6 Other Employment OpportunitiesThere are several other avenues for Maori employment mentioned in the sources examined
during this scoping exercise. These avenues may be potentially significant:
2.6.1 Public Works - Constructing Roads and other Structures
Maori employment in public works projects (other than the Tongariro Power Development
Scheme) requires consideration. In her chapter on the Waikune Prison, Cathy Marr, ‘The
Waimarino Report: The investigation, purchase and creation of reserves in the Waimarino Block,
and associated issues, 2004, (Wai 903 #A60) has raised the issue of the impact extensive use of
prison labour in the district had upon Maori ability to obtain employment on road gangs.
100
2.6.2 Railway Construction and Operation
The construction of the Main Trunk Line was a significant employment opportunity in the 1890s
and early 1900s to the south and west of the inquiry district. The extent of this enterprise is well
documented in Hill, 1999. While Hill argues that the vast majority of the work force engaged in
railway construction were British migrants, Volkerling and Stewart, 1986 note that many Maori
‘were casual labourers. The settlements on the lower Whanganui-o-te-Ao River became
depopulated after 1900, when many of their inhabitants left to seek employment on the
construction of the Main Trunk Railway.’79 It is unclear how many Maori from the inquiry district
were engaged in construction work, nor how many worked as railway operators in the period up
to 1990.
2.6.3 Deer, Opossum and Wild Horse Capture
Anderson noted that by the 1930s red deer ‘were becoming well established in the area north of
Rotoaira, around Pihanga and Kakaramea, and in the western portion of the park, where they
had migrated from the Kaimanawa Ranges.’ There are also mentions of deer hunting parties in
the 1940s and by the 1950s annual shooting permits for deer and opossum were being issued.
The Wildlife Control Act 1977 set up systematic eradication programmes.80 Anderson also briefly
mentions that ‘As the habitat changed and was changed, so too did the use of these lands as
evidenced by … the round-up of horses for hides and dog-meat at Rangipo-Waiu and
Rangiwaea.’81 It is unclear whether Maori were involved in hunting deer, opossums and wild
horses for income in the inquiry district and if so what the scale of the enterprise was, what
barriers they may have faced in exploiting this avenue and what contribution this made to Maori
income.
2.6.4 Other Small Town Job Opportunities
Rose, 2004 includes discussion of 1959 attempts to establish a hostel to accommodate young
Maori working in Raetihi. Clearly the hospital there provided some employment for Maori in
domestic service positions and there was unspecified mention of other employment. A
photograph in Te Ao Hou, No. 17, December 1956 under the heading ‘Industry in the Country’
shows Maori women working at sewing machines. The caption reads ‘This small clothing factory
at Tokaanu, providing employment for up to ten women in an area where no other industrial
work exists, has been supplying to the Army.’
79 R H Voekerling & K L Stewart, From Sand to Papa: A History of the Whanganui County, Wanganui County Council,Wanganui, 1986, pp 145 - 14680 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 22081 Anderson, Tongariro National Park, 2005, p 29
101
2.6.5 Conclusion
There may be material in archival files relating to these various economic opportunities. However,
it is likely that this material, if it exists, is to be found in general files that would require
considerable time and effort to sift through with little guarantee of finding a significant body of
material.
102
Archives New Zealand, Auckland - File on Maori Employment Training, Turangi,
1987 - 1990
• ABJZ 4948, 30d, 5/5/3 Plateau Enterprises Ltd, 1987-1989
• ABJZ 4948, 12d, 7/2/1 pt 1 Turangi and Taupo, 1988-1991
• ABJZ 4948, 11b, 7/3/0 pt 1 Vocational training (vol. 1), 1988-1989
• ABJZ 4948, 11a, 7/3/0/1 pt 1 Vocational training (vol. 1), 1990
• ABJZ 4948, 9c, 7/3/3 pt 1 Joint ventures, 1988-1989
• ABJZ 4948, 9d, 7/3/3 pt 2 Joint ventures, 1988-1992
• ABJZ 4948, 10c, 7/3/11 pt 1 Access, 1988-1989
• ABJZ 4948, 10b, 7/3/11 pt 1 Access, 1988-1990
• ABJZ 4948, 9e, 7/3/11/1, Access training - Central Organic Gardens, 1988
• ABJZ 4948, 17b, 7/3/13 Trade trainees, 1988-1990
• ABJZ 4948, 23c, 7/7/5 pt 1 Turangi Enterprise Agency & Youth Development, 1987-1991
• ABJZ 4948, 22a, 7/7/1 pt 1 COGS (Community Organisations Grant Scheme), 1988-1991
• ABJZ 4948, 7g, 7/7/13 REAP (Rural Education Activities programme) - central plateau, 1967-
1988
• ABJZ 4948, 8a, 7/7/13 pt 1 REAP (Rural Education Activities programme) - central plateau,
1982-1989
• ABJZ 4948, 8b, 7/7/17 survey on unemployment, n/d
103
Part 3: Living Standards andSocial Services
104
3.1 Maori Employment and Income Levels
3.1.1 Introduction
To a large extent the issues of Maori employment and income, health and housing, both at a
national and regional level, are intimately related. In particular, employment and income
resources have a significant influence on the ability to obtain a high standard of housing and
health care, while housing standards are acknowledged to affect the health of those who live in
those houses. This interconnectedness is also reflected in the sources that deal with Maori living
standards and social services. This is particularly the case with Department of Maori Affairs
sources from 1945 onwards when education, training, employment, housing, sanitation and
health initiatives came under the umbrella ‘Maori welfare’. However, for the sake of clarity, this
part of the scoping report deals separately with the sources available to discuss Maori
employment and income, State welfare benefits, health, housing and education in the National
Park inquiry district.
This chapter discusses sources of information related to Maori employment and income levels in
the National Park inquiry district between 1890 and 1990. As noted in the chapter relating to
Maori economic opportunities and employment in the farming sectors, Maori wage labouring sat
alongside the other economic resources such as customary food sources and subsistence/
domestic horticulture until at least the mid-twentieth century in this inquiry district. As the
century progressed wage labouring came to be the main, and in many cases, sole income for
Maori in the district. This chapter begins by examining sources that deal with Maori employment
and unemployment levels in New Zealand as a whole and then for Maori in the inquiry district
specifically. A similar section relating to Maori income levels follows.
3.1.2 Maori Employment Trends in New Zealand
There are adequate sources regarding Maori employment and unemployment trends in New
Zealand, although census data for Maori from the 1980s onwards is more comprehensive in this
regard than for the remainder of the twentieth century. This data, coupled with a number of
secondary sources, would certainly be adequate to summarise national trends and make a
comparison with similar data for the inquiry district.
Pool, 1991 investigates Maori demographic change between 1840 and 1986. He divides this
timeframe into a number of periods and for each offers a brief discussion of shifts in patterns of
Maori employment in terms of the percentage of Maori employed in the primary, secondary and
105
tertiary sectors. Migration from rural to urban areas is a major trend for Maori across the second
half of the twentieth century and provides a potentially significant explanation for Maori
population change in predominantly rural areas such as this inquiry district. Pool provides useful
material in his sections on the changing rural/urban distribution of the Maori population over this
period. This should be coupled with David Williams, ‘Crown Policy Affecting Maori Knowledge
Systems and Cultural Practices’ (Wai 262 #K3), pp 71-72 and 81-86 which provides a thorough
overview of Crown policy regarding Maori urbanisation. Ernest Beagehole, ‘The Maori in New
Zealand: A case study of socio-economic Integration’, International Labour Review, vol. 76, No.
2, August 1957, pp 103 - 123 provides comparative figures for the percentage of Maori living n
urban areas in 1936 and in 1951. The 1960 Hunn report gives figures for the percentage of Maori
living in cities and boroughs for 1926, 1951 and 1956. McCreary, ‘Population Growth and
Urbanisation’ in Erik Schwimmer (ed), The Maori People in the Nineteen-Sixties: A Symposium,
Longman Paul, Auckland, 1968 supplements Pool’s discussion in Maori urbanisation. Megan
Woods, ‘Dissolving the Frontiers: Single Maori Women's Migrations, 1942 - 1969', in Lyndon
Fraser & Katie Pickles (eds), Shifting Centres: Women and Migration in New Zealand History,
University of Otago Press, 2002, pp 117 - 134 places Crown policy and the experience of Maori
women migrants to urban areas in the wider context of Maori urbanisation and the work of the
Department of Maori Affairs from 1945.
Aside from these general works, there are a number of secondary sources that contain
occupational and unemployment statistics for Maori for various periods. The urbanisation of the
Maori population was coupled with a shift in the types of occupations Maori were employed in.
The shift has been essentially a progression from primary sector (largely agricultural) jobs,
through manufacturing in the secondary sector, and an increasing number of Maori in the
professional and service industries of the tertiary sector. H Belshaw, ‘The Maori people - One
Hundred Years After’, Economic Record, v(xv), October 1939, pp 95 - 109 gives a detailed
snapshot of the percentage of Maori working in various types of occupations as at 1936.
Beagehole, August 1957, pp 103 - 123 presents a table comparing the percentage of Maori men
versus Pakeha men in various categories of occupation in 1954. The 1960 Hunn Report includes
statistics showing the percentage of Maori and non-Maori in various occupational categories in
1936 and 1951. Trends from these statistics are then discussed. The Statistical Supplement to
the Hunn report provides three tables comparing occupational data for Maori and non-Maori, and
a table showing Maori unemployment rates. B Pearson, ‘New Zealand Since the War - The Maori
People, Landfall, 62, 16(2), June 1962, pp 148 - 180 gives some statistics for the percentage of
Maori in broad occupational categories from the 1956 census and then discusses the barriers
Maori faced in obtaining employment in the cities. John Forester, ‘The Social Position of Maori’ in
106
Erik Schwimmer (ed), The Maori People in the Nineteen-Sixties: A Symposium, Longman Paul,
Auckland, 1968 briefly draws connections between poor Maori educational attainment and
concentration in low paid occupations.
Secondary sources also summarise more recent data on Maori employment and unemployment.
Eru W Pomare and Gail de Boer, Hauora: Maori Standards of Health, Medical Research Council of
New Zealand, Wellington, 1988 sets out some key statistics for various aspects of Maori health
and socio-economic factors. In the chapter on socio-economic factors they cite 1986 census
figures for rates of Maori unemployment, and representation in various occupational categories.
Statistics New Zealand’s website provides an analysis of 1996 census data for Maori occupational
and unemployment data:
• http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/indus-con.htm
• http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/emp-shifts.htm
• http://www.ststs.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/imp-of-unemp.htm
The first discusses compares the percentage of Maori in various occupational categories in 1986
and 1996. The second includes a table showing employment to population ratios for Maori and
non-Maori men and women in 1986, 1991 and 1996. The third shows changes in the Maori
unemployment rate between 1986 and 1996.
The most up-to-date figures on Maori employment and unemployment are provided in ‘Trends in
Maori Labour Market Outcomes, 1986 - 2003’ for Hui Taumata 2005, Department of Labour,
2005. This summarises and discusses census data on Maori occupational status and
unemployment from 1986 to 2003. It also outlines trends such as shifts to larger numbers of
Maori in higher education, increasing labour force participation by Maori women and strong
growth in Maori self-employment.
3.1.3 Maori Employment Trends in National Park Inquiry District
The material on Maori employment trends in the Southern Taupo - Tongariro/Ruapehu area
and/or the towns within and around the inquiry district boundaries is somewhat patchy. Again,
there is better data for the last couple of decades than for the remainder of the twentieth
century. Kukutai et al note that ‘the first detailed data available to review the social and economic
situation of Central North island Maori are for the period 1986-1996’. They present data for
Taupo and Rotorua Territorial Authority areas. However, their count also includes Maori from
non-CNI iwi. They present several tables:
• Table 11.7 p 114 Unemployment Rates of Maori versus total population for Rotorua TA,
Taupo TA and NZ for male, female and total in 1986, 1991 and 1996
107
• Table 11.8 p 114 Labour Force Participation Rates of Maori versus total population for
Rotorua TA, Taupo TA and NZ for male, female and total in 1986, 1991 and 1996
• Table 11.9 p 115 Occupational Distribution for Maori versus total population for Rotorua TA,
Taupo TA and NZ in 1986, 1991 and 1996.
The raw data for these tables can be found in ‘Appendix 11C: Labour Force Participation and
Unemployment rates, CNI Maori by TA and NZ Maori by age and sex, 1986 - 1991’ and ‘Appendix
11D: Occupational distribution [%] for Maori, CNI Total pop., by TA, and NZ Maori by age and
sex, 1986 - 1996.’ Kukutai et al also examined the 1996 census data in which people identified
themselves by iwi, compiling statistics of all those that identified as Taupo/Arawa (not further
defined) and Tuwharetoa and compared these with rates amongst Maori as a whole. Among the
socio-economic indicators they examined were the percentage of people unemployed and median
household income. This data is a useful background to trends in Maori employment in the wider
Taupo region but cannot provide an accurate picture of Maori employment in the inquiry district.
The National Park inquiry district falls into two current regional council districts: Environment
Waikato whose Taupo district council area takes in the north of the inquiry district, and Horizons
Regional Council whose Ruapehu district council area takes in the remainder of the inquiry
district. There is a useful map of regional and district council district boundaries on
http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/lgip.nsf. This website also links to the sites of individual
regional and district councils. http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/LGIP.nsf/wpg_URL/Councils-A-Z-
Councils-Ruapehu-District-Council-C1 provides a community profile on the Ruapehu district
council area. It uses 2001 census data and gives:
• The unemployment rate for Ruapehu district and compares this with the New Zealand rate
• The most common occupational category for people in the district and the percentage who
fell into that category, and compares this with the New Zealand category and percentage
A similar profile for the Taupo District Council area can be found at
http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/LGIP.nsf/wpg_URL/Councils-A-Z-Councils-Taupo-District-
Council-C1. However, these are also of limited usefulness because they deal with the whole
population, not Maori specifically, and the Taupo region rather than the inquiry district itself.
Statistics New Zealand have also produced regional reports on Tamariki (Maori children age 0 to
14) and Rangatahi (Maori youth aged 15 to 24). These are available for the Waikato Region
(Waikato Regional Council area) and the Taranaki and Manawatu-Wanganui Region (Taranaki
Regional Council Area and Manawatu-Wanganui Regional Council area). These follow a standard
108
format and include statistics, graphs and discussion by family composition showing what
percentage (as a total and by gender) of parents were employed, unemployed, and not in the
labour force. While this data is Maori specific, it is really only useful in indicating wider regional
patterns and only for the most recent census (2001).
At the local level Statistics New Zealand produces Community Profiles. These are available for
the following towns in and around the inquiry district for the 2001 census data:
• Tangiwai
• Ohakune
• Raetihi
• National Park
• Raurimu
• Owhango
• Turangi
• Rangipo
• Waiouru
Each of these has a standard format that includes a section on employment. This gives the 2001
unemployment rates for the town and compares it with that of both the Territorial Authority area
and New Zealand. It gives the most common occupational category and the percentage of
people in the township in that category and compares this with both the Territorial Authority area
and New Zealand. However, this is for the whole population of each town, not just the Maori
inhabitants and is limited to a snapshot of 2001.
In addition, Rose, 2004 contains an excellent and extensive discussion of living conditions for
Maori in Ohakune and Raetihi in the 1950s. She examines the links between migration to those
townships from settlements in the Waimarino block and on the Whanganui River. She documents
the difficulties for Maori in obtaining permanent employment in these towns, the types of
employment available (and the numbers of Maori employed by various bodies) and the impact of
unemployment and underemployment on housing and living conditions. Rose’s sources suggest
that some fragmented data on Maori employment might be gleaned from Maori Affairs welfare
files, but this would be a time consuming process that may or may not yield significant data.
3.1.4 Maori Income Trends in New Zealand
There are also adequate sources that could be drawn on to sketch the context of trends in Maori
income in New Zealand. This would provide a context and comparison for discussing Maori
109
income in the National Park inquiry district. Beagehole, August 1957, pp 103-123 presents and
discusses comparative income statistics from the 1951 census for Maori males and non-Maori
males in various income categories. Pearson, June 1962, pp 148-180 provides a brief discussion
of differences between Maori and non-Maori annual income from 1956 census figures. The 1960
Hunn Report presents these 1951 and 1956 comparative income statistics in table form. The
Statistical Supplement to the Hunn report has tables for Income of Actively Engaged Population
and Income of Maori and Non-Maori. In their chapter on socio-economic factors Eru W Pomare
and Gail de Boer, Hauora: Maori Standards of Health, Medical Research Council of New Zealand,
Wellington, 1988 cite 1986 census figures for Maori and non-Maori male income.
Statistics New Zealand’s website provides:
• http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/clpo.htm
Discussion comparing the average weekly income of Maori and non-Maori who are employed and
self-employed for 1996-1997.
• http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/pil.htm
An analysis of 1986 - 1996 Maori personal income data with accompanying bar graph.
• http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/hhip.htm
An analysis of 1996 census data for Maori and Non-Maori household income with accompanying
bar graph.
• http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/fisc.htm
An analysis of 1996 census data for Maori and non-Maori showing the number of parents per
household and their employment status. There is then a discussion comparing income in two-
parent families with that in sole parent families. Both are accompanied by bar graphs.
No doubt a further search of Statistic New Zealand and Labour Department websites and
publications would reveal data of a similar type for periods missed by these secondary sources.
However, this should provide enough data for a summary overview.
3.1.5 Maori Income Trends in National Park Inquiry District
The material on Maori income levels in the Southern Taupo - Tongariro/Ruapehu area and/or the
towns within and around the inquiry district boundaries is somewhat patchy. Again, there is
regional data and this tends to be more comprehensive for the last couple of decades than for
the remainder of the twentieth century. Table 11.6 p 113 in Kukutai et al shows the median
income of Maori versus that of the total population for the Taupo Territorial Authorities and New
Zealand for 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996. Further raw data for Maori personal income can be
found in ‘Appendix 11B: Personal income quartiles for CNI Maori by TA, and NZ Maori, by age
110
and sex, 1981 - 1996’. Again, this is useful for regional trends over this limited recent period but
cannot provide data specifically on Maori income levels in the inquiry district.
Horizons Regional Council’s website gives a link to a community profile on the Ruapehu district
council area. It uses 2001 census data and includes a table of income brackets showing the
percentage of people in that income bracket in the Ruapehu district and in New Zealand.
A community profile using census data for 2001 for the Taupo District Council area at
http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/LGIP.nsf/wpg_URL/Councils-A-Z-Councils-Taupo-District-
Council-C1. This provides income statistics for the total population.
Statistics New Zealand regional reports on Tamariki and Rangatahi for the Waikato Region
(Waikato Regional Council area) and the Taranaki and Manawatu-Wanganui Region (Taranaki
Regional Council Area and Manawatu-Wanganui Regional Council area) include statistics, graphs
and discussion by family composition showing median annual household income and source of
household income. While this data is Maori specific, it is really only useful in indicating wider
regional patterns and only for the most recent census (2001).
Statistics New Zealand Community Profiles each include a section on income. This gives the 2001
median annual income for the town and compares it with that of both the Territorial Authority
area and New Zealand. It then presents a bar graph showing the percentage of people in the
township that fall into each income bracket and compares this with of both the Territorial
Authority area and New Zealand.
In addition, Rose, 2004 provides an extensive discussion of living conditions for Maori in Ohakune
and Raetihi in the 1950s giving figures for weekly income of Maori in Ohakune and Raetihi in the
1950s.
3.1.6 Conclusion
The sources relating to Maori levels of employment/unemployment and income located during
this scoping exercise do not provide data specific to the inquiry district. There is regional and
national level data for the 1981 - 2001 period that suggests trends that may or may not apply to
the Maori in the inquiry district. Therefore, beyond indicating broad regional trends, it does not
appear to be possible to discuss Maori employment/unemployment and income in the inquiry
district in any accurate or meaningful way.
111
3.2 State Welfare Benefits and Maori
3.2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the sources available for a discussion of the development of welfare benefits
and Maori access to and use of those benefits as a form of income, including old age pensions
(begun in 1895) and benefits under the Social Security Act 1938. It then examines any sources
that may provide a picture of Maori access to and use of welfare benefits as a source of income
in the Southern Taupo - Tongariro/Ruapehu area and/or the towns within and around the inquiry
district. Some of the most recent statistical sources discussed above will also provide some
indication of what proportion of the Maori population in this region depend upon welfare benefits
for all or part of their income.
3.2.2 Social Welfare and Maori in New Zealand
There is adequate secondary material documenting the establishment and administration of
social welfare in New Zealand in general, and provision for Maori within that system specifically.
The best recent text on the subject is Margaret McClure, A Civilized Community: A History of
Social Security in New Zealand, Auckland University Press/Historical Branch, Department of
Internal Affairs, Auckland, 1998. Also useful is Gaynor Whyte, ‘Beyond the Statute:
Administration of Old Age Pensions to 1938’ in Bronwyn Dalley and Margaret Tennant (eds), Past
Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2004. This deals with
the widespread government practice of reducing the amount of old age pension paid to Maori.
There is also a useful discussion of the Social Security Act 1938 and its impact upon Maori
welfare benefit rates in Margaret McClure, ‘A Badge of Povery or a Symbol of Citizenship? Needs,
Rights and Social Security, 1935 - 2000 in Dalley and Tennant, 2004. Again, underpayment of
Maori had been was a widespread practice with regard to other types of benefits introduced in
the 1930s. This should be supplemented by the discussion of the benefits of social security in
Orange, 1977, who also provides a discussion of unemployment relief rates for Maori during the
Depression of the 1930s.
3.2.3 State Welfare Benefits and Maori in the National Park Inquiry District
So far few sources have been uncovered regarding Maori and welfare benefits in the National
Park inquiry district. It remains to be seen whether underpayment of benefits was a problem for
Maori in the National Park inquiry district. Rose, 2004 discusses Maori access to old age pensions
and to assistance from the civil list in the Whanganui inquiry district, giving several mini-case
studies of Maori living in Raetihi and Ohakune. She notes the limited access by Maori to the
benefit system. All of Rose’s case material comes from Maori Affairs series 1 files, apparently
112
located by tracing cases through the Maori Affairs correspondence registers at Archives New
Zealand, Wellington. The same could be done for the National Park inquiry district using as a
search criterion the name of the township or settlement from which the letter was received.
However, this type of searching is time consuming and may or may not yield significant case
material.
3.2.4 Conclusion
The sources examined in this scoping report with regard to the provision and use of State welfare
assistance by Maori in the National Park inquiry district are too limited to provide a clear and
comprehensive picture of how benefits contributed to Maori economic wellbeing in the district
between 1890 and 1990.
3.3 Housing for Maori
3.3.1 Introduction
This chapter examines the available sources for investigating the housing conditions of Maori in
the National Park inquiry district from 1890 to 1990. Chapter 3.4 which follows deals with sources
relating to Maori living standards (sanitation, water and food supplies). Many of the files listed
and discussed in that chapter and the chapter on medical services, especially after 1945, may
also contain some comment regarding the condition of Maori housing. The first section of this
chapter explores the sources that could provide an overview of the Crown’s policy with regard to
Maori housing. The remainder of the chapter assesses the sources available for an investigation
of housing standards in the Southern Taupo - Tongariro/Ruapehu area and/or the towns within
and around the inquiry district. This includes sources relating to the role played by Maori Councils
and, later, the Maori Affairs Welfare Division (and its associated Welfare Officers and Tribal
Committees) in improving Maori housing conditions in these settlements and towns.
3.3.2 Housing Policy and Maori: National Sources
There are numerous socio-economic research reports on Tribunal records of inquiry that include
an overview of Crown policy towards Maori housing from 1890 to 1990. These include Bruce
Stirling, ‘Waiarapa Maori and the Crown: vol. 4 Nonoke: The Struggle’, 2002, (Wai 863 #A51).
Should further outlines of policy be required there are several useful secondary sources. The
best general overview of housing policy and how provisions for housing for Maori fitted into that
policy is M N Lowes, ‘The Effect of Central Government Policy on the New Zealand house’, in New
Zealand Real Estate, Sept 1990; 41(8) pp 31-37. For a summary of Maori housing policy see
113
Matjato Neo Moteane, Maori Housing Programme in New Zealand: its history, services currently
offered and issues of major concern, 1984. Locke, 2004 gives a concise summary of the
development of Maori housing policy and its implementation in the 1934-1940 period. Orange,
1977 examines the 1935 Labour Government and its implementation of policies to address Maori
housing needs. A more detailed examination of the involvement of the Department of Maori
Affairs in Maori housing can be found in Mark Krivan, ‘The Department of Maori Affairs housing
programme, 1935-1967’ MA thesis in history, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1990.
Funding and finance available for Maori housing in the 1950s is discussed in Erik Schwimmer,
‘Government and the Changing Maori’, New Zealand Journal of Public Administration, 22(2),
1960, pp 13 - 37. The progress of the Crown’s programmes to build more houses for Maori in
the 1949 - 1962 period is discussed in Pearson, June 1962, pp 148 - 180. The statistical
supplement to the Hunn Report provides a number of useful tables, schedules and graphs of data
regarding applications for houses and for finance for housing by Maori. These are listed below:
• Allocation of State Rental Houses
• Applications: State Rental Houses
• Capitalisation of Family Benefits
• Houses: Average of New Houses
• Houses Built
• Houses Built: Location
• Houses: Mortgages
• Houses: New Houses Programmed each Year
• Housing: Applications in Relation to Construction
• Housing: Capital Expenditure on
• Housing: Deposit Accounts
• Housing Deposits: Average
• Housing: Loan Applications
• Housing Progress Compared with National Progress
• Housing: Sources of Finance
There are a number of reports on Maori housing issues from the 1980s that cover policy and its
implementation and Maori housing conditions. Two of these were sampled for this scoping
report. Murray Bathgate, The Housing Circumstances of the Maori People and the Work of the
Housing Corporation in Meeting their Needs, Policy and Research Division, Housing Corporation of
New Zealand, Wellington, June 1987 outlines the roles of the Housing Corporation and the
Department of Maori Affairs in financing Maori housing in the mid-late 1980s. It summarises the
problems faced by rural Maori in obtaining finance for housing and discusses the Housing
114
Corporation’s pilot schemes for rural Maori housing on the East Coast and in Northland. Murray
Bathgate, Housing Needs of the Maori Community, Policy and Research Division, Housing
Corporation of New Zealand, Wellington, March 1988 offers a summary of trends in Maori
housing conditions between 1971 and 1986, focusing on the problems of low home-ownership
rates and overcrowding. The report then examines the reasons for low Maori ownership rates,
rates of renting amongst Maori and borrowing by Maori to finance home ownership. The report
also discusses recent initiatives by the Housing Corporation with regard to assisting Maori with
housing. Several other reports from the 1980s may be useful but were not viewed during this
scoping exercise:
• Steven C Bourassa, Explaining Maori and Pakeha Home Ownership Rates, Real Estate
Research Unit Working Paper Series, No. 6, n/d
• J P M Cornwall, & G D Fouhy, Maori Housing Review: a review of Maori housing activities,
1982
• E M K Douglas, Fading Expectations: the Crisis in Maori Housing: a report for the Board of
Maori Affairs, Wellington, 1986
• Regional Housing Issues: feedback from Maori, Te Puni Kokiri, Wellington, 1988
• Maori Women's Housing Research Project report., ‘-for the sake of decent shelter -‘, Housing
Corporation of New Zealand, Wellington, 1991
3.3.3 Maori Housing Conditions: National Sources
There are a number of other secondary sources that provide snapshots of Maori housing
conditions. However these cover the period from 1935 onwards, leaving a gap in the national
picture from 1890 to 1935. Locke, 2004 cites figures from the 1936 census and from a 1937
survey by Dr Turbott of the Health Department, indicating that Maori housing was overcrowded
and of poor quality. These figures are cited more fully in Orange, 1977, who also cites examples
from Tauranga and the Wanganui area, and figures by politicians in 1938 and in 1947 on the
number of Maori in inadequate housing. Pearson, 1962, pp 148 - 180 provides comparative
statistics for Maori housing conditions in 1936 and 1956. He gives figures on the ratio of rooms to
occupants (a measure of overcrowding) and the percentage of Maori homes with certain basic
household amenities and appliances, and compares this with the rates of the same rooms to
people ratio, amenities and appliances in non-Maori homes. These figures are cited more fully
115
and clearly in the 1960 Hunn Report. The statistical supplement to the Hunn Report provides a
number of useful tables, schedules and graphs of data regarding the condition of Maori housing.
These are listed below:
• Houses: Average Size of Maori
• Housing Survey
• Housing Unsatisfactory
There are also a number of reports by the Department of Maori Affairs from 1966 to 1979 that
were identified but not viewed during this scoping exercise. It is possible that they contain
summaries of housing conditions as well as data on the provision of housing for Maori by the
Department. These are listed below:
• Housing survey 1966, Department of Maori Affairs, Wellington, 1967
• Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs, Auckland, 1970
• Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs, Auckland, 1971
• Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Wanganui Maori and Island Affairs Department, Wanganui,
1974
• Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs, Auckland, 1977
• Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs, Christchurch, 1979
3.3.4 Maori Housing in National Park Inquiry District
3.3.4(a) Secondary Sources
There is only minimal, fragmented data on Maori housing in the National Park inquiry district in
secondary sources. There is a considerable amount of material on Maori housing difficulties and
initiatives at Ohakune and Raetihi in the 1950s thanks to the comprehensive coverage given to
the two townships by Rose, 2004. Some of these initiatives are briefly covered by an article in
Schwimmer, April 1956, pp 28 - 31. The article highlights the work of the tribal committee under
the Maori Advancement Act 1945 in assisting Maori into better housing and places this in the
context of a development programme that included renovations to marae and the establishment
of a community centre at Karioi. The article is illustrated with photographs included a several of
newly constructed houses at Raetihi. Kirkpatrick et al discuss the socio-economic status of the
116
Lake Rotoaira area and feature a 2003 photograph of a house owned by a Maori woman living
near Lake Rotoaira.
There is some material relating to Maori housing provision and conditions in Turangi. The
waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, pp 214 - 242 provides a
detailed examination of the tangata whenua evidence put before it in relation to the relocation of
Maori living at Turangi during the construction of the township. This report also offers an
assessment of the Crown’s policies and practices, and their impact upon tangata whenua, during
this rehousing process. The briefs of evidence from which their chapter is drawn are available on
the Wai 84 record of inquiry and are listed at the back of the Tribunal’s report.
There are also several surveys of the Turangi population from the 1970s and 1980s and these
contain some general statistics regarding housing. Peter Crawford, Turangi 1975: Ministry of
Works & Development Town, Community and Service Centre: a survey of the social and
economic problems of the community of Turangi and a discussion of the future development of
the settlement, Taupo Regional development Committee, 1976 presents data on household size
and compares the size of Maori and non-Maori households in the survey sample. He also presents
data showing the percentage of households in the survey that owned, rented or leased their
home. Unfortunately this data is not differentiated by ethnicity. Andrew R Wilson, Turangi
Community Survey, 1988 - 1989, Taupo District Council, Taupo, 1989 surveyed only 220
households but presents graphs showing the percentage of that sample who owned or rented
their homes and asked respondents whether they thought they lived in overcrowded conditions.
He also records data on the number of bedrooms their homes had, whether they owned other
real estate and what organisation or individual had previously owned the house. Again the data is
not differentiated by ethnicity.
Statistics New Zealand’s regional reports include also include statistics, graphs and discussion by
family composition showing what percentage of tamariki and rangatahi live in rented
accommodation and what percentage live in houses that are owned in the territorial authority
area and in New Zealand. They also show what percentage of tamariki and rangatahi live in
crowded households (defined as in the glossary of these reports) for the territorial authority area
and for New Zealand. This material is Maori specific but can only provide a regional snapshot for
2001 rather than data for Maori in the inquiry district. Statistics New Zealand’s Community
Profiles give the percentage of dwellings in each town in and around the inquiry district that are
owned with or without a mortgage and compares this to the national figure in 2001. However,
117
these figures are for the total population of the township, not specifically for Maori inhabitants
and in any case, only provide a snapshot of the situation in 2001.
3.3.4(b) Primary Sources
There is a large volume of Maori Affairs Department files at Archives New Zealand Wellington on
Maori housing policy and implementation generally, but only a few of the files sampled during
this scoping exercise contained material specific to the inquiry district.
MA 1/691, 44/16/1 pt 1 Native housing - quarterly return for government statistician, 1933-1943
and MA 1/691, 44/16/1 pt 2 Housing organization - quarterly return for government statistician -
housing organisation, 1944-1951, Archives New Zealand, Wellington both contain some
potentially useful statistics in the Aotea Maori Land Board district returns. These count numbers
of houses built and repaired down to township locality level.
MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 8 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1959-1961 and subsequent
parts 10 to 13 Archives New Zealand, Wellington has some written reports but the focus is on
tabulations of expenditure, numbers of houses built, building targets and percentage of target
built. The tables show the number of house built for each Maori Affairs district. Because the
National Park inquiry district is split between the Waiariki district (that took in Taupo and
Turangi) and the Aotea districts, these figures are fairly meaningless for this report. A full list of
these files can be found in List A at the end of this chapter. Little material specific to the inquiry
was found in a limited sampling of those files. Combing these general files for what small amount
of material may exist would be time consuming and may or may not yield significant data.
In addition to these general files there are some which relate specifically to the Taupo-Turangi
region. There are several Maori Affairs files housed at Archives New Zealand in Auckland: MA W
2459, 269, 30/3/187 Turangi Housing Survey, 1958 deals with applications to the Maori Affairs
Department for housing loans and briefly reviews nine cases. Of the nine, three were described
as living in poor housing conditions. ABJZ 4949, 28a, 8/3/5 pt 1 marae - Otukou, 1949-1991,
Archive New Zealand, Auckland contains minutes of the Tongariro Tribal Committee for 20 March
1949. This gives a list of housing applications. Of the four cases listed, two give locations: one
at the Mokai papakainga (north end of Lake Taupo) and the other at Turangi.
There are also a large set of former Te Puni Kokiri regional office files relating to Maori housing in
the Whanganui district general and Raetihi, Ohakune, Turangi, Tokaanu and National Park in
particular. These files are all restricted and access to them would need to be negotiated with Te
Puni Kokiri head office. However, from their titles they appear to be very relevant and cover the
118
whole period from 1945 to 1990. A full list of these fills can be found in List B at the back of this
chapter.
3.3.5 Conclusion
The readily accessible sources explored in this scoping report regarding Maori housing provision
and conditions in the National Park inquiry district do not appear to provide sufficient material to
construct a clear or comprehensive picture of Maori housing conditions without considerable
research time. However, should access to restricted files on Maori housing in Turangi, Ohakune
and Raetihi be granted this may greatly increase our knowledge of Maori housing conditions in
and around the inquiry district in the second half of the twentieth century.
119
List A: General Maori Housing Files - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
Department of Health Files
• H 1, 194/18 (8839) Maori Welfare - housing, 1935-1941
Department of Maori Affairs Files
• MA 1/691, 44/16/1 pt 1 Native housing - quarterly return for government statistician, 1933-
1943
• MA 1/691, 44/16/1 pt 2 Housing organization - quarterly return for government statistician -
housing organisation, 1944-1951
• MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 8 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1959-1961
• MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 9 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1961-1962
• MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 10 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1962-1964
• MA 1/690, 44/2 pt 11 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1964-1966
• MA 1/690, 44/2 pt 12 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1966-1968
• MA 1/690, 44/2 pt 13 Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1968-1972
• MA W 2459, 249, 30/1 pt 2 Maori Housing - general, 1942-1947
• MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 5 Housing policy - general, 1956-1959
• MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 6 Housing policy - general, 1960-1961
• MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 7 Housing policy - general, 1961-1963
• MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 8 Housing policy - general, 1963-1967
• MA W 2459, 251, 30/1 pt 9 Housing policy and general, 1968-1973
• MA W 2459, 251, 30/1 pt 10 Housing - general, 1973-1975
• MA W 2459, 249, 30/1 pt 3 Housing organisation - general, 1947-1951
• MA W 2459, 249, 30/1 pt 4 Housing organisation - general, 1951-1960
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 4 Housing loan policy, 1947-1950
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 5 Housing loan policy, 1951-1953
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 6 Housing loan policy, 1954-1956
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 7 Housing loan policy, 1956-1958
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 8 Housing loan policy, 1958-1960
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 9 Housing loan policy, 1960-1963
• MA W 2459, 253, 30/1/3 pt 10 Housing policy, 1963-1964
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 11 Housing policy, 1964-1966
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 12 Housing policy, 1967-1970
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 13 Housing policy, 1970-1974
• MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 14 Housing policy, 1974-1977
120
• MA W 2459, 261, 30/1/42 pt 1 Housing loans - lending policy in remote areas, 1954-1968
List B: Files Relating to Maori Housing in the National Park Inquiry District
Maori Affairs Files
• MA W 2459, 269, 30/3/187 Turangi Housing Survey, 1958
• MA 1/632, 30/15/33 Housing survey follow up - Taupo (Wanganui) County, 1965-1966
Te Puni Kokiri Turangi Office Files
• ABJZ 4948, 11c, 7/2/25 temporary housing register, n/d
• ABJZ 4948, 12e, 7/2/1 Turangi & Taupo Housing, 1988-1989
• ABJZ 4948, 13c, 7/2/1/3 Housing reports, 1989-1991
Te Puni Kokiri, Wanganui Regional Office Files
NB: All Files are Restricted
General Housing Files
• ARBP 6844 4598/22, 7/0/12 pt 1 District sub-offices (correspondence with housing), 1945-
1992
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 1 Housing sections - General, 1967-1971
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 2 Housing sections - General, 1971-1975
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 3 Housing sections - General, 1975-1980
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 4 Housing sections - General, 1980-1982
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 5 Housing sections - General, 1982-1983
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 6 Housing sections - General, 1983-1986
• ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 7 Housing sections - General, 1986-1992
• ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/67 pt 1 Annual Reports - Housing, 1967-1974
• ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/67 pt 2 Annual Reports - Housing, 1974-1988
• ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/72 pt 1 Survey of housing localities where bad conditions exist
• ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/72 pt 2 Survey of housing localities where bad conditions exist,
1963-1990
• ABRP 6844 W4598/32, 7/0/89 pt 1 National Housing Survey, 1962-1971
• ABRP 6844 W4598/32, 7/0/90 pt 1 Housing - Remote and rural areas, 1961-1983
Raetihi & Ohakune
• ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 1 Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1948-1956
• ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 2 Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1956-1961
• ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 3 Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1960-1974
121
• ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 4 Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1974-1981
• ABRP 6844 W4598/26, 7/0/66/4 pt 1 Housing sections - Raetihi and Ohakune, 1956-1971
• ABRP 6844 W4598/26, 7/0/66/4 pt 2 Housing sections - Raetihi and Ohakune, 1974-1984
• ABRP 6844 W4598/26, 7/0/66/4 pt 3 Housing sections - Raetihi and Ohakune, 1984-1990
• ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/66/15 pt 1 Maungaronga Marae (Housing cases - Ohakune),
1983-1990
• ABRP 6844 W4598/33, 7/0/137 pt 1 Housing Survey - Raetihi/Ohakune/Taihape areas, 1985
• ABRP 6844 W4598/34, 7/0/142/1 1 Maungarongo Papakainga, Pauro Marino Trust
(Ohakune), 1990-1991
Turangi
• ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 1 Housing sections - Turangi, 1964-1968
• ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 2 Housing sections - Turangi, 1968-1977
• ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 3 Housing sections (Turangi), 1977-1987
• ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 4 Housing sections (Turangi), 1988-1990
• ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/66/19 pt 1 Turangi Housing - General, Tuwharetoa, n/d
Tokaanu
• ABRP 6844 W4598/22, 7/0/33 pt 1 Housing Schedule, Taumarunui-Tokaanu, 1948-1984
Other Locations
• ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/10 pt 1 Housing sections - National Park, 1965-1989
122
3.4 Maori Living Conditions in the National Park inquiryDistrict, 1890 – 1990
3.4.1 Introduction
This chapter identifies and assesses primary and secondary sources related to the level of the
sanitation, and water and food supplies in these homes, and various initiatives to improve Maori
living conditions. The chapter deals first with the period from 1890 to 1920, then the 1920-1940
period in which Maori councils and health councils were operating, and the 1945-1970 period
when tribal executives, tribal committees and welfare officers under the Maori Social and
Economic Advancement Act 1945 were active. Finally, there is a brief section on the post-1970
period.
3.4.2 Maori Living Conditions 1890 - 1920
Relatively little material relating to Maori living conditions in the National Park inquiry district
between 1890 and 1920 was locatedduring this scoping exercise. In this period the inquiry
district was still a relatively remote district and this is reflected in the patchy record. One general
Department of Maori Affairs file MA 21/1 papers relating to the supply of tanks to Maori houses
(special file 217), 1898-1905, Archives New Zealand, Wellington dealing with water supplies for
Maori settlements between 1898 and 1905 may contain material relevant to the inquiry district.
An initial search of AJHR for resident magistrates’ reports and reports by census enumerators did
not prove to be productive, and a more systematic search is likely to provide only a small amount
of fragmented data. Bruce Stirling, ‘Taupo-Kaingaroa Nineteenth Century Overview’, September
2004 (Wai 1200 #A39) pp 247 - 255 examined Resident Magistrates reports for the 1870s and
1880s for the Taupo-Kaingaroa region. These reports commented on crops, flour milling, schools,
housing and general health. A relevant example of these reports cited by Stirling is an extract
from Napier Resident Magistrate Locke’s report of 1874:
Locke reported on the area south of Taupo, from Rotoaira around to inland Patea, taking
in Rangipo, Murimotu, and Karioi. He observed that few Maori lived there, and that many
of those in the Patea district had ‘continued loyal through all the late disturbances.’ They
were a ‘healthy, thriving lot of people’ who paid ‘much attention to agriculture.’ The area
from there around to Rotoaira was, he suggested, ideal for special settlement, taking in
500,000 acres of open land, backed by well-grassed hills with timber and water, and
‘afforded plenty of scope for all.’ Large sheep runs had, as noted earlier, been
123
established in the Rangipo and Moawhango districts in 1867 and were thriving, with
30,000 sheep in the inland Patea and Kaimanawa district.82
As Rose’s report suggests, there may be valuable material in letters sent to the Maori Affairs and
Justice Departments (who were responsible for Maori Affairs between 1893 and 1906) both by
Maori and by settlers and officials in the area. In the limited time available for this scoping it was
not possible to sample these register books, which are held at Archives New Zealand Wellington.
Therefore, it is unclear how much relevant material files located in this way may produce. In any
case, this would be a time consuming process.
The other source used extensively by Rose for this period is Native school log books.
Unfortunately, a search of Archives New Zealand failed to locate log books for the Tokaanu,
Otukou or Moawhango Native schools (the three Native schools in and around the district). It is
possible that they have survived and are held in other repositories. The Karioi Native school log
books for the period 1898 to 1904 are available at Archives New Zealand Auckland:
• BAAA 1003, 1h Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1898-1901
• BAAA 1003, 1I Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1901-1903
• BAAA 1003, 1j Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1903-1904
However, Rose, 2004 has already used these extensively and provided a very thorough section
on Maori living conditions in the Karioi, Raetihi and Ohakune areas. It is clear that the log books
from the Native school at Moawhango did survive, as extracts from them are reprinted in Batley,
1958. An entry dated 31 March 1898 records that ‘some of the Maori scholars will be going away
for the winter. Food is scarce in the pa. The dry weather, and the frosts have played havoc with
the potato crops.’
Maori dependence on potatoes and other food crops for survival made communities particularly
vulnerable to adverse climatic events or diseases and pests in crops. The 1905-1906 potato blight
appears to have had a particularly severe effect on Maori crops and therefore upon Maori living
conditions. Once again Rose, 2004 provides a good overview of the blight and the Crown’s
response to it, with particular reference to the impact on Maori in the Whanganui inquiry district.
Tony Walzl, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo - Rotorua - Kaingaroa), 1890 - 1990, October 2004 (Wai
82 Bruce Stirling, ‘Taupo-Kaingaroa Nineteenth Century Overview’, September 2004 (Wai 1200 #A39), p 250 citing Locke
124
1200 #A80) provides some information about the impact of the potato blight in the Taupo-
Turangi area. He discusses Ngati Tuwharetoa motivations for seeking an agreement with the
Tongariro Timber Company in April 1906. A covering letter by solicitors Travers, Russell &
Campbell accompanied this application. This explained that the agreement would,
enable our clients to utilise their lands to advantage and to obtain a revenue therefrom
wherewith to maintain themselves and to educate their children. They are at present
without any resources and find it difficult to provide food and clothing for themselves and
their families. As you are aware, conditions of Maori life have changed very much in the
last twenty years. The younger generation has lost the arts and knowledge of
maintaining themselves without money, as their fathers were able to do, and the
complete failure of the potato crops in Taupo this year has threatened them with
starvation. European provisions and clothing have now become a necessity to Maoris,
and our clients find great difficulty in obtaining money to enable them to buy sufficient
for their requirements.83
A second letter from the Solicitors in January 1907 stated that, ‘The Native owners whom I represent are
very poor. They have no rich lands outside the area under discussion and they depend for the
maintenance education and prospects of themselves and their children upon the development of the
before mentioned blocks of land.’84
Maori agricultural statistics presented in chapter 2 of this report indicate that potatoes were a
significant crop for Maori in the counties into which the inquiry district fell. However, it is still
unclear to what extent Maori in the inquiry district were growing potatoes and what the impact, if
any, of the potato blight was on their crops. It is possible that further material could be found in
national files on the potato blight at Archives New Zealand Wellington. These are listed as List A
at the end of this chapter. Rose’s discussion of the potato blight in the Whanganui district relied
heavily upon files located through the register books of the Department for Maori Affairs,
suggesting this as a fruitful source of material. However locating material in this way is an
extremely time consuming progress with no guarantee that a significant body of data will be
found.
to Native Minister, 30 May 1874, AJHR 1874, G-2, pp 18 - 2183 Tony Walzl, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo - Rotorua - Kaingaroa), 1890 - 1990, October 2004 (Wai 1200 #A80) citingTravers etc. to Under-Secretary, Native Department, 25 Apr 1906, MA1 5/15/1 pt 1, Archives New Zealand, Wellington84 Tony Walzl, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo - Rotorua - Kaingaroa), 1890 - 1990, October 2004 (Wai 1200 #A80) citingSkerrett/Wylie to Premier, 22 Jan 1907, MA1 5/15/1 pt 1, Archives New Zealand, Wellington.
125
3.4.3 Maori Living Standards and the Work of the Maori Councils, 1920 - 1945
3.4.3(a) Introduction
Aside from the general files, register books and census enumerator’s reports discussed above,
the key source of information on Maori living conditions in the period between about 1920 and
1945 are Department of Maori Affairs and Department of Health files. These relate to the work
of the Maori Councils (later Maori Health Councils) and various Maori Health Department officials.
‘The Maori Councils Act 1900 set up councils that were to have similar powers to Pakeha local
authorities. The councils were responsible for promoting the health and welfare of the people in
their community and were empowered to make by-laws governing matters relating to health, the
sanitation of houses, drunkenness and numerous other welfare concerns.’85 Dr Maui Pomare was
appointed first Medical Officer for Maori in 1900.86 ‘Native Sanitary Inspectors were also assigned
in local districts to support Pomare in his role.’87 However, Pomare resigned in 1910 and there
were no Health officers responsible for Maori health for the next ten years.88 The Councils were
revived under section 66 of the Health Act 1920, which empowered the Governor General to
declare Maori Councils to be Health Councils to carry out sanitary work and enforce by laws with
the approval of the Director of Maori Hygiene. Dr Rangihiroa [Peter Buck] was appointed the
Director of Maori Hygiene to oversee this work.89
3.3.4(b) Secondary Sources
There are a number of comprehensive overviews of the organization and role of Maori councils,
Maori Medical Officers and Native Sanitary Inspectors. These should provide the background
required for a discussion of the living conditions of Maori reported by these councils and officials
in the inquiry district, as well as any measures these councils and officials took to improve those
conditions. These sources also draw conclusions about the general effectiveness of the Maori
Councils and some of the factors that hindered their work. The most authoritative treatment of
the Maori Councils role with regard to living conditions is Raeburn Lange, May the People Live: A
History of Maori Health Development, 1900 - 1920, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999.
See particularly pp 189 - 205 on the Maori Councils, pp 205 - 225 on the work of the Native
Sanitary Inspectors and pp 225 - 228 for Lange’s assessment of the effectiveness of the Councils.
Lange’s map of Maori Council Districts on p 190 is also very useful and shows that the Tongariro
Maori Council covered the entire area of the inquiry district. In Appendix II Lange tabulates
85 Emma Stevens, ‘Socio-economic Consequences of Land Loss for Maori in the Whanganui, Rangitikei, Manawatu &Horowhenua Districts, 1870 - 1960’, June 1997, Wai 903 #A32, p 7386 Stevens, 1997, p 7487 Stevens, 1997, p 7488 Rose, 2004, p 252.89 Williams, 2001, p 64.
126
central government Maori health funding from 1884 to 1920. This can be supplemented by Derek
Dow, Maori Health and Government Policy, 1840 - 1940, Victoria University Press in association
with the Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1999.
In his recent book Richard S Hill, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy: Crown-Maori Relations
in New Zealand/Aotearoa, 1900 - 1950, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2004 puts the Maori
Councils in the context of Maori and Crown committee across the 1900 to 1950 period, and
discusses them in terms of Crown-Maori relationships and Maori autonomy. Hill also covers the
Ratana church’s opposition to the Maori Councils and their establishment of alternative councils in
the 1920s, as does Stevens, June 1997. The Whanganui district was an area in which the church
had a considerable influence in the 1920s. It appears that the Ratana church did have a
significant following in the National Park inquiry district in this period. Gardiner, 1993 describes
how Otukou became a centre for the Ratana faith in the district in the mid-1920s. It is unclear
whether followers attempted to establish their own health committee at Otukou and other
settlements in the vicinity.
3.3.4(c) Primary Sources
There is a significant body of primary sources for Maori living conditions in this period. This
consists of Department of Maori Affairs and Health Department files held at Archives New
Zealand Wellington. There are three significant groups of files: on the Tongariro Maori Council;
on the sanitation and Maori health in the Wanganui and Taupo-Tokaanu areas, and general files
on Maori Councils. This section discusses each group of files, identifies relevant files and, where
possible, makes some comment on their contents and potential usefulness.
i) Files relating to the Tongariro Maori Council
There are three Health Department files that deal with the Tongariro Maori Council between 1919
and 1938:
• H 1, 121/19 (B 75) Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1919-1928
• H 1, 121/19 (B 75) Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1928-1935
• H 1, 121/19 (B 131) Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1935-1938
It is likely that these files will be a significant source of material on living conditions on this period
and the role of the Tongariro Maori Council and the Crown in attempting to improve those living
conditions. The 1935-1938 file was sampled. It deals with the taking over of the Tongariro Maori
127
Council by the Tuwharetoa Trust Board under s.16 of the Native Purposes Act 1935. What is
clear from this file is that there were a number of village committees, often called ‘komiti marae’,
established under the charge of the Tongariro Maori Council. The file lists the name and
members of the following village committees as at 17 March 1937: Pukawa, Tokaanu, Hirangi,
Waitahanui, Waipahihi and Mokai. These were gazetted in NZ Gazette No. 32, 13/5/1937, p
1138. A Komiti Marae o Nukuhau me Tapuaeharuru, and a Komiti Marae o Oruanui were
gazetted in January the following year (NZ Gazette No. 5, 27/1/1938, p 142). However, there is
nothing in this file beyond details of establishment.
There are also two Department of Maori Affairs files that relate to the Tongariro Maori Council.
MA 1/526, 26/6/19 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Tongariro Maori Council, 1935-1943 deals with the
official takeover of the Tongariro Maori Council by the Tuwharetoa Trust Board. Section 16 of the
Native Purposes Act 1935 was passed to give legal sanction to this change. The file does not
deal with the work of the Council, other than in a letter from the Tuwharetoa Trust Board
Secretary suggesting that new marae or village committees be elected. He writes: ‘I may say it is
necessary that something be done immediately with the hope that some better control will
eventuate over our maraes, as among other things a certain amount of drink is finding its way
into the pas.’90 Also noted in the file is that the relevant legislation governing Maori Councils was
the Maori Councils Act 1900 and s. 66 of the Health Act 1920. At least one set of by-laws passed
by the Tongariro Maori Council was gazetted (see NZ Gazette 26/1/1922). MA W 1369, 26/3/22
box 20 Tongariro Maori Council bylaws, 1924-1938 relates to the Council’s by-laws, and almost
certainly contains copies of those by-laws. This file could also be checked for any
correspondence or minutes of meetings that cover discussion about the need for by-laws to deal
with certain problems in Maori settlements in the district.
ii) Files relating to Sanitation and Maori Health in the Whanganui & Tokaanu-Taupo Districts
There are a number of Health Department files that touch on Maori living conditions and the
work of the Councils in the inquiry district:
• H 1, 177/19/2 (13817) Sanitation - complaint re Tokaanu, 1927-1928
• H 1, 16163, 194/1/19 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Wanganui, 1921-1933
• H 1, 16163, 194/1/19 (B 125) Maori Hygiene - Native health - Wanganui, 1925-1928
• H 1, 16163, 194/1/25 (13962) Maori Hygiene - Native health - Wanganui, 1931
128
• H 1, 194/2/3 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Inspector TRT Hooper, 1927-1931
• H 1, 194/1/17 (13934) Native Health - Taupo, 1921-1935
• H 1, 36/74 (37930) Tongrio (tuwhere toa) [sic] [Title on front of the file reads ‘Sanitation of
Maori Settlements - Tongariro (Tuwharetoa) District’], 1937-1940
There is also a Department of Maori Affairs file, MA 1/526, 26/6/23 Tuwharetoa Trust Board -
Public Convenience, water supply and roading, 1937-1957 that deal with the activities of the
Tuwharetoa Trust Board after it took over the functions of the Maori Council. This contains
material relating to moves by the Tuwharetoa Trust Board moves to subsidise water supplies at
Toakaanu, Hirangi, Pukawa and Korohe pa. There was also a question of extending a water
supply to Tokaanu Township itself and of the provision of public toilets in the Tokaanu Native
Township. This is an important file and should be read in the context of the whole programme of
health, welfare and social development being undertaken by the Tuwharetoa Trust Board from
the mid-1930s. This included water supply, sanitation, district nurse and hospital services and
dental care for Maori children. This programme is discussed further in the chapter on medical
services.
In addition, there are several Maori affairs files that deal with its investigations of how the
Tuwharetoa Trust Board was dealing with its finances during the Depression. MA 1/522, 26/6/10
pt 1 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Loans to Natives, 1933-1938 contains a detailed report prompted
by the Trust Board’s application to the Department of Maori Affairs for a £5000 loan. This report
illustrates the extent to which Tuwharetoa individuals were suffering financial hardship as well as
what income and assets they had available to use as security against a loan from the Board. This
included security of mortgage, royalties from the Tongariro Timber Company (which were
expected), and on sundry rents (from shares in other blocks) and Tokaanu Native Township
rents. Aside from reports and schedules, much of the file deals with individual loans. The other
two files identified may provide further examples:
• MA 1/522, 26/6/10 pt 2 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Loans to Maoris, 1938-1953
• MA 1/525, 26/6/16 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Store accounts and Indigent Natives, 1934-
1940
90 Secretary Tuwharetoa Trust Borad to Under-Secreatry, Native Department, 7 Setember 1936, H 1, 121/19 (B 131)Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1935-1938, Archives New Zealand, Wellington
129
iii) General Files relating to Maori Councils
A number of general files on Maori Councils may contain material on the Tongariro Maori Council.
These general files appear in List B at the end of this chapter. The files regarding appointment of
members of the Maori Councils are most likely to be purely administrative and provide little
material about the work on the Tongariro Maori Council but reports of the Superintendent of
Maori Councils should also be checked.
3.4.4 Maori Living Conditions and the Work of the Maori Welfare Division, 1945 -
1970
3.4.4(a) Introduction
Between 1946 and 1949 the Maori Affairs Department Welfare Division expanded substantially as
it took up a wide range of duties under the Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act 1945.
An extensive departmental and community structure was established. The seven Native Land
Court districts were used as the main administrative unit, with subsections, or zones within each
district. ‘These zones were further subdivided into tribal districts, which in turn were subdivided
into Tribal Committee areas. Tribal Executives represented the tribal districts and Tribal
Committees were formed for the Tribal Committee areas. Welfare Officers were appointed on a
district basis and were responsible for keeping personal contact with a certain number of
Executives and Committees.’91 The establishment of executives and committees was not
compulsory but ‘by March 1948, the Department could report that 85% of the Maori population
was organised in areas gazetted under the Act.’92
3.4.4(b) Secondary Sources
There are a number of secondary sources that discuss the establishment and operation of these
committees and executives and the work of Maori Affairs officials. Many offer an assessment of
the effectiveness of the system in improving Maori welfare. Williams, 2001, pp 64 - 68 provides a
thorough background to and overview of the Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act 1945,
then goes on to discuss the organisation and function of the Maori Welfare Division. Orange,
1977 provides a very useful overview of the functions carried out by the Department and the
tribal committees and executives. Aroha Harris, ‘Maori and ‘the Maori Affairs’, Bronwyn Dalley and
Margaret Tennant (eds), Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand History, Otago University
Press, Dunedin, 2004 examines the interface between Maori leadership, Maori community
91 Claudia Orange, ‘A kind of Equality: Labour and the Maori People, 1935 - 1949, MA thesis, Auckland University,Auckland,1977, p 18992 Orange, 1977, p 189
130
agendas and the Welfare Division. Th is is an important assessment of how the executives and
committees functioned at the local and tribal level. Hill, 2004 places the Welfare Division and its
associated structures in the context of Maori and Crown committee, the Crown-Maori
relationships and Maori autonomy during the1900 - 1950 period. Bronwyn Labrum, ‘Bringing
Families up from Scratch: The distinctive workings of the Maori State Welfare, 1944 - 1970’, New
Zealand Journal of History, 36(2), 2002, pp 161 - 184 focuses on the ideologies implicit in the
Maori Affairs Department policies for Maori families’ home and income management in the post-
war period, and how these fit with broader notions of assimilation and integration. Bronwyn
Dalley, ‘Moving Out of the Realm of Myth: Government Child Welfare Services to Maori, 1925 -
1972’ New Zealand Journal of History, 32(2), 1998, pp 189 - 207 examines the work of the Child
Welfare Branch of the Department of Education and its co-operation with Welfare Officers and
Tribal Committees.
3.4.4(c) Primary Sources
The lists of tribal executives and committees shown below have been compiled from a number of
the Archives New Zealand Auckland files discussed in this section of the chapter. It should be
noted that there is sometimes confusion in these files as to which executive were responsible for
certain committees.
Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No. 1
Te Rangiita Tribal Committee
Mangakoura Tribal Committee
Maroa Tribal Committee
Mokai Tribal Committee
Tutakamoana Tribal Committee
Oruanui Tribal Committee
131
Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No. 2
Tauponuiatia Tribal Committee
Rotongoio-Waitahanui Tribal Committee
Waipahihi Tribal Committee
Ohaki Tribal Committee
Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No. 3
Ongarue Tribal Committee
Nihoniho-Ohura Tribal Committee
Taringamotu Tribal Committee
Taumaranui Tribal Committee
Manunui Tribal Committee
Kauriki Tribal Committee
Kakahi Tribal Committee
Taurewa Tribal Committee
Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No. 4
Tongariro Tribal Committee
Turangi Tribal Committee
Korohe Tribal Committee
Tokaanu Tribal Committee
Turumakina Tribal Committee
Pukawa Tribal Committee
Rongomai Tribal Committee
a) Tribal Executives
There are a number of files for the Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No.1 (1947 - 1955) and
Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No. 2 (1949 - 1955). However, they contain little beyond
administrative material and basic information. BAJJ 4945, 1471f, 31/20/5 pt 1, Tuwharetoa No. 1
132
Tribal Executive, 1947-1955 contains only a couple of standard record forms. These record that
the Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive No. 1 was gazetted on 8 January 1947 for the Tuwharetoa No. 1
tribal district. It was in Maori Affairs Welfare Division zone 20 whose office was in Taumarunui.
R Keepa and Mrs Jorgensen were the Welfare Officers for that zone, with Kahi Hurae and T Wall
as Maori Wardens. The last recorded election of members to the executive was on 19 March
1952. These details are useful when gathering information from other Maori Affairs files and
annual reports.
BAJJ 4945, 1471g, 31/20/5 pt 2, Tuwharetoa No. 1 Tribal Executive, 1947-1955 appears to be
the main file of correspondence between the Tribal executive and the Welfare Officers regarding
meetings and issues to be discussed. It also contains a list of Tribal Executives and their
respective Tribal Committees. There is a small amount of material regarding railways
apprenticeship vacancies at railway workshops in Otahutu, East Town, Hutt, Addington and
Hillside. Welfare Officer were asking to make these opportunities known to parents and school
leavers, and district officer were instructed to assist those making applications.
BAJJ 4945, 1471m, 31/20/15 pt 1 Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive, 1949-1955 contains undated
pencilled minutes of a meeting of Tuwharetoa No. 2 Tribal Executive, Taupo. Besides electing
wardens, and discussing their duties and by-laws, housing at Mokai was discussed. The
executive also dealt with a complaint that dogs from the Nukuhau pa were biting horses and
students cycling to and from Taupo School. There was also discussion about the appointment of
a district nurse. BAAJ 4945, 1471n, 31/20/15 pt 2, Tuwharetoa No. 2 Tribal Executive, 1949-
1954 ontains a survey of housing and living conditions at Waitahanui. The remainder of the file
is purely administrative.
b) Tribal Committees
Apart from what may be found in general files, there are only a limited number of files relating
specifically to tribal committees within the inquiry district.
ABJZ 4948, 7a, 8/5/1 pt 1 Taurewa Tribal Committee, 1947-1986 is a substantial and important
file containing a number of minutes and reports of meetings of the committee, shedding light on
the concerns of the members and their communities. They also contain accounts and
correspondence relating to finance, which make it clear that the committee was largely funded by
donations the Maori community. It also highlights the role of women’s committees at marae in
the push to educate Maori women about family management and health. Correspondence from
133
the late 1950s indicates that the committee was inactive and officials were of the opinion that in
the Maori community had very little interest in the committee. By 1960 the committee feared that
the closure of the Taurewa branch of the Potaka Timber Company would depopulate the area.
In 1961 it was noted that ‘the Taurewa Mill is closing in the July or August months of this year
and that sixteen Maori families there are likely to shift to other jobs and that although there are
as few as five Maori families at Ketetahi, it is to be expected that they will also move on at that
time in the near future when that Mill also closes.’93 Taurewa Tribal Committee was defunct in
August 1961. In March 1962 Tuwharetoa No. 3 Tribal Executive suggested that the Waimarino
Tribal Committee should expand to cover the Taurewa area. A meeting of 29 April 1962
supported the move.
In addition, ABJZ 4949, 28a, 8/3/5 pt 1 marae - Otukou, 1949-1991, Archive New Zealand,
Auckland contains minutes of the Tongariro Tribal Committee 20 March 1949 and successful
applications by the tribal committee to the Department of Maori Affairs throughout the 1950-
1965 period by the committee for funds to renovated the Otukou marae.
c) District Welfare Officer’s Reports
There are a number of files containing reports from the Welfare Officers for the Aotea region,
which provide important material regarding the functioning of the tribal committees in the inquiry
district:
• MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 1 box 143 Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1949-1954
• MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 1 box 143 Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1954-1957
• MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 1 box 145 Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1957-1959
• MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 4 box 144 Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1959-1961
• MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 4 box 145 Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1960-1961
The files sampled contained reports by Welfare Officers in charge of zones in which tribal
executives and tribal committees have been established under the 1945 Act. The Welfare
Officers for zone 20 were Robert Keepa and Mrs Jorgensen (and later B G Christy). Some of the
reports in this file are joint ones for zones 19 and 20 signed by the Welfare Officer R T Takarangi.
Reports tend to be general and organised under topic headings (child welfare, employment,
93 N F Tocker, Welfare Officer to the Secretary of the Taurewa Tribal Committee, 11 May 1961, ABJZ 4948, 7a, 8/5/1 pt 1Taurewa Tribal Committee, 1947-1986, Archives New Zealand, Auckland
134
education, housing etc.). Occasionally a statement or comment about a specific location
appears. Diary sheets show hours worked per month on various aspects of the job by the
Welfare Officer. The Welfare Officers’ reports themselves are detailed and very useful. They list
the executives and all the tribal committees under each executive, then report on the functioning
of each committee in turn.
The next part of the report deals in detail with the work of the Maori Wardens of the district
under topics (housing, crime, employment etc.) and often comments on specific tribal executive
regions. There is also a report by Mrs Jorgensen as female Welfare Officer discussing branches of
the Maori Womens’ Welfare League in the tribal executive areas. Reports of the Whanganui zone
19 Welfare Officer are also very relevant as many tribal executives and committees in the
southern part of the inquiry district came into that zone, e.g. the Whanganui North Tribal
Executive and the Raetihi, Ohakune and Karioi Tribal Committees.
d) Other Welfare Initiatives
There are a number of miscellaneous files that deal with Maori welfare initiatives in this period.
MA W2490, 42/4/6 box 187 Taupo Community Welfare Group, 1962-1968 covers the
establishment and operation of the Department of Maori Affairs budgeting service in Taupo in
1962. A newspaper report gives the background and essential details of the scheme, including
the involvement of the local Rotary club and other social and community agencies. There is also
some correspondence regarding problems Maori have in paying rates. ABRP 6844 W4598, 179,
31/2/4/3/2 pt 1 Maori Welfare - community work - Maori associations - Otukou Maori Committee,
1951-1978 may also contain relevant material but access to this file is restricted.
In addition to these files there is a significant volume of general Health Department and
Department of Maori Affairs files on sanitation in Maori settlements, files on Maori wardens and
on the Maori Womens’ Welfare League (who worked closely with Welfare Officers in many areas).
These are listed by topic in List C at the end of this chapter.
3.4.5 Maori Living Conditions 1970 - 1990
The Maori Affairs and Health Department files relating to sanitation and water supplies for Maori
settlements become less detailed throughout the 1960s and finally cease in about 1970. This
leaves a gap in the primary sources for this period. Something of the living conditions of Maori at
Turangi in the late 1960s - early 1970s can be gleaned from correspondence between the
135
Ministry of Works and the Department of Maori Affairs regarding rehousing Maori at Turangi.
Some of this material is included in the Waitangi Tribunal’s Turangi Township Report 1995,
Brookers, Wellington, pp 214-227. Much of this material appears to come from a brief of
evidence by David Alexander on the Turangi Township and the Public Works Act 1928 (Wai 84
#B2 and #B2(a) suporting documents).
There are a number of studies from 2000 onwards that give an indication of the current socio-
economic status of Maori in the inquiry district. Kirkpatrick et al discuss their mapping of levels of
deprivation using the New Zealand Index of Deprivation first introduced after the 1991 census.
Factors used to calculate the decile grading of deprivation (decile 10 beingmost deprived, decile
one the least deprived) were income, numbers receiving benefit, numbers unemployed, access to
telephone and car, numbers living in single parent families, numbers with no educational
qualification, overcrowded dwellings and home ownership rates.94 They note that ‘Maori are
disproportionately represented in the more deprived areas of New Zealand. There is a strong
positive correlation between the location of areas with more than 20 per cent Maori population
and areas of high deprivation.’95 Kirkpatrick et al reproduce index of deprivation maps for the
central North Island and the northern and eastern parts of the National Park inquiry district as
figure 2.18 p 71 and figure 2.19 p 74. A more technical regional analysis of deprivation is offered
by David C Maré, Peter Mawson and Jason Timmins, ‘Deprivation in New Zealand: Regional
Patterns and Change’, Treasury Working Paper 01/09, 2001.
Statistics New Zealand regional reports graph and discuss the several indicators of socio-
economic status including the percentage of the population with Phone, fax and internet access,
and the ercentage with access to a motor vehicle. Statistics New Zealand Community Profiles use
2001 census data provides the following measures of socio-economic deprivation for the
particular town, the region, and New Zealand as a whole:
• Percentage with access to telephone
• Percentage with access to internet
• Percentage with access to motor vehicle
• Average annual household spending on food, housing and housing operation.
Several other secondary sources may provide further material:
• Economic Analysis of the Ruapehu District, quarterly (March, June, Sept, Dec) for 2000 and
2001, Ruapehu District Council, Taumaranui
94 Kirkpatrick, Belshaw and Campbell, 2004, p 70
136
• Jeffrey McNeill, Taking the Pulse: Social, Economic, Environment: Manawatu-Wanganui
Regional Profile, Horizons Regional Council, Palmerston North, 2004
3.4.6 Conclusion
Material relating to Maori living conditions (sanitation, water and food supply) in the National
Park inquiry district for the period up to 1945 is scattered amongst a wide range of archival files.
Considerable time would be required to comb these files, even if this could be done it is unclear
whether the data would form a reliable or comprehensive picture of Maori living conditions. The
exception is material relating to the Tuwharetoa Trust Board’s initiatives to improve water
supplies and sanitation with the assistance of both the Health and Maori Affairs Departments.
This material forms part of what appears to be an attempt by Ngati Tuwharetoa to implement a
co-ordinated programme to improve Maori health and living conditions from the 1930s onwards
by provide water supplies, sanitation, district nurse, hospital and dental services. There is
sufficient information for a case study of this particular programme and the Crown’s response to
Tuwharetoa socio-economic initiatives if one is considered necessary. Tangata whenua may also
wish to provide evidence to the Tribunal in relation to these initatives and their relationship with
the Crown.
95 Kirkpatrick, Belshaw and Campbell, 2004, p 60
137
List A: 1905 - 1906 Potato Blight - Archives New Zealand, Wellington files
• MA 21/2 papers relating to the supply of water to pahs and of tanks (special file 218) & file
re seed potatoes, 1900-1909
• MA 21/3 seed potatoes and vegetables (special file 199), 1906-1907
• MA 21/4 2 files regarding seed potatoes and vegetables (special file 200) 1906-1908
• MA 21/5 Potato blight leaflet - Distribution of leaflet to Maoris (special file 203), 1905-1906
• MA 21/6 Potatoes and seeds - general correspondence - 2 files no special file number, 1906-
1907
• MA 21/7 seed potatoes - refunds (special file 210), 1906-1907
• MA 21/8 kumaras from America (special file 211), 1906-1907
• MA 21/9 potatoes - arrangements for spraying (special file 209), 1906
• MA 21/10 Potatoes - reports from school inspectors (special file 207), 1905 – 06
• MA 21/11 potatoes - applications (special file 207), 1906
• MA 21/12 Potatoes - applications (special file 212), 1906
• MA 21/17 seed potatoes - districts where the need is not great (special file 202), 1906
List B: General Files on Maori Councils/Health Councils - Archives New Zealand,
Wellington
Maori Councils - General Files
• MA W 1369, 26/3/1 pt 1 box 14 Maori councils - districts defined, 1900-1940
• MA W 1369, 26/3/1 pt 2 box 14 Maori councils - districts defined, 1940
• MA W 1369, 26/3 pt 1, box 13 Maori councils - general, 1920-1943
• MA W 1369, 26/3 pt 3, box 14 Maori councils - general, 1945-1954
Reports of Superintendent of Maori Councils
• MA W 1369 21a box 24 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1914
• MA W 1369 21b box 24 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902
• MA W 1369 21c box 25 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1903-1919
• MA W 1369 21d box 25 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1910-1912
• MA W 1369 21e box 25 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1912
• MA W 1369 21f box 25 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1912
• MA W 1369 22a box 25 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1919
• MA W 1369 22b box 26 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1904-1919
138
• MA W 1369 23a box 26 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1912
• MA W 1369 23b box 26 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1903-1912
• MA W 1369 23c box 26 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1904-1920
• MA W 1369 5a box 23 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1920
• MA W 1369 5b box 24 Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1908-1916
Files relating to appointment of members of Maori Councils
• MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 1box 15 Members of Maori councils - appointments and gazetting,
1920-1924
• MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 2box 16 Members of Maori councils - appointments and gazetting,
1924-1928
• MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 3box 16 Members of Maori councils - appointments and gazetting,
1928-1930
• MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 4box 17 Members of Maori councils - appointments and gazetting,
1931-1935
• MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 5 box 17 Members of Maori councils - appointments and gazetting,
1936
List C: General Files from the Maori Welfare Division Period, 1945 - 1970 - Archives
New Zealand, Wellington
Sanitation Generally
• H 1, 194/25 Maori Hygiene - Privies, 1938-1941
• H 1, 194/25 Maori Hygiene - Privies, 1941-1953.
• H 1, 194/26 (14428) Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori health - water supply, 1941-1942
• H 1, 194/26 (17924) Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori health - water supply, 1944-1946
• H 1, 194/26 (B 126) Maori Hygiene - Maori health - water supplies, 1938-1941
• H 1, 36 (37923) Sanitation in Maori settlements - general, 1937-1950 (note in series binder
says this file is missing)
Maori Wardens
• MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 1box 81 Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1949-1953
• MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 2 box 81 Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1954-1957
139
• MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 3 box 81 Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1958-1966
• MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 4 box 82 Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1966-1970
• MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 5 box 82 Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1970-1971
• MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 1 box 88 Wardens M.S.E.A Rotorua, 1960-1961
• MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 2 box 88 Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1962-1963
• MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 3 box 89 Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1963-1964
• MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 4 box 89 Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1964-1966
• MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 5 box 89 Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1966-1969
• MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 10 box 83 Wardens General, 1958
• MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 11box 83 Wardens General, 1958
• MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 12 box 83 Wardens General, 1958-1959
• MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 13 box 83 Wardens General, 1959
• MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 14 box 83 Wardens General, 1959-1960
• MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 9 box 82 Wardens General, 1957-1958
• MA 1/660, 36/4/A pt 1 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1947-1956
• MA 1/660, 36/4/A pt 2 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1950-1951
• MA 1/660, 36/4/A pt 3 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1952-1954
• MA 1/661, 36/4/4A pt 5 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1955
• MA 1/661, 36/4/4A pt 6 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1955-1956
• MA 1/661, 36/4/4A pt 7 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1956-1957
• MA 1/662, 36/4A pt 8 Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act,
1957
Maori Womens’ Health League
• MA W 2490, 36/24 pt 2 box 130 Women's Health League, general, 1949-1967
• MA W 2490, 36/24 pt 2 box 131 Women's Health League, general, 1968-1976
• MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 1 box 131 Women's Health League, general, 1950-1956
140
• MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 2 box 131 Women's Health League, general, 1956-1959
• MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 3 box 131 Women's Health League, general, 1959-1962
• MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 4 box 132 Women's Health League, general, 1962-1970
• MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 5 box 132 Women's Health League, general, 1971-1975
Maori Womens’ Welfare League
Alexander Turnbull Library Manuscripts Collection
• MS-Papers-1396-082 Maori Women’s Welfare League Papa Kai, Manunui, Kauriki Isolated
Branches, Koata District Council, Tangarakau-Whangamomona, Ohura Branch and Turangi-
Pihanga Branch reports, 1958-1967
• MS-Papers-1396-083 [Maori Women’s Welfare League] Turangi-Pihanga Branch, Owhango
Isolated Branch and Taumarunui District Council reports, 1959-1965
• MS-Papers-1396-084 [Maori Women’s Welfare League] Moawhango, Nihoniho, Taihape,
Picton Isolated Branches and Nelson Branch reports, 1952-1968
141
3.5 Maori Health and Medical Services for Maori in theNational Park Inquiry District, 1890 - 1990
3.5.1 Introduction
This chapter identifies and discusses the significance of sources relating to the provision and use
of health services by Maori in and around the National Park inquiry district between 1890 and
1990. Medical assistance for Maori, where it was available, came from a number of Government
and private sources, including missionaries, private individuals, Native school teachers, Native
medical officers, dispensers and district nurses. This chapter begins by examining sources on the
provision of medical officers/doctors and dispensers to Maori in the National Park inquiry district.
Subsequent sections discuss sources for Maori district nurses, the medical role of Native school
teachers, hospitals and dental services in the inquiry district.
Maori communities regarded tohunga as a provider of advice and expertise in the maintenance of
spiritual and physical health. Tohunga remained an important avenue for Maori health care into
the twentieth century for many Maori. However, the role of the tohunga as a provider of health
care lies beyond the scope of this commission. It should be noted that claimants in this inquiry
allege that the Tohunga Suppression Act 1907 made it a criminal offence for any Maori to use
traditional knowledge and perform Maori forms of healing. They contend that in passing this Act,
the Crown failed to protect and provide for the practice by Maori of their religion and tikanga. To
date no specific evidence regarding the enforcement of this Act in the inquiry district has been
provided and the Crown notes in its Statement of Response that no persecutions were bought
against Maori under the Act. On this basis, the issue appears to be one best covered by tangata
whenua evidence. Should claimants bring such evidence before the Tribunal there are a number
of primary and secondary sources relating to the Act and its administration that may assist the
Tribunal. Lange, 1999, pp 25 - 50 and 242 - 255 and David Williams, ‘Crown Policy Affecting
Maori Knowledge Systems and Cultural Practices’ (Wai 262 #K3) pp 177 - 235 and 249 provide
important overviews of the Crown’s policy and practice and its impact on Maori communities.
Their footnotes and bibliography contain references to primary sources, but one file to note in
passing is:
• MA 1/343, 19/1/27 Reports on Tohungaism, 1932-1977, Archives New Zealand, Wellington
142
3.5.2 Maori Medical Officers and Access to Doctors
3.5.2(a) Introduction
From the 1860s Native Medical Officers were funded from the Civil List that provided funds for
Maori purposes. ‘Doctors were granted subsidies on condition that they gave medicines, minor
surgical treatment, and advice free of charge at all times to indigent Maori who came to them or
could be visited within a range of two miles. If authority had been obtained, the doctor could
make house calls outside this radius and claim 2s 6d per mile (one way only). Constant
reminders were made that the only Maori entitled to this service were ‘indigent’ ones - a word
that ‘really means all the Maoris you cannot obtain a fee from’ one doctor advised.’96
The number of doctors subsidised by the Civil List ‘rose quickly from 24 (plus a handful of
dispensers) in 1901 to a figure that fluctuated between 30 and 50 until the system was abolished
some years after the First World War.’97 However, Native Medical Officers were not evenly
distributed. Derek Dow estimates that ‘between a quarter and a half of this number were doctors
resident in the South Island and near Wellington, where the Maori population was small and the
subsidies were often financed by the Public Trustee from Native reserves funds. In other areas,
where the Maori population was larger, the Native Medical Officers were spread more thinly, and
paid from the government’s general funds.’98
3.5.2(b) Doctors for Maori: National Context
Both Lange, 1999 and Dow, 1999 provide material on the provision of doctors for Maori between
1890 and 1940. However, after this date there is no general overview of Maori health services.
Further research is required to locate secondary material that would provide an overview of
Crown policy and practice with regard to doctors for Maori communities and Maori within the
community from 1940 to 1990.
3.5.2(c) Doctors for Maori in the National Park Inquiry District
This scoping exercise discovered only scattered sources that relate specifically to the availability
of doctors for Maori in the National Park inquiry district between 1890 and 1990. Some material
from the annual reports for the Health Department on Maori health in AJHR and from annual
reports of the Department of Native/Maori Affairs has been located. However, the limited time
available for this scoping exercise meant that a comprehensive and systematic search of these
96 Raeburn Lange, May the People Live: A History of Maori Health Development, 1900 - 1920, Auckland University Press,Auckland, 1999, p 17797 Lange, 1999, pp 176 - 17798 Lange, 1999, p 177
143
reports was not possible. Another avenue worth exploring may be questions to Parliament on
Maori health in the New Zealand Parliamentary Debate (NZPD). These questions can be tracked
in the subject index at the end of each volume.
i) Taupo and Tokaanu
An instance of a doctor visiting Maori leprosy patients at Tokaanu in 1890 is recorded, in AJHR
1890, G-5, ‘Leprosy Among the Maoris at Taupo and Rotorua (report by Dr Ginders). It is clear
that Dr Ginder was not based locally and his visit was prompted by the immediate circumstances
of the case rather than being part of a regular service to Maori at Tokaanu. Batley, 1958
mentions a prominent settler, R T Batley, at Moawhango in 1880s and 1890s, whose ‘advice was
frequently sought by the Maori inhabitants, and on many occasions he was called upon to set a
bone or remove a tooth as the nearest medical and dental aid was 90 miles distant at Napier.’
Kukutai et al noted that Maui Pomare visited Taupo and the surrounding area in 1904. He visited
10 villages but little information is provided by his report. Kukutai et al speculated that, ‘his
failure to comment on the general health of Tuwharetoa was perhaps due to the fact that in the
district there was neither a Medical Officer nor a Sanitary Inspector, both of whom were usual
sources of information.’ 99 Also significant is AJHR 1906 G-4, ‘Return on Medical Attendance on
Maori, for year ending 31 March 1906’ which shows that a dispenser, R W Prinn was subsidised
by the government to provide medical services to Maori in the Taupo district. In the financial year
1905-1906 he attended 115 patients and received the full amount of his annual subsidy of £30.
In 1908 Te Rangihiroa (Peter Buck) Assistant Medical Health Officer recorded that the Medical
Dispenser at Taupo (presumably Prinn) reported a marked increase in the number of Maori
children over the preceding year.100 This suggests that the dispenser had been reporting to the
Health Department, these reports may have survived so it would be worth searching Health
Department Maori health files around this period (see lists at the back of this chapter). Prinn
may also have written letters to the Health and Maori Affairs Departments. It may be possible to
trace these through the Health Department and Justice Department register books at Archives
New Zealand, Wellington.
There are two files at Archives New Zealand, Wellington that relate specifically to medical aid to
Maori in the Taupo area between 1911 and 1936. The first of these: H 1, 160/6 (13457) Native
medical aid - Taupo, 1911-1936 is restricted and would require Ministry of Health permission to
99 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 88 citing AJHR 1904 H-31, p 63100 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 88 citing AJHR 1908, H-31, p 129
144
view. The second: H 1, 16163, 194/1/17 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Taupo, 1921-1935
provides detailed correspondence regarding several cases of Maori requiring hospital treatment,
finance to pay for treatment and transport to hospital. There is also some correspondence
relating to the Tuwharetoa Trust Board’s role in inspecting pa with Health Department staff. The
Board recommended improvements to buildings, sanitation and water supply and sought financial
aid from the Health and Maori affairs Departments to make improvements. There is also a brief
mention of medical services in Turangi in the 1980 - 2000 period. Wilson, 1989 surveyed 220
Turangi residents and asked how many people travelled to other areas to access medical
facilities. Just under half (48.7%) of those surveyed did so. However, this is a figure for the
sample of the general population rather than for a sample that was solely Maori.
ii) Raetihi and other Southern and Western Towns
Rose, 2004 noted that for a brief period between 1900 and 1905 the Lands Department
subsidised a medical student, Fred B Gardiner, to provide medical care for Maori at Raetihi. The
extent of his work and how long it lasted, are unknown. Hill, 1999 provides a brief discussion of
medical facilities at Owhango in the early 1900s, citing a parliamentary question regarding
maternity services at Owhango in 1905. This reveals that ‘the Government had been contributing
to the cost of a medical man on the [railway] works’.101 In 1906 the question arose again in
parliament and the reply indicates that in addition to this medical officer there was ‘a small
hospital hut at Ohakune’.102 Hill also cites a newspaper clipping from February 1907 that stated
that two doctors would be visiting Raurimu every Wednesday.103 It is unclear to what extent, if at
all, Maori were able to utilize these services.
There are also a number of general Health Department and Department of Maori Affairs files that
deal with the provision of medical officers for Maori between 1906 and 1949. Time did not
permit these to be sampled but they may contain material relevant to the inquire district:
• MA 21/20 Medical - general (special file 154), 1906-1919
• MA 21/21 Medical drugs (special file 155), 1907-1911
• MA 31/42 Dr Buck, miscellaneous correspondence and notes, 1909-1925
• MA 1/168, 6/0/14 pt 2 Medical attendance for Natives, 1933-1942
• MA 1/316, 18/1/4 pt 2 Contribution to Health Department for Civil List - Native Purposes - for
Maori medical services, 1933-1939
101 Kate Hill, Raurimu Frontier Town, 1900 - 1925: A Social Archaeological Perspective, Department of Anthropology,University of Auckland, Auckland, 1999, p 46 citing NZPD vol. 132, p 492102 Hill, 1999, p 47 citing NZPD vol. 137, p 203
145
• MA 1/316, 18/1/4 pt 3 Contribution to Health Department for Civil List - Native Purposes - for
Maori medical services, 1949
• H 1, 160/75 (B 107) Native medical men - general policy, 1927-1939
• H 1, 160/75 (17676) Native medical men - general policy, 1938-1941
• H 1, 160/75/1 (17677) Native medical men - general, 1936-1939
3.5.2(d) Medical Clubs and Sick Funds
Several brief mentions in primary and secondary sources indicate that it was quite common for
railway and timber mill workers in and around the inquiry district to establish medical clubs or
sick funds. These clubs are a potentially significant means for Maori to obtain medical treatment,
as at least some Maori were employed in these mills. It appears that employees paid a sum at
each payday in exchange for having their medical costs covered in the event of accident and
perhaps illness. These clubs appear to have been a feature of timber mills from 1900 to at least
1950. Hill, 1999 cites a reply to a parliamentary question in 1905 stating that men working on the
construction of the Main Trunk Line near Owhango had established ‘a ‘sick fund’ from which
expenses could be drawn’.104 In BAJJ 4945, 1471m, 31/20/15 pt 1 Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive,
1949-1955, Archives New Zealand, Wellington, minutes of a meeting of the Tuwharetoa Tribal
Executive No. 2 in January 1948 noted that the medical club at the timber mill at Mokai (at the
North end of Lake Taupo) had been dissolved when the mill was moved to Maroa.
3.5.3 Maori District Nurses
3.5.3(a) Introduction
In the absence of local doctors, Maori district nurses were an important source of health care for
Maori communities. Training young Maori women as district nurses was first suggested at a Te
Aute Association conference in 1897 and the first two Maori district nurses began training at
Napier Hospital in September 1898. After the involvement of Pomare, Buck, Ngata and Carroll
the scheme was expanded in 1905. The first two fully trained Maori district nurses emerged from
the programme in 1908. However, the numbers of Maori trained as district nurses were relatively
modest. By 1920 there were twenty stations and by 1940 that had increased to 50 serving an
average of 1750 Maori each.105
103 Hill, 1999, p 47 citing the Taumaranui Press, 15 February 1907, p 2104 Hill, 1999, p 46 citing NZPD vol. 132, p 492105 Lange, 1999, pp 166 - 173
146
3.5.3(b) Maori District Nursing: National Context
Again, the most comprehensive overviews are to be found in Lange, 1999 and Dow, 1999. A
more detailed examination is provided by Alexandra McKegg, ‘The Maori Health Nursing Scheme:
An Experiment in Autonomous Health Care', New Zealand Journal of History, 26:2, October 1992
and her thesis A H McKegg, ‘Ministering Angels': The Government Backblock Nursing Service and
the Maori Health Nurses, 1909 - 1939’, MA thesis, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1991.
Orange, 1977 discusses general Maori health policy and funding in this period and notes the
extension of the Maori district nursing programme. Several general files should be checked for
further details:
• H 1, 21/104 (11349) Maori girls as nurses, 1938-1941
• H 1, 21/104 (23043) Maori girls as nurses, 1940-1949
3.5.3(c) Maori District Nurses in the National Park Inquiry District
Heni Whangapirita (Ngati Porou), one of the first two Maori district nurses to complete their
training (Lange has a photograph of her on p 171), was sent to Taumaranui in 1909 to deal with
an outbreak of typhoid amongst Maori there. In March 1909 she was stationed at Tokaanu ‘with
instructions to treat indigent Maori patients and supervise sanitation in co-operation with the local
Maori Council’. However her posting was cut short when she contracted typhoid and she returned
home to Hawkes Bay, married in 1911 and left the district nursing service. 106
It is unclear when the next Maori district nurse was posted to Tokaanu, but there is a file of
monthly reports from the Maori district nurse at Tokaanu for 1930 - 1930: H 1, 194/2/23 Maori
Hygiene - Native health - Tokaanu, 1930-1931, Archives New Zealand, Wellington. These are on
the standard departmental form and gave the number of patients (Maori and non-Maori) treated
at her cottage and at their homes. She also listed the number of maternity cases and births and
deaths. She made notes on ‘lectures given’ and listed Maori pa visited and made any general
comments at the bottom of sheet.
MA 1/521, 26/6/9 pt 1 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Medical Services, 1933-1937, Archives New
Zealand, Wellington shows that from at least 1933 the Tuwharetoa Trust Board had entered into
an agreement with the Health Department to subsidise the cost of the district nurse at Tokaanu.
The nurse was visiting the sick in the district including after hours, staying the night and
providing meals as well as attending school children once a month. It appears that the Board
subsidised the cost and then applied to the Department of Native Affairs to be reimbursed
106 Lange, 1999, p 170 - 172
147
through the Maori Purposes Fund Control Board (see files for meetings of this Board listedin List
B at the end of this chapter). Transport was a problem for both nurse and patients and much of
this file deals with the Tuwharetoa Trust Board and Health Department negotiations over who
was to provide and pay for transport. The file also illustrates the difficulties Maori had in paying
for treatment, particularly in paying for the services of a doctor. There was a Doctor Armstrong
in the area but he required payment and the district nurse often ended up paying the bills
herself. There was also some friction between the Trust Board and Health Department regarding
the ongoing staffing of the position with a Maori nurse.
MA 1/522, 26/6/9 pt 2 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Medical Services, 1938-1945, Archives New
Zealand, Wellington indicates that in 1938 Tuwharetoa Trust Board was successful in obtaining a
second Maori district nurse to be based at Taupo. But problems with costs and transport
persisted and the Board was now subsiding both district nurses and hospital care (see below) at
a time of great financial strain. Together these files have the potential to tell an important story
about Ngati Tuwharetoa relationships with the Crown over the provision of nursing and hospital
care and their attempts to provide a comprehensive package of medical services to their people.
These arrangements are also outlined in a newspaper article: ‘Current Maori Problems -
Progressive Tokaanu Health Unit - Report of Director-General of Health, 1938 - Question of
Landless Maori’.
ABJZ 4948, 28a, 8/3/5 pt 1 marae - Otukou, 1949-1991, Archive New Zealand, Auckland shows
that in March 1939 a meeting of the Tongariro Tribal Committee discussed the need for a ‘district
health nurse’ for Maungatepopo and Tongariro’ and the meeting resolved to ‘recommend to
Executive for investigation’.
3.5.4 Hospital Care
3.5.4(a) Maori and Hospitals: National Context
Dow, 1999 provides the most comprehensive overview of Maori hospital use, and policies and
attitudes towards Maori hospital use between 1890 and 1900. He also discusses some of the
financial, geographical and cultural barriers facing Maori in utilising hospital care. Orange, 1977
discusses Maori hospital use in the 1930s in some detail with a focus on the policies of the
Labour Government. He Kakano: a handbook of Maori Health Data, Ministry of Maori
Development, Wellington, 1993 provides a discussion of Maori hospitalisation data in 1991
including age groups, admissions, illnesses and length of stay. The report also covers patterns of
148
Maori mental health admissions, and concludes with a discussion of the socio-economic factors
affecting Maori health.
3.5.4(b) Maori and Hospitals in the National Park Inquiry District
MA 1/521, 26/6/9 pt 1 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Medical Services, 1933-1937, Archive New
Zealand, Wellington indicates that from at least 1933 the Tuwharetoa Trust Board had entered an
agreement with the Health Department to subsidise hospital care for Tuwharetoa patients and
that in May 1935 the Trust Board began paying an annual subsidy to a number of the region’s
hospitals. Both the Waikato and Taumaranui Hospital Board indicated that they could provide
treatment for £200 per annum. In April 1936 Taumaranui Hospital Board settled on a £100 per
annum fee and the Waikato Hospital Board on £150 per annum. The file includes a list of Maori
(including their addresses) treated at various hospitals. These arrangements are also outlined in
a newspaper article: ‘Current Maori Problems - Progressive Tokaanu Health Unit - Report of
Director-General of Health, 1938 - Question of Landless Maori’.
MA 1/522, 26/6/9 pt 2 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Medical Services, 1938-1945 contains lists of
Maori patients treated at Rotorua and Taumarunui Hospitals in 1937-1938. In July 1939 the
Social Security Act 1938 came into force, meaning that these arrangements were terminated.
Instead each Tuwharetoa patient then received care under Social Security provisions.
There are a number of Archives New Zealand, Wellington files relating to hospitals with the
vicinity of the National Park inquiry district. These should be checked for further material on
Maori hospital use:
• H 1, 74/1/5 (11189) Wanganui Hospital Board reports, 1921-1940
• H 1, 74/3 (B 42) Taihape Hospital, 1919-1935
• H 1, 74/3/1 (19386) Taihape Hospital - buildings, 1940-1945
• H 1, 74/4 (19384) Raetihi Hospital, 1927-1943
• H 1, 74/4 (B 42) Raetihi Hospital, 1911-1933
• H 1, 92/42 (45534) Wanganui HB - Taihape Hospital - general, 1939
• H 1, 92/42 (45535) Wanganui HB - Taihape Hospital - inspection reports, 1921-1968
• H 4/2 map of the North and South Islands showing hospital board districts - 10 miles to 1
inch, 1920s
Kitchin, 2002, p 9 notes that a maternity hospital was built at Turangi as part of the town’s
redevelopment for Hydro construction.
149
There is a useful map of current District Health Board (DHB) regions on the Ministry of Health
website http://www/moh.nsf/DHBnorthisland/2/$file/northisland2.jpg Individual regions can be
selected to provide more detailed maps. Parts of the inquiry district covers the Waikato DHB,
Whanganui DHB and Lakes DHB areas.
3.5.5 The Medical Role of Native School Teachers
3.5.5(a) Introduction
Native Schools (discussed in the previous chapter) played two significant roles with regard to
Maori health care. Firstly, there was an emphasis on teaching ‘sanitary science’, and health
education and this continued to be part of the curriculum well into the twentieth century.107
Alongside this official function many Native school teachers provided medical care to Maori pupils
and communities, although very few had any medical or dispensing training.108 Lange, 1991
noted that,
At first teachers often provided medications from their personal supply, but by the 1880s
it had become well established that the government should provide medicines to Maori in
districts lacking other medical facilities, using what was usually the only available agency
- the Native Schools.
Especially before 1900, the Native school teacher was often the only person available to deal with
epidemics amongst Maori.109
3.5.5(b) The Medical Role of Native School Teachers: National Context
Lange, 1999 provides the best overview of the role of Native school teachers in dispensing
medical aid to Maori. A more detailed exploration is available in K S Goodfellow, ‘Health for the
Maori? Health and the Maori Village Schools, 1890 - 1940’, MA Thesis, University of Auckland,
Auckland, 1991. Also useful are the chapters on Native schools and Maori health in Judith Simon,
(ed), Nga Kura Maori: The Native School System, 1867 - 1969, Auckland University Press, 1998
and Judith Simon and Linda Tuhiwai Smith, (eds), A Civilising Mission? Perceptions and
Representations of the New Zealand Native Schools System, Auckland University Press, 2001.
3.5.5(c) Native Schools Teachers and Medical Care in the National Park Inquiry District
Rose, 2004 provides a comprehensive discussion of medical services provided by the Native
school teacher at Karioi, and of what the teacher’s log book shows about the health of the Maori
107 Lange, 1991, pp 75 - 76108 Stevens, 1997, p 28109 Lange, 1999, p 81
150
community around Karioi from 1898 to 1904 (when the surviving log books cease). There are a
number of Archives New Zealand files for Tokaanu, Otukou and Moawhango Native schools which
could be sifted for mentions of medical aid given to pupils and the community (see previous
chapter for list of these files). In addition the Maori Affairs corespondence registers at archives
New Zealand, Wellington could be checked for correspondence from the teacher at these schools
regarding health matters. However, this would be time consuming and may or may not yield a
significant body of material.
There are a large number of general files regarding Maori schools and health created by the
Education and Maori Affairs Departments. These may hold information relevant to the inquiry
district, and are listed at the end of this chapter as List A.
3.5.6 Dental Care
3.5.6(a) Introduction
The provision of dental care is an issue in this inquiry because a number of files have been
uncovered during this scoping exercise that indicate that Tuwharetoa Trust Board included the
provision of school-based and itinerant dental services as part of the package of health services
they attempted to provide for Tuwharetoa people from the 1930s onwards. If this is to be
discussed in a future report, then some national context will be required.
3.5.6(b) Maori and Dental Care: National Context
There are a number of useful secondary sources on the development of the school dental service
in New Zealand. There is a brief overview history: G H Leslie, New Zealand School Dental
service, 1921 - 1971, Department of Health, Wellington, 1971 and various versions of the dental
service’s policies regarding the provision of services:
• The New Zealand School Dental service: the policy regarding the establishment, maintenance
and functions of school dental clinics, Department of Health, Wellington, 1928
• The New Zealand School Dental service: the policy regarding the establishment, maintenance
and functions of school dental clinics, Department of Health, Wellington, 1935
• The New Zealand School Dental service: the policy regarding the establishment, maintenance
and functions of school dental clinics, Department of Health, Wellington, 1940
There are also some recent studies of Maori dental health and dental health services. W Murphy
Thomson, ‘Ethnicity and child dental status in the Manawatu-Wanganui Area Health Board', New
Zealand Dental Journal, January 1993, pp 12 - 14 describes the rate of cavities experienced by
five-year-olds and Form II children enrolled in the Manawatu-Wanganui Area Health Board School
151
Dental Service during 1991. The study reveals inequality in dental health among Maori versus
non-Maori children and discusses the implications for health promotion. John R Broughton, ‘Te
niho waiora me te iwi Maori: dental health and the Maori people' New Zealand Dental Journal,
January 1993, pp 15 - 18 addresses the state of Maori dental health, citing several surveys
showing Maori dental needs are not being fulfilled. John Broughton, ‘Niho Taniwha: te hitori o
oranga niho me te iwi Maori', Journal of Te Ao Marama - The New Zealand Maori Dental
Association, 1996, 1, pp 6 - 9 is a more general paper examining the decline in Maori dental
health since the arrival of Europeans in New Zealand. Pauline Koopu, ‘Dental Health Services and
Maori People: te ripoata o he rangahau hauora Maori', Journal of Te Ao Marama - The New
Zealand Maori Dental Association, 1996, 1, pp 10 - 13 reports on a survey of the utilisation of
dental services by Maori, recording use and opinions of the School Dental Service, the Dental
Benefit Scheme, and fee for services. The study includes recommendations for dental health
messages to be conveyed to the Maori community.
3.5.6(c) Maori and Dental Care in the National Park Inquiry District
MA 1/526, 26/6/20 Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Dental Clinic and Services, 1936-1939 documents
Tuwharetoa Trust Board’s successful attempt to secure dental services to Tuwharetoa children
through the establishment of school dental clinics at Taupo and Tokaanu. The Board faced delays
in obtaining a dental nurse and finding the funds it was required to contribute to the building of
the school clinics. In the meantime, the Board employed a Napier dentist to visit schools and
carry out dental work on Maori children. The file contains his report giving number of children
treated at each school, number of fillings made and number of teeth extracted. The dentist, Dr
Lynch treated children at Waitahunui, Orananui, Waihi Convent and Otukou in September 1937.
He extracted 50 teeth at Waiotahanui school, 64 teeth at Oruanui, 84 teeth at Waihi Convent and
70 teeth at Otokou. Lynch continued his work at Tokaanu (88 children treated, 164 teeth
extracted); Mokai (40 children treated, 112 teeth extracted) and Taupo (70 children treated, 154
teeth extracted) An average 2.37 teeth per child were extracted. This file also gives the total
numbers of Maori and European pupils at each of the schools in 1937. Local people formed the
Taupo School Dental Committee and worked co-operatively with the Tuwharetoa Trust Board
over funding. The board paid the upfront cost and the committee was to repay the European
portion of the costs over five years. By February 1939 both the Taupo and Tokaanu clinics were
completed.
In addition, there are a number of general files at Archives New Zealand, Auckland and
Wellington that may be worth checking:
• BAAA 1001, 102a, 44/1/31 Maori Schools - policy - dental treatment for Maori children,
1929-1945
152
• BAAA 1001, 102c, 44/1/31pt 2 Maori Schools - dental services, 1949-1965
• MA W 2490, 36/3/7 box 79 Dental treatment, 1939-1952
3.5.7 Maori Health files at Archives New Zealand: An Overview
In addition to the specific files discussed above, a large volume of files created by the
Department of Health and the Department of Maori Affairs have been transferred to Archives
New Zealand. The two agencies tended to attempt to deal with all aspects of Maori health and
living conditions (this is particularly the case with the Department of Maori Affairs after 1945
when it established its Maori Welfare Division). As a result these files contain material on all
aspects of Maori socio-economic conditions. However, the majority of these files contain material
from all over the country. These two characteristics make these files a potentially important
source for this report but also make them it very difficult to locate material specific to the inquiry
district. A full list of these files organised by topic and agency appears at the end of this chapter
as List B.
H 1, 194/2 Maori Hygiene - monthly reports, 1925-1927 was the only Health Department general
file from the 1920 to 1940 period sampled. It contains monthly reports of Native Health
Inspectors for Native Land Court districts titled ‘Epitome of Work done and Itinerary’. Those for
Aotea - Ikaroa are signed by W S Hooper, Native Inspector, Wanganui. He referred some cases
to the Inspector, C. Schauer at Taihape. There are no reports by Schauer in this file but Hooper
seems to have worked closely with him. Although the majority of Hopper’s reports are about the
Wanganui, Manawatu and Taranaki areas, they also record his visits to settlements of Taupo,
Tokaanu and Moawhango. This suggests that files relating to Maori health in Whanganui also
need to be checked in this period. In this file there are also occasional forms for ‘Infectious and
Notifiable Diseases’ which give good detail of living conditions, economic conditions and medical
care accessed by Maori individuals suffering from typhoid (none in National Park district as far as
I can see). Hopper’s reports are typed and easily spotted in the file as the other reports (from
Hokianga) are handwritten carbon copies. MA W 2490, 36/3/1 box 76 Maori Health Inspectors,
1928-1933 may contain more of these reports and/or correspondence between the Inspector’s
and the Department of Maori Affairs.
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 2 box 74 Health & Hygiene, 1958-1960 is a general file containing detailed
minutes of conferences and outlines of refresher training courses held for Welfare Officers
(including female officers reporting on the Maori Womens’ Welfare League). It also has some
correspondence from Head Office over the long hours wardens had been working. This material
153
may be useful in outlining some of the general problems of the structure of tribal and marae
committees (as perceived by the Maori Affairs staff on the ground) in this period.
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 4 box 75 Health & Hygiene, 1963-1967 consists largely of minutes of Maori
Health Committee, but it is very much a general file that would yield little in the way of material
on the inquiry district.
The Maori Purposes Board appears to have made grants to organisations and individuals for
cultural, health and education purposes. H 1, 194/9 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori
Purposes Board (Fund Control) meetings, 1934-1940 contains agendas for the Board’s meetings
listing accounts passed for payment (e.g. money paid to Health Department to cover district
nurse’s transport costs etc.) and applications for funds. They give fairly full details of the
requests, which is very useful in documenting the difficulties Maori faced in accessing health care
in the inquiry district.
3.5.8 Conclusion
The overwhelming impression of this scoping exercise is that there is a large amount of primary
source material on Maori health services for the period up to the 1950s, less so for the remainder
of the century. There is undoubtedly material in these national files that if pieced together could
provide a reasonably comprehensive picture of health care for Maori in the inquiry district at least
until the 1950s, after which records become more difficult to locate. But given that this material
is very scattered a considerable amount of time would be required to gather and analyse it.
However, there is a coherent body of file material relating to Tuwharetoa Trust Board’s
development of a package of health care including Maori district nurses, hospital care and dental
facilities to Ngati Tuwharetoa people from the 1930s onwards. The Health Department,
Department of Maori Affairs and various hospital boards were involved. If required this could
provide an interesting and manageable case study.
154
List A: Maori Schools and Health Care Files - Archives New Zealand, Auckland and
Wellington
Native/Maori Schools
Archives New Zealand, Auckland
• YCBE 1990 82b Child Hygiene - Maori schools, 1937-1966
• BAAA 1001, 103a, 44/1/32 pt 1 Maori Schools - policy - epidemics among & cleanliness of
Maori - reports on health of Maori, 1913-1937
• BAAA 1001, 103b, 44/1/32 pt 2 Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1920
• BAAA 1001, 103c, 44/1/32 pt 3 Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1919
• BAAA 1001, 104a, 44/1/32 pt 4 Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1938-1941
• BAAA 1001, 104b, 44/1/32 pt 5 Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1903-1921
• BAAA 1001, 121b, 44/1/35 pt 1 Maori Schools - policy - Maori Welfare - general
correspondence, 1957-1970
• BAAA 1001, 127c, 44/1/38 pt 1 Maori Schools - policy - Maori Schools officer - misc
correspondence, 1959-1969
• BAAA 1001, 1093c, 44/1/43 pt 3 Maori schools - policy - conference and investigation re
secondary education of the Maori, 1930-1942
• BAAA 1001, 105a, 44/1/32 pt 6 Maori Schools - Health and cleanliness (polio vaccine, TB
tests, scabies, typhoid etc) Health education and school lunches, 1937-1963
• BAAA 1001, 105c, 44/1/32 pt 7 Maori Schools - Health and cleanliness (polio vaccine, TB
tests, scabies, typhoid etc) Health education and school lunches, 1963-1966
Archives New Zealand, Wellington Files
• H 1, 35/1/11 (B 8) Native schools, 1935-1940
• H 1, 35/1/11 (17773) Native schools, 1941-1946
• H 1, 162 (11667) Native schools - general, 1921-1940
• H 1, 162 (17964) Native schools - general, 1940-1946
• H 1, 169/22/24 (35829) annual reports of division of school hygiene, 1948-1962
• H 44/1/32 Native Schools: Cleanliness, Health, Sanitation, Epidemics, 1903-1964
Also see H 1, 162/ files on work of dieticians in Native schools
155
As discussed in the previous chapter on education, over half of Maori children nationally attended
state primary schools, so the health care they received through schools is also a significant issue.
There are a number of general Health Department files that deal with the work of school health
inspectors. These files may also contain information about Maori pupils at state primary schools
in and around the inquiry district.
Education Board Primary Schools
Archives New Zealand, Wellington
• H 1, 35/78 (8911) Enquiry into conditions of rural school children, 1926-1930
• H 1, 35 (B 8) Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1935-1940
• H 1, 35/1 (11566) Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1935-1942
• H 1, 35 (20284) Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1941-1948
• H 1, 35 (22479) Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1942-1949
• H 1, 35 Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1960-1963
• H 1, 35 (33612) Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1963-1967
• H 1, 35 (39436) Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1971-1972
• H 1, 35/1/4 (8797) Secondary schools, 1919-1939
Also see H 1, 35/3/ & H 1, 25/22 files for annual and monthly reports of school medical inspectors
(1931-1947 & 1946 -1970) and H 1, 35 files also on sex hygiene, health camps, hearing, dental
health, pre-schools, backward children, diet, child labour.
156
List B: General Maori Health Files
A. 1890 – 1920
Archives New Zealand, Wellington
Department of Health Files
• H 1, 36 (13303) Sanitation in Maori settlements - general, 1919-1930
Department of Maori Affairs Files
• MA 23/14 Report on Maori Councils, 1906-1907
B. 1920 - 1940
Department of Health Files
• H 1, 172/21/52 Miscellaneous - Annual report - Maori Hygiene, 1921-1927
• H 1, 194/1 Maori Hygiene - General 1928-1936
• H 1, 194/1 (11560) Maori Hygiene - General 1936-1939
• H 1, 194/1/3 Maori Hygiene - Native health, 1920-1937
• H 1, 194/1A Maori Hygiene - Maori health - newspaper cuttings, 1938
• H 1, 194/10 Maori Hygiene - Native health-Indigent Maoris - Relief by Native Department,
1934-1935
• H 1, 194/17 Maori Hygiene - Maori welfare - old age pension for Maoris - question of
payment in cash or goods, 1936-1937
• H 1, 194/2 Maori Hygiene - monthly reports, 1925-1927
• H 1, 160 (12038) Native medical services - general, 1927-1939
Department of Maori Affairs Files
• MA W 2490, 36/3/1 box 76 Maori Health Inspectors, 1928-1933
• MA 1/648, 36/1 pt 1 Welfare - general, 1935-1944
• MA W 2490, 36/3 pt 1 box 74 Health & Hygiene, 1932-1956
C. 1940 - 1980
Health Department Files
• H 1, 1936 194/1 Maori health - Maori Hygiene, Maori health - General, 1939-1965
• H 1 169/24/18 Maori Hygiene - 21 July - 14 November, 1952
• H 1, 194/25 Maori Hygiene - 18 December 1941 - 14 May 1953, 1941-1953
157
Department of Maori Affairs Files
• MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 3 Welfare - general, 1947-1950
• MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 4 Welfare - general, 1950-1952
• MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 5 Welfare - general, 1953-1954
• MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 6 Welfare - general, 1954-1956
• MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 10 Welfare - general, 1962-1963
• MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 7 Welfare - general, 1956-1958
• MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 8 Welfare - general, 1959-1960
• MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 9 Welfare - general, 1960-1961
• MA 1/651, 36/1 pt 11 Welfare - general, 1964-1968
• MA 1/651, 36/1 pt 12 Welfare - general, 1968-1972
• MA 1/652, 36/1 pt 13 Welfare - general, 1972-1975
• MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 2 box 74 Health & Hygiene, 1958-1960
• MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 3 box 74 Health & Hygiene, 1960-1962
• MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 4 box 75 Health & Hygiene, 1963-1967
• MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 5 box 75 Health & Hygiene, 1968-1971
• MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 6 box 75 Health & Hygiene, 1972-1975
Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control) Meetings
• H 1, 194/11 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control) meetings,
1935-1938
• H 1, 194/9 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control) meetings,
1934-1940
• H 1, 194/9 Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control) meetings,
1940-1961
Maori Health and Hygiene Conferences
• H 1, 194/8 Maori Hygiene - Conference on Maori Health, 1933-1936
• H 1, 2628 194/8 Maori Hygiene - Conference on Native Health, 1936-1964
• H 1, 2628 194/8/1 Maori Hygiene - Conference on Maori Health, 1939, 1938-1941
Maori and disease - general
• H 1, 131/124 (9388) Statistics of disease among Maoris, 1929-1934
• MA W 2490, 36/3/6 box 79 Typhoid Fever, 1932-1950
158
Disease - General
• H 1, 131/4 files - Typhoid (Enteric fever)
• H 1, 131/5 files - Plague
• H 1, 131/6 files - Cholera and Malaria
• H 1, 131/7 files - Goitre
• H 1, 131/9 files - Polo
• H 1, 131/2 files - Smallpox
NB: Many other diseases have own bar series in H 1, 131/
Archives New Zealand, Auckland
Waikato Area Health Board, Health Development Unit
• YCBE 1990 70d Maori Hygiene Maori Buildings and Sanitation General, 1936-1939
• YCBE 1990 77d Maori Hygiene - Maori Councils, 1936-1966
• YCBE 1990 77b Maori Hygiene - proposed Maori survey, 1954-1959
• YCBE 1990 79b Maori and Polynesian Health - general, 1968-1972
Department of Maori Affairs, Rotorua District Office
• BAJJ 4945 1465a Welfare - Health matters 1949-1960
Maori and TB
Tuberculosis was a significant health problem for Maori communities but the extent to which this
was the case in the inquiry district is unclear. There are a number of general files on Maori and
TB covering the 1930 to 1950 period and it is possible that these may contain material relevant
to the inquiry district, but time did not permit these to be scoped. There is also some secondary
literature regarding Maori TB rates, the impact of poor housing and living conditions on those
rates and the Crown’s response to the problem of TB in the Maori population. These include:
• Lynda Bryder, ‘If preventable, why not prevented?: the New Zealand response to
Tuberculosis, 1901 - 1940’, Lynda Bryder (ed) A Healthy Country: Essays on the Social
History of Medicine, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991, pp 109 - 127
• Thomas C Lonie, ‘Some social factors in relation to Tuberculosis’, New Zealand Medical
Journal, Feb 1947, 46(251), pp 25-31
There is also a good summary of the Crown’s response to TB rates amongst Maori, and some
material on TB cases reported amongst Maori at Taumaranui and Jerusalem in Rose, 2004.
159
Files on Maori and TB - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
• H 1, 131/3/136 (9151) TB Maoris, 1930-1939
• H 1, 130/18 (24375) TB in Maoris - general, 1940-1951 (series binder says this file is
missing)
• H 1, 130/18/1 (20099) TB in Maoris - hospital accommodation, 1941-1947
• H 1, 130/18/1 (24374) TB in Maoris - hospital accommodation, 1942-1948
• H 1, 194/27 (16944) Hutments for TB Maoris, 1941-1945
• H 1, 194/27 (35351 or 2628?) Hutments for TB Maoris, 1944-1956
• H 1, 194/27 (B 126) Hutments for TB Maoris, 1936-1941
• MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 2, box 107 Tuberculosis, 1947-1952
• MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 3, box 107 Tuberculosis, 1952-1954
• MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 4, box 107 Tuberculosis, 1955-1958
• MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 5, box 108 Tuberculosis, 1958-1961
Maori and Influenza
Although influenza was common amongst Maori in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, the 1918 influenza pandemic took a particularly heavy toll in many Maori communities.
It is unclear what the impact of the pandemic was on Maori communities in the inquiry district or
what measures were taken to assist Maori in the inquiry district suffering from the disease. The
standard works on the 1918 Epidemic are both by Geoffrey Rice (with the assistance of Linda
Bryder):
• Black November: the 1918 Influenza Epidemic in New Zealand (1st edition), Allen & Unwin NZ
Ltd/Historical Branch Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1988
• An revised and substantially enlarged edition has recently been published, Black November:
the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch,
2005
The following journal articles may also be useful:
• Geoffrey Rice, ‘Maori Mortality in the 1918 Influenza Epidemic', New Zealand Population
Review, 9: 1, April 1983
• Ian Pool, ‘The Age-Sex Distribution of Maori Mortality in the 1918 Pandemic of Influenza',
New Zealand Population Review, 9: 2, July 1983
160
In addition, Rose, 2004 makes some comment on reports of Influenza amongst Maori in the
Wanganui area. She gives figures from the 1921 census for Maori deaths in the Kaitieke County
(the far western area of the inquiry district that included Taumarunui). She was unable to locate
similar figures for the Waimarino or Wanganui counties.
There are also some primary sources relating to the influenza pandemic that may hold material
relevant to the inquiry district. There are some general Health Department files, H 1, 169/ files,
at Archive New Zealand Wellington on Influenza. In addition there is the report of the Royal
Commission on the 1918 epidemic: AJHR 1919, H-31A Sir John E Denniston, Influenza Epidemic
Commission, 1919 and an Archives New Zealand, Wellington file containing material from that
inquiry:
• ADBZ 16164 H3 1 Commission of inquiry into influenza epidemic, 1919 - transcripts of
evidence (including some submissions) Gazette notice appointing Commission, Interim report
and final report, 1919
Other Maori Health Topics - Archives New Zealand, Wellington
Vaccination
• H 1, 19 (B 5) Vaccination - general - public vaccinators, 192-1937, also H 1, 161, 1918 -1932
Maori Maternal and Infant Health
• H 1, 13/7/2 (8436) Maori Infant mortality, 1934-1937
• H 1, 13/7/3 (3437) Maori Infant welfare, 1935-1936
• H 1, 13/7/4 (13084) Maori maternal welfare, 1930-1938
• MA W 2490, 36/3/5 pt 1 box 79 ante-natal: post-natal care, 1930-1959
Maori and Alcohol
• AAFB 632 W3463 box 7 194/24 Maori Hygiene - consumption of liquor by Maoris, 1939-1954
• MA 1/662, 36/14 pt 1 Drinking, 1936-1947
• MA 1/662, 36/14 pt 2 Drinking, 1948-1951
• MA 1/663, 36/14, pt 3 Drinking, 1950-1952
• MA 1/663, 36/14, pt 4, Drinking, 1952-1955
• MA 1/663, 36/14, pt 5 Drinking, 1955
• MA 1/664, 36/14, pt 6 Drinking among Maori, 1955
• MA 1/664, 36/14, pt 7 Drinking, 1956-1957
161
3.6 Maori and Education Services
3.6.1 Introduction
This chapter identifies and discusses primary and secondary sources relating to access to and
participation and achievement in early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education by
Maori living in and around the National Park inquiry district between 1890 and 1990. As
participation in tertiary education was, until the last few decades of this period, limited to a few,
sources dealing with trade and other post-secondary training for Maori are also discussed in this
chapter.
3.6.2 Early Childhood Education
Early childhood education is a relatively recent phenomenon for the majority of the New Zealand
population, with kindergartens and play centres established in many towns from the 1960s
onwards and day care centres and creches appearing in urban areas from the early 1980s.
Kohanga reo, Maori-language immersion daycare centres, began to be established from the early
1980s. Williams, (Wai 262 #K3), pp 168 - 173 provides an excellent overview of the Crown’s
policies and practices with regard to bilingual schools, kohanga reo and kura kaupapa Maori.
During this scoping exercise only one file regarding the participation of Maori children in early
childhood education in and around the inquiry district came to light at Archives New Zealand,
Wellington: MA 1/781, 57/2/16 Pre-school centre, Ohakune, 1963.
However, there are a number of secondary sources that provide statistical data and discussion of
trends in Maori participation in early childhood education at a national level. These could form a
useful background to exploring the issue in the inquiry district. Statistics New Zealand website
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/grwt-in-ch-ed.htm provides a brief summary
and bar graph of the numbers of Maori children enrolled in kohanga reo, other early childhood
centres, and total pre-school enrolments for the 1986-1996 period. They also provide figures for
the growth rate in Maori and non-Maori early childhood enrolments over this period. Hui Taumata
2005, ‘Maori in Early Childhood Education and Schools’, Ministry of Education, 2005, for Huui
Taumata 2005 provides tables, graphs and discussion on Maori participation in early childhood
education and compares rates of participation with those of non-Maori for the period 2000-2003.
A more systematic search for Ministry of Education and Education Review Office publications may
provide further national data.
162
3.6.3 Primary Education
This section identifies and evaluates the sources relating to primary education available to Maori
in the inquiry district from 1890 to 1990. The section is divided into two parts, the first
examining sources relating to Native/Maori schools and the second to sources for Education
Board schools.
3.6.3(a) Native/Maori Schools
i) Introduction
Maori primary school education began in the missionary period and continued throughout the
1860s in and around Pakeha settlements. In 1867 the Native Schools Act was passed to provide
a national system of schools for Maori. By 1870 there were only 13 government day schools for
Maori.110 However, by July 1879 57 Native primary schools had been established, and the
administration of these was transferred from the Department of Native Affairs to the Education
Department. For the next 90 years the Native primary schools were administered by the
Education Department ‘as a self-contained national system, quite separate from the regional
education boards set up two years earlier to administer New Zealand’s state primary schools.’111
By 1907 there were 97 Native schools and this grew to 166 by 1955. In 1947 they were officially
renamed Maori schools. ‘During the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s Maori schools were
gradually transferred to the public schools system, administered by education boards. In 1967
the government announced that all Maori schools would be transferred to board control within
the next few months.’ The Maori schools system finally came to an end in February 1969.112
ii) Secondary Sources
There are a number of sources that provide a comprehensive overview of the Native school
system. J M Barrington and T H Beaglehole, Maori Schools in a Changing Society: An Historical
Overview, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1974 discuss Native
schools in their chronological account of the development of Maori education. While their focus
is often on officials and policy their account does contain useful factual material. Two more
recent books on the Native school system are the standard texts on the topic. Simon 1998 is a
useful overview. The Native schools’ educational, medical and community building roles are
covered and there is a useful timeline of key events, legislation and dates (xv - xix) with
110 J M Barrington and T H Beaglehole, Maori Schools in a Changing Society: An Historical Review, New Zealand Councilfor Educational Research, Wellington, 1974, p 101, 105111 Barrington and Beaglehole, 1974, p 122
163
summaries of the key pieces of legislation. There is a good overview of the legislation and
regulations establishing Native schools (pp 11-18). Of particular interest to this scoping report are
chapters on ‘The Community and the Native School’ (pp 22-34) and ‘The Pupils of Native Schools’
(pp 35 - 53). There is a very useful list of Native school including their dates and locations
(Appendix 4 pp 139 - 147). The book is well illustrated with photographs - those of interest to the
wider Taupo/National Park/Whanganui area are:
• Pupils and parents outside Karioi Native school 1907 (p 31)
• Karioi School Committee 1908 (p 31)
• Pupils in classroom at Karioi Native school (holding up their slates with drawings of fish on
them), 1908 (p 107)
• Photograph of Agnes Grant, teacher at Karioi Native school 1898 - 1904 (p 60)
Simon and Smith, 2001 is an enlarged study with a more academic focus on perceptions and
representations around the question of the State’s agenda (of ‘civilising, race and assimilating’).
It draws on the perceptions of teachers, pupils and officials and looks at the motivations of
Pakeha and Maori teachers for entering and leaving the Native school service, their selection,
appointment and qualifications. There is an examination of school committees and the teacher’s
role in the community (from a teacher and official perspective). There is also a discussion of the
politics surrounding the handover of Native schools to Education Boards in the 1950s. There is a
very full bibliography of sources on Maori education and the education system in general (pp 343
- 352). In addition, the Crown’s policy and practice with regard to Maori language in education is
covered thoroughly by Williams, (Wai 262 #K3), pp 115 - 173.
There is also a very useful comment on the difficulties faced by the Maori schools branch in
applying to the Education boards for assistance in building and maintaining schools in Erik
Schwimmer, ‘Government and the Changing Maori’ New Zealand Journal of Public Administration,
22(2), 1960, pp 13 - 37.
In addition to this background material, secondary sources also contain statistics about the
numbers and percentage of Maori children attending Native schools in New Zealand at different
dates. Orange, 1977 gives figures for total number of children in Native and state primary schools
in 1935. Beaglehole, 1957, pp 103 - 123 gives similar figures for 1954. The 1960 Hunn Report
provides figures for the number and percentage of Maori children attending all primary schools
for the years 1930, 1940 and 1950. They also show the number and percentage of Maori
112 Judith Simon (ed), Nga Kura Maori: The Native School System, 1867 - 1969, Auckland University Press, Auckland,
164
children attending Native schools and state primary schools. These statistics are drawn from
several tables in the statistical supplement to the Hunn report:
• Maori Primary Schools (Graph)
• Maori Schools: Numbers Attending
• Maori Schools: Number of
iii) Primary Sources
A useful and comprehensive guide to education sources is the Archives New Zealand reference
guide No. 5: Education, May 2005. It provides a summary of education legislation, lists of
archives holdings and AJHR and New Zealand Gazette sources for primary, secondary and
university education. There is also a useful map on the back cover showing education board
districts and country boundaries. Appendix 4: Nga Kura Maori o Aotearoa: list of Native Schools
1879 - 1969 in Simon, 1998 was helpful in identifying Native schools in and around the inquiry
district. The schools identified are (name, location and dates in existence):
• Karioi: Mt Ruapehu, 15km east of Waiouru, 1898-1928
• Moawhango: 10km north-east of Taihape, 1944-?113
• Otukou/Te Rato: Lake Rotoaira, Tongariro District, 1921-1978114
• Pukawa: Southern shore of Lake Taupo, 1894-1897 (relocated to Tokaanu)
• Tokaanu: Southern shore of Lake Taupo, 1897-?
• Tokaanu Convent: Southern shore of Lake Taupo, known as St Joseph’s 1905-1940, dates
uncertain.
• Turangi Native School115
Only two Native Schools, Tokaanu and Otukou, were in the vicinity of the inquiry district. Karioi
Native School in the Whanganui inquiry district may also have attracted pupils residing in and
near the southern and eastern boundaries of the National Park inquiry district. Its history has
been covered in Rose’s socio-economic report for the Whanganui inquiry. In addition to the two
Native schools mentioned above the Tokaanu Convent was a church school where a number of
pupils were Maori: the school was inspected by Education Department inspectors and is included
in official statistics published in the Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives.
1998, pp 18 - 19113 This appears to be incorrect as local history of Moawhango has school logs going back into the 1890s114 This list has no date but it is apparent from BAA 1001, 424b, 44/4, Maori Schools - building and site file - Otukou, 1919- 1933, Archives New Zealand, Auckland that the school opened in 1921. Gardiner, 1993 indicates that the school closedin 1978115 Simon does not list this school but there is a Maori Affairs file for it for 1944, which should be looked at to see if theschool ever came into operation.
165
Attendance figures for Native schools are available in schedules included in the Native Schools
Annual Reports AJHR E-2. The data presented below were obtained by sampling these reports at
five yearly intervals from 1890. However by 1930 individual schools are no longer listed (except
Tokaanu Convent) instead the number of Native schools in each county is noted. As a result, the
data valuable for Native school attendance do not go beyond 1930 and are rather patchy. Almost
constant changes were made as to how the ethnicity of pupils was classified, making the
construction of a time series of the numbers of Maori and Pakeha pupils in a school impossible.
The data below, therefore, simply show total pupil numbers at the end of each year and the
average pupil attendance for each year. Blank spaces indicate years when no data for that
school were published. Note that average pupil attendance can be higher than the number of
pupils because in some cases pupil numbers at other point during the year exceeded the end of
year number.
166
Native Schools: Attendance
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1900 1905 1910 1915 1922 1925 1930 1935 1940 Years
Num
ber o
f Pup
ils
Otukou Tokaanu Tokaanu Covent
Pupil NumbersSum of Pupils YearSchool 1900 1905 1910 1915 1922 1925 1930 1935 1940Otukou 20 23Tokaanu 56 37 42 58 62 56Tokaanu Covent 44 62 42 32 40 45 47Grand Total 56 37 86 120 124 111 40 45 47
Average AttendanceSum of Average attendance YearSchool 1900 1905 1910 1915 1922 1925 1930 1935 1940Otukou 20.1 22Tokaanu 43.3 36 37 52 63.8 56.7Tokaanu Covent 36 51 33.3 27.7Grand Total 43.3 36 73 103 117.2 106.4
167
Tokaanu Native School: Attendance
05
101520253035404550556065
1900 1905 1910 1915 1922 1925 1930 1935 1940
Year
Pupi
l Num
bers
Pupil Numbers Average Attendance
Tokaanu Convent: Attendance
05
101520253035404550556065
1900 1905 1910 1915 1922 1925 1930 1935 1940
Year
Pupi
l Num
bers
Pupil Numbers Average Attendance
Otukou Native School: Attendance
02468
1012
141618202224
1900 1905 1910 1915 1922 1925 1930 1935 1940
Pupi
l Num
bers
Pupil Numbers Average Attendance
168
It appears that both the Tokaanu Native School and the Tokaanu Convent were considerably
larger than the Native School at Otukou, having between 50 and 60 pupils at their peak in the
1915 to 1925 period. In comparison, Otukou pupil numbers stayed static at around 20 to 23.
It appears that Tokaanu Native school was established in 1905 with an initial rush of enrolments.
Five years later numbers had dropped but grew steadily, peaking at 62 by the end of 1922.
Interestingly at the same time as the Tokaanu Native school roll grew the Convent’s roll fell
sharply. It is possible that the two schools were in competition with one another.
A limited set of records for some of these schools is available at Archives New Zealand Wellington
and Auckland. A list of these files appears at the end of this chapter as List A. There are a
number of different types of files:
• Building and Site files: These are the main correspondence files and should be consulted
first. The earlier volumes are more detailed, later files tend to contain a larger proportion of
administrative material which is less useful.
• Conveyance & board, school transport files: contain correspondence regarding
transport for pupils attending the school. These often shed light on resourcing issues,
location of Maori population and the barriers faced by pupils and the community in attending
schools.
• Equipment & supplies files: tend to be routine requests for classroom equipment and
supplies
• Garden files: generally just deal with the landscaping and planting of school grounds
• Log Books: Diary-style logs kept by the teacher/head teacher of the school. These often
contain observations on living conditions in the community, reasons for children being absent
(such as church meetings, illness and seasonal labouring), notes on medical aid given,
problems encountered, and the general progress and achievement of pupils. Williams, (Wai
262 #K3) ‘Appendix. Native schools: Teacher’s Log Books’ provides some further information
about the holdings of log books in archives and other repositories and the use of log books
as a historical source.
• Register of admissions, progress and withdrawals: Each child is listed by name in the
index and given a register number. The main part of the book has a page for ‘Register of
Admission’ on the left hand side and ‘Progress and Withdrawal’ on the right hand side.
However the line of data reads across both pages.
The following data is entered:
- Register number
- Former register number (for re-admitted pupils)
169
- Date of admission (or re-admission)
- Name in full
- Name and address of parent or guardian
- Date of birth
- Last school attended before admission to this school
- Highest standard reached before admission to this school
- Date (month & year) of passing standards (I - VI)
- Last date of attendance
- Week in which name was removed from attendance register
- Highest standard for which certificate has been issued
- Destination on leaving (can be a place or an occupation)
• Inspector’s reports: These are generally written on the standard form used for Native
schools and give the following data:
a) General report showing number of children (male and female, Maori and European) in each
class level, total number of pupils examined and total on the roll, average attendance for four
previous quarters, whether the records (Admission - register, Daily register, Summary,
Examination-register & Log book) were in order. There are also comments regarding
discipline, classroom tone, cleanliness, manners and general behaviour of children,
cleanliness of buildings and office, condition of books and furniture, gates and fences,
gardens and grounds. There are comments on the suitability of the timetable, scheme of
work and method of teaching.
b) Examination report showing each class level, the numbers of male and female pupils, their
average age and how many had been promoted to a higher class during the year. There are
also comments of groupings of various ages into classes and on the disposition of staff, as
well as reports on the progress of pupils in each subject area and a section for special
remarks.
c) Candidates for Certificates of Proficiency or Competency
d) Annual Examination: For each class level pupils are listed (name and age), time since
admission, attendance since last visit of inspector, marks in each subject.
3.6.3(b) Education Board Schools
i) Introduction
Secondary sources make it clear that a large proportion of Maori children attended state primary
schools administered by Education Boards rather than Native schools. Beaglehole, 1957, pp 103 -
170
123 cited 1954 figures showing that nationally ‘over 60 percent of Maori children are educated in
public primary schools’. The 1960 Hunn Report included figures showing that in 1930, 57 percent
of Maori children attended state primary schools, and by 1958 this had risen to 71 percent. Rose,
2004 states that ‘less than a third of Whanganui Maori children of school age were enrolled at
Native schools in 1915.116 ‘In her discussion of Maori education in the 1940s Rose states that,
‘with increasing migration to urban areas, an increasing proportion of Whanganui Maori attended
public schools rather than Native schools.’117 ‘By 1964, there were approximately 150 children at
the Maori schools at Parikino, Matahiwi, Otukou, Pamooana and Pipiriki and Convent schools at
Ranana and Jerusalem compared with some 3000 children at public primary schools.’118 Given
that this was a consistent national and regional trend it would be interesting to see if the same
pattern occurs in the inquiry district.
ii) Secondary Sources
There is an adequate body of secondary sources outlining the establishment and administration
of state primary schools in New Zealand. There is also some comment in secondary sources
regarding the typical barriers Maori faced in attending state primary schools. There are a number
of local and school histories for townships in and around the inquiry district which could be
consulted to provide a picture of what state primary schools were established, their locations,
dates and number of pupils attending. These include:
• Rodger Douglas Win, Waiouru School 25th Jubilee: Historical Notes, Waiouru, 1973
• Pihanga School Closure Reunion, Labour Weekend, 1983, Tongariro Welfare Association,
Turangi, 1983
• Ron Cooke, Kakahi Memories: To commemorate the Kakahi School 85th Jubilee, Easter 1994,
C & S Publications, Taumarunui, 1994
• Kakahi School: Jubilee Magazine, Kakahi School Jubilee Committee, 1959
• Kakahi School 75th Jubilee, celebrated 3rd to 6th February 1984, C & S Publications,
Taumaranui, 1984.
• Owhango School Jubilee, 1910 - 1960, Taumaranui Press Printery, Taumaranui, 1960
• Ohakune Primary school 75th Jubilee 1972, Central Jubilee Committee, Ohakune, 1972
• Souvenir booklet of St Joseph's Convent School, Ohakune: Golden Jubilee, 1918 - 1968,
Raetahi Printing Co, Raetihi, 1968
• 1909 - 1959, Rangataua School Golden Jubilee, January 1959, Taihape Times, Taihape, 1959
116 Kathryn Rose, ‘Whanganui Maori and the Crown: Socio-Economic Issues’, March 2004, Wai 903 #A61, p 271117 Rose, 2004, p 471118 Rose, 2004, p 534
171
• R A L Batley, Moawhango Valley and School: a short history of the inland Patea published to
commemorate the diamond jubilee of the Maowhango Maori School, 1897 - 1957,
Maowhango School Jubilee Committee, 1958
Rose, 2004 noted that in the Whanganui inquiry district:
Not only did Maori attending public schools face cultural and language barriers, they
were also subject to criticism because they were more likely to suffer from skin diseases
such as hakihaki (scabies) and epidemic disease. Whanganui Maori were generally poorer
than their Pakeha counterparts and their inferior living conditions meant they were less
able to maintain adequate standards of hygiene and were more vulnerable to disease.119
She offers a detailed case study of how these factors were played out in Raetihi between Maori
and Pakeha communities with children attending the Raetihi primary school in 1913. Rose, 2004
also provides an account of Maori attendance at the Karioi Native School from the 1890s to the
1920s.
The only specific secondary material on Maori attendance at state primary schools in and around
the inquiry district is very recent. Catherine Kitto, Schools in Tuwharetoa Rohe Baseline Data,
Minstry of Education, Wellington, 2000 draws conclusions about the overall quality of primary
education in the Tuwharetoa rohe and comments on current issues. Included in this report are
statistical summaries of each primary school in the Tuwharetoa rohe using 2000 education data.
Each summary gives the and location of the school and comments on:
- Decile,
- school roll,
- staff,
- Resource Teachers: Learning and Behaviour for Maori,
- pupil/teacher ratio,
- Board of trustees,
- Te reo instruction,
- Property [buildings and facilities],
- financial status,
- Technology status [IT facilities],
- Board of Trustees Chairperson’s/Principal’s report
119 Rose, 2004, p 272
172
- ERO reports.
3.6.4 Secondary Education
3.5.4(a) Secondary Education in New Zealand
Maori received secondary education at state high schools, district Maori High Schools and
denominational boarding schools. The best summary of the establishment and administration of
these various types of secondary schools can be found in John Barrington, ‘Learning the 'Dignity
of Labour': Secondary education policy for Maoris', New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies,
1988; 23(1), pp 45-58. A more detailed account can be found in Barrington and Beaglehole,
1974.
These sources touch on the provision of scholarships to Maori to attend secondary schools. The
role of the Maori Educational Foundation in providing scholarships and trade training for Maori
should be investigated with regard to the inquiry district. Background on the Maori Educational
Foundation can be found in Pearson, 1962, pp 148 - 180. More detail can be found in Erik
Schwimmer, ‘The Maori Education Foundation', New Zealand Quarterly Review, vol. 12, July
1962, pp 7 - 11. There was also the Te Makarini Scholarship, a memorial scholarship in memory
of Sir Donald McLean, available to pupils of Native schools to attend denominational boarding
schools. Details of scholarship candidates are available in the Native Schools Annual Reports
AJHR E-2. There are occasional successful applicants from the inquiry district.
A recent statistical overview of Maori participation in and achievement in secondary schools
appears in Hui Taumata 2005, ‘Maori in Early Childhood Education and Schools’, Ministry of
Education, 2005, for Hui Taumata 2005. No doubt a search of Ministry of Education and
Education Review Office (ERO) publications would uncover further national statistics.
3.5.4(b) Maori in Secondary Education in the National Park Inquiry District
Rose, 2004 provides an extensive discussion of secondary educational qualifications, destinations
of school leavers and opportunities for trade and other training during the 1950 - 1970 period.
This includes references to Ruapehu College, Taumaranui High School and Tokaanu District Maori
High School. In addition, Rose’s discussion suggests that the reports of Maori Affairs District
Welfare Officers may prove to be a fruitful source of material. A tangata whenua witness who
was a senior teacher at Tokaanu District High School (later Tongariro College) during the
construction of the Tongariro Power Development Scheme from 1964 onwards provides an
173
insight into the impact that rising rolls and an influx of families from outside the area had on the
educational and social conditions at the school.120
Again, the only secondary research on Maori secondary education in the inquiry district is two
recent studies of education in the Tuwharetoa rohe. Kitto, 2000 is the more detailed, providing
in-depth discussion of enrolment and quality of education at Tongariro High School in Turangi
and Taupo-nui-a-Tia College, Taupo. Buddy Mikaere and Gail Loane, Education in Tuwharetoa: A
survey of students, parents, schools and communities, Tuwharetoa Maori Trust Board/Ministry of
Education, Wellington, 2001 is much more a social survey with only very general conclusions
drawn about factors influencing Maori educational outcomes in the Tuwharetoa rohe. Bain, 2002,
indicates that Tongariro High School suffered from falling rolls and concerns about management,
staffing and student behaviour in the 1990s.
Statistics New Zealand reports on Tamariki and Rangatahi provide data on the highest
qualification of parents by age groups and family type. At a local level, Statistics New Zealand
Community profiles provides data on the highest qualification of people living in various towns in
and around the inquiry district from the 2001 census. Wilson, 1989 shows highest qualification
data for those sampled, as a bar graph. However neither of these sources have separate data
for Maori.
3.6.5 Maori Employment Training in New Zealand
3.6.5(a) Secondary Sources
Given that until relatively recently most school leavers, including Maori school leavers, did not go
on to university, trade and other training for school leavers was an important aspect of
education. This was often overseen by the Department of Maori Affairs in the post 1945 period.
A good introduction to the role of the Department is provided by Aroha Harris, ‘Maori and ‘the
Maori Affairs’, Bronwyn Dalley and Margaret Tennant (eds), Past Judgement: Social Policy in New
Zealand History, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2004. Figures showing the probable
destinations of Maori pupils leaving public secondary schools in 1955 are included in a discussion
of educational trends in Beaglehole, 1957, pp 103 - 123. Pearson, 1962, pp 148 - 180 makes
some comments regarding the limited nature of apprenticeship schemes for Maori school leavers
in the mid-1950s. The 1960 Hunn Report gives figures for the total number of Maori in
apprenticeships and shows how under-represented Maori were in this training in comparison to
the proportion of Maori in the general population.
120 Waitangi Tribunal, Turangi Township Report 1995, Brookers, Wellington, pp 67 - 68, citing Wai 84 #A21 evidence of
174
3.6.5(b) Primary Sources
As this was largely the responsibility of the Department of Maori Affairs after the Maori Social and
Economic Advancement Act 1945, reports of Maori Affairs District Welfare Officers and other
Maori Affairs files from this period may prove to be a fruitful source of material. (See files listed in
the previous chapter). However it is likely that a search of these files would be time consuming
and produce only a limited amount of fragmented material relating to this inquiry district.
3.6.6 Tertiary Education
The proportion of the general population (and the Maori population) obtaining a tertiary
education was strictly limited until at least the 1970s. So far nothing specific to the inquiry district
has been located. There are some mentions of the link between Maori attendance at
denominational boarding schools and subsequent attendance at universities in the 1950s in
Pearson, June 1962, pp 148 - 180. An overview of statistics relating to Maori attendance and
achievement at tertiary level in the post-1980 period is provided by Hui Taumata 2005, ‘Maori in
Tertiary Education: A Picture of the Trends’, Ministry of Education, 2005, for Hui Taumata 2005.
This can be supplemented with several brief reports from Statistics New Zealand using 2001
census data. These are ‘Increase in post-compulsory education’
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/inc-in-comp-edu.htm and ‘Improved
attainment levels’ http://www.statsgovt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/ial.htm. Sholeh A Maani,
Secondary and Teritary Education Attainment and Income Levels for Maori and Non-Maori over
Time, Treasury Working Paper 00/18, 2000 compares income levels of Maori and non-Maori
holiding various secondary and tertiary qualifications.
3.6.7 Conclusion
The sources identified and sampled in the course of this scoping report on Maori and education in
the National Park inquiry district are able to identify the location and dates of operation of Native
schools, and state primary and secondary schools and in the vicinity of the inquiry district.
However the material available appears too fragmented and incomplete to provide a
comprehensive picture of Maori use of these educational institutions or their levels of
achievement.
The one set of material that is reasonably complete is that for Native schools in and around the
inquiry district. There are several possible uses for the data in these files. The first is to use the
Grace Family, pp 7 - 13
175
register of admissions, progress and withdrawals for Tokaanu and Otukou Native schools as raw
data for a statistical analysis. This could include pupil numbers, ages, place of residence,
absentee levels, rates of disrupted education (by tracking pupils who leave and re-enrol),
educational achievement and destination of school leavers. The second is to use the more
comprehensive files for Otukou Native School to examine Maori community dealings with the
Crown over the provision of education and to discuss barriers faced by Maori children in the
settlement in attending and completing primary education. It is possible that this could be part
of a wider case study that deals with economic and social conditions in Otukou
176
List A: Native Schools Files for the National Park Inquiry district - Archives New
Zealand, Wellington and Auckland
Karioi Native School
Archive New Zealand, Auckland
• BAAA 1003, 1h Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1898-1901
• BAAA 1003, 1I Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1901-1903
• BAAA 1003, 1j Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1903-1904
• BAAA 1016, 11d, 37/8/9 Gardens - Karioi, 1906-1919
Moawhango Native School
Archives New Zealand, Wellington
• MA 1/465, 21/4/74 Moawhanga [sic] Native School, 1946
Archives New Zealand, Auckland
• BAAA 1004, 4a Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals -
Moawhango, 1916-1951
• BAAA 1004, 4b Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals -
Moawhango, 1897-1921
Otukou Native School
Archives New Zealand, Wellington
• AAQB W4073, 269, 31/471 Otukou Native School, Te Rato, 1926-1980
• ABDV W3571, 922, 181/37 School subject files - Otukou Maori - general, 1966
Archives New Zealand, Auckland
• BAAA 1001, 424b, 44/4 Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou 1919-1933
• BAAA 1001, 424c, 44/4 pt 1 Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou 1933-1947
• BAAA 1001, 424a, 44/4 pt 2 Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou 1947-1952
• BAAA 1001, 425b, 44/4 pt 3 Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou, 1952-1960
• BAAA 1001, 425c, 44/4 pt 4 Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou, 1961-1967
• AATE 10882, A986, 128a, 11/11 Schools - Otukou Native School, 1969
• BAAA 1001, a, 44/6 989 Maori Schools - general correspondence and inspector's reports -
Otukou, 1930-1937
• BAAA 1001, 16d, 44/1/44 Maori Schools - attendance returns - Otukou, 1926-1946
177
• BAAA 1001, 809b, 44/5 pt 1 Maori Schools - equipment & supplies - Otukou, 1934-1956
• BAAA 1001, 878a, 48/8 pt 1 Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport - Otukou,
1930-1937
• BAAA 1001, 879a, 48/8 pt 2 Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport - Otukou,
1936-1938
• BAAA 1001, 880a, 44/8 pt 3 Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport - Otukou,
1937-1945
• BAAA 1001, 880b, 44/8 pt 4 Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport - Otukou,
1946-1951
Tokaanu Native School
Archives New Zealand, Auckland
• BAAA 1004, 12j Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals - Tokaanu,
1895-1914
• BAAA 1004, 12k Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals - Tokaanu,
1935-1944
• BAAA 1004, 13a Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals - Tokaanu,
1914-1935
• BAAA 1016, 12c, 37/8/87 Gardens - Tokaanu, 1906-1917
• BAAA 1016, 4a, 37/11/9 Workshops and technical education - Tokaanu, 1909-1947
Turangi Native School
Archives New Zealand, Wellington
• MA 1/465, 21/4/73 Turangi Native School, 1944
178
4. Conclusions
4.1 Introduction
As indicated in the introduction to this report, the way in which the boundaries of the National
Park inquiry district have been configured poses significant challenges for research into socio-
economic issues. The inquiry district began as an overlap district between the Whanganui iwi and
hapu to the south and Ngati Tuwharetoa to the north. It was proposed as a way of ensuring that
both iwi groups could have their issues relating to the mountains Ruapehu, Tongariro and
Ngauruhoe, and the Tongariro National Park that surrounds these peaks, heard in the same
inquiry. As a result claimant pleadings on socio-economic issues are very general, making little
reference to specific legislation, locations or actions of the Crown.The other consequence of
defining the inquiry boundaries in this way is that all of the significant centres of population and
economic activity lie immediately outside the National Park inquiry and fall into the Whanganui
inquiry (to the south) or the Central North Island inquiry (to the north). Therefore, research that
does not take account of these population centres and confines itself strictly to the inquiry district
would fail to make sense of patterns of Maori population change, and settlement patterns,
involvement in economic activities and access to and use of health and education services.
This difficulty is compounded by the fact that the inquiry district cuts across at least two major
tribal areas. As a result Maori communities with customary connections to the land included in
the inquiry district also have similar connections to land in the adjacent inquiry districts. It is,
therefore not really possible to investigate socio-economic issues at an overview level in the Park
district alone. The results from the scoping exercise suggest that instead a localised case study
on specific issues or a Maori community within the National Park inquiry district would be more
useful. What follows is a summary of this report’s findings regarding sources relevant to each of
the three questions in the commission.
4.2 Sources Relevant to Maori Population and Settlement Patterns
In fulfilment of commission question 2(a) this report surveyed data relating to Maori population
and settlement patterns within the National Park inquiry district. The results suggest that there is
sufficient material to name and accurately locate on maps Maori kainga and other townships in
and around the inquiry district for the period between 1890 and 1925. This would provide a
picture of the settlement pattern in the area for the first three decades of the twentieth century.
179
A source of reliable and comprehensive Maori population figures for the inquiry district could not
be found. Secondary sources draw upon census data and so they can only provide county and
territorial authority level statistics for Maori population. The census data has a number of
limitations in terms of accuracy, changing county boundaries and definitions of who is counted as
Maori. This leads to the conclusion that Kukutai, Pool & Sceats reached in their report, that the
changing nature of the census ‘makes time-series analysis impossible at a sub-national level.’ 121
As the inquiry district takes in parts of four, and at times five, counties, tabulating Maori
populations for those counties does not produce a set of data that accurately reflects the Maori
population in the inquiry district. Other sources such as Maori voters’ and electoral rolls and
Native school records provide only approximate indications of where Maori were living at
particular dates. Native school registers of admissions, progress and withdrawals could be
statistically analysed to chart patterns of migration of those pupils to and from destinations within
and outside the inquiry district. However only the Otukou, Tokaanu and perhaps Moawhango
Native schools have enough data for such an analysis and the numbers of pupils who did move
may actually be too small to be statistically significant. In the absence of accurate population
data, a useful analysis to determine migration trends is not possible.
4.3 Sources Relevant to Economic and Employment Opportunities
Question 2(b) of the commission related to sources that provide evidence about a number of
avenues of economic opportunity and income for Maori. These include customary resources,
farming, forestry, tourism and hydro-electric schemes. Only scattered sources relating to the
nature, extent, duration and location of customary resource use by Maori in the National Park
inquiry district during the twentieth century were found. These limited sources indicate that
there was ongoing customary resource use by Maori in the inquiry district and that the gathering
of indigenous fish (particularly at Lake Rotoaira) and trout, muttonbird and other forest birds
continued in some places up till the 1950s. It is unclear, however, from the documentary sources
scoped how widespread these practices were, how they changed over time, or what impact
Crown regulation had on the use of customary resources.
The sources relating to Maori participation and success as farmers and as wage labourers in the
agricultural sector in the National Park inquiry district are limited. Annual sheep returns offer a
potentially fruitful source of data providing the names, locations and flock numbers for Maori
sheep farmers in the inquiry district over the first half of the twentieth century. However, there is
little previous research that would explain the trends indicated in the statistics Valuation rolls
121 Kukutai, Pool & Sceats, 2002, p 16
180
showing land ownership details including, landowners, occupiers, capital and unimproved
valuations, lease and rental details may be an untapped source of information indicating
ownership and land use. Given a short amount of time, these rolls would be most useful if
focusing on a small number of land blocks such as for a localised community case study.
There appears to be very little material available regarding Maori employment in indigenous
timber-milling companies or in state forests. Archives files on timber leases on Maori land appear
to be a fruitful avenue for further research. Of these the leases and timber mills at Otukou
appear to have the most comprehensive set of sources. If the Maori Trustee was acting as an
agent for Maori owners then there may be important files at the Office of the Maori Trustee in
Wanganui and Rotorua.
Secondary sources indicate that Maori in the National Park inquiry district had little involvement in
tourism ventures, either as owner-operators or employees, until the last few decades. This lack of
involvement means that a search of general Tourism Department files at Archives New Zealand is
unlikely to be fruitful. There is, however, a body of material on iwi and hapu efforts to develop
tourist trout fishing and related recreational activities on Lake Rotoaira and other waterways from
the 1920s onwards.
Material relating to Maori employment on the Tongariro Power Development scheme, and other
employment this scheme generated in Turangi and the surrounding area, is insufficient to provide
a clear and comprehensive account. Likewise, the material relating to the Crown responses to
Maori unemployment in the wake of the scheme’s completion is too fragmented to provide a
reliable overview account.
4.4 Sources Relevant to Income Levels, Housing, Health and Education Services
In relation to question 2(c) of the commission regarding Maori income levels, housing and living
conditions and access to health and education services, this report concludes that sources
relating to Maori levels of employment/unemployment and income are unable to provide data
specific to the inquiry district. Data from the 1981 - 2001 period is able to indicate broad
regional trends, but beyond this it does not appear possible to discuss Maori
employment/unemployment and income in the inquiry district in any accurate or meaningful way.
The sources explored in this scoping report regarding Maori housing provision and conditions in
the National Park inquiry district do not appear to provide sufficient material to construct a clear
or comprehensive picture of Maori housing conditions.
181
The overwhelming impression of this scoping exercise is that there is a substantial amount of
primary source material on Maori health services nationally for the period up to the 1950s, less so
for the remainder of the century. Although there may be relevant material in these files, this
material is very scattered and a considerable amount of time would be required to gather and
analyse it. There is, however, a coherent body of file material relating to the Tuwharetoa Trust
Board’s development of a package of health care, including Maori district nurses, hospital care
and dental facilities, for Ngati Tuwharetoa people from the 1930s onwards. The Health
Department, Department of Maori Affairs and various hospital boards were also involved.
The sources identified and sampled in the course of this scoping report on Maori and education in
the National Park inquiry district are able to identify the location and dates of operation of state
primary and secondary schools and Native schools in the vicinity of the inquiry district. Again,
this material is insufficient to provide a comprehensive picture of Maori use of these educational
institutions or their levels of achievement. Given enough time, the register of admissions,
progress and withdrawals for Tokaanu and Otukou Native schools could be used for a statistical
analysis. This could include pupil numbers, ages, place of residence, absentee levels, rates of
disrupted education (by tracking pupils who leave and re-enrol), educational achievement and
destination of school leavers. The files for Otukou Native School contain material to make an
assessment of the dealings of that Maori community with the Crown over the establishment and
running of the school possible for the period 1919 to 1969.
The final chapter of this report suggests a number of options available to the Tribunal in light of
these conclusions.
182
5. Recommendations
For the reasons outlined above, a thematically organised overview report of socio-economic
issues affecting Maori in the inquiry district in the 1890 - 1990 period is not feasible. However, a
number of options that the Tribunal may consider in light of this scoping report are set out
below.
5.1 Option 1: Placing existing material on the Wai 1130 Record of Inquiry
A) Deirdre Gardiner’s book, He Ohaki na nga matua tupuna ko Okahukura: The Story of a
Tuwharetoa Wharepuni, Otukou Marae Committee, Turangi, 1993 could be placed on the
Record of Inquiry.
The book, which appears to have been commissioned by the Otukou Marae Committee, provides
a significant source of material relating to the Otukou community. The book’s sources appear to
be largely oral, with sections recounting whakapapa and the lives of prominent members to the
community alternating with brief chapters on various aspects of life in the community, including
the economic opportunities available to those who lived there. Gardiner recounts in detail the
types of birds and fish gathered, how these were preserved and used, as well as the general
locations from which these resources were taken. There is also a brief paragraph discussing
customary use of the Ketetahi springs. She provides a brief but useful description of the types
and extent of crops and domestic livestock around the Otukou settlement in the first half of the
twentieth century. There is a section on the timber mills in the district and a mention of the flax
mill at Otukou with some comments on the development of infrastructure (roads, stores and taxi
and postal services) in the district. There is also an interesting account of the establishment of
the Ratana faith in the area. The book is well illustrated with photographs including a view of the
settlement in 1905, photographs of Otukou Native School in 1949, and Otokou marae in 1993.
5.2 Option 2: Commission Further Research
A) Socio-economic Issues and their impact on the Maori Community at Otukou, c.1880 - c.1965
There is a body of source material sufficient for the Tribunal to consider commissioning a
community-focused socio-economic case study examining the economic opportunities, social
services and living standards of the Maori community at Otukou, near Lake Rotoaira in the
northern part of the inquiry district.
183
Investigating the role of the Crown in response to Maori attempts to establish and develop
economic activities on Maori-owned land around Otukou could provide the Tribunal with an
example of how economic activities unfolded in a Maori community in the inquiry district over the
late nineteenth century and first half of the twentieth century. A community-focused study would
have the advantage of connecting the different issues or categories examined in this scoping
report to one another, and ultimately connecting these to a specific community. This would
articulate local histories of community, land, land development and socio-economic change,
rather than try to describe higher regional trends, effectively in isolation from one another.
Any recommendation for an Otukou socio-economic case study, however, must be qualified by
saying that the resulting study may not be as comprehensive as desired because the sources
relating to economic activities on Maori land in the vicinity of Otukou vary in quantity and quality.
The material on Maori involvement in sheep farming or flax milling identified in this scoping
report would not be sufficient to draw useful conclusions in terms of the importance of these
economic opportunities to Maori at Otukou. The material on indigenous forestry leases on the
blocks surrounding Otukou is more substantial (see option 2B below).
There is also some material on primary education in the settlement. A systematic analysis of rolls,
registers and inspector’s reports may allow conclusions to be drawn about Maori attendance and
education achievement for the period that the school operated.122 The gathering and analysis of
the material would be time-consuming and it is unclear at this point whether a statistical analysis
is viable. Again, there does not appear to be sufficient material in the sources canvassed in this
scoping report for a full examination of the housing, living conditions and nature and extent of
health services for Maori at Otukou. Any material that is gleaned from the Native school and
timber lease files relating to health and living conditions is likely to be fragmentary.
Given these difficulties with sources and the limited time available for further commissioned
research at this stage of the inquiry process, it is unlikely that further sources could be located in
a shortened time frame that would prove particularly fruitful. As a result an Otukou socio-
economic case study may offer evidence that is uneven in quality and quantity. An estimate
minimum time frame would be 16 weeks.
It should also be noted that given the general nature of the socio-economic pleadings, such a
specific community case study is unlikely to provide findings that could be generalised across the
district. Although the range of dominant economic activities and availability of sources make
184
Otukou a suitable community for a case study, there are no specific pleadings related to Otukou.
Maori electoral statistics presented in the second chapter of this report strongly suggest that the
great majority of those of those living at Otukou during the twentieth century affiliated to Ngati
Hikairo hapu and Ngati Tuwharetoa iwi. Therefore a report on this community would only likely
provide evidence relating to the socio-economic issues of these claimant groups.
B) Indigenous Forestry Leases on Maori Land in the National Park Inquiry District
There are enough sources relating to indigenous timber leases and timber mills on Maori land in
the blocks surrounding Otukou for the Tribunal to commission a case study on these leases and
their economic outcomes, particularly revenues from royalties and wages earned by local Maori
employed in the felling and milling of the timber from the 1930s to the early 1960s.
Archival files have been found for three leases:
• Mr J Bishara, Taumaranui lease of Okahukura 8M2B3B (2,222 acres) for a five year lease
term from January 1936
• Otukou Timber Company lease of Okahukura 8M2C2C (1,915 acres) for a term of ten years
from May 1931.
• Weir & Kenny Limited, Otukou lease of Okahukura 6A2, Blocks III & IV Tongariro Survey
District, term of lease unknown but file dates are 1960-1961
Valuation rolls may also be a useful source of information for a study into this issue.
These indigenous timber lease agreements were important commercial agreements entered into
by Maori owners for economic benefit. A case study could investigate the terms of the lease
agreements and whether this generated the expected income for Maori owners. In particular,
the report may give an indication of the impact of restrictions on alienation on the ability of Maori
owners in commercially developing their forest resources. The case study could also assess the
nature, extent and duration of employment opportunities for Maori owners in the sawmills run by
the lesees. In addition, the research could provide an insight into the nature of the role played
by the District Maori Land Board and the Maori Trustee as agents for the owners. This could
assist the Tribunal in answering Statement of Issues questions relating to the impact of
122 These records can not be photocopied and all data inputting would need to be done on-site at Archives New Zealandin Auckland
185
restrictions on alienation and to the role of the District Maori Land Boards in administering Maori
land in the district.123
The case study could fill a noticeable gap in the existing casebook research on forestry. Walzl,
‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo, Kaingaroa, Rotorua), 1890-1990’, October 2004 does provides a brief
narrative of the involvement of the Crown in two of these forestry leases, however his report is
primarily concerned with issues surrounding Crown attempts to acquire the land involved rather
than examining the economic outcomes of the leases. 124
Sufficient archival material has been located to make a brief case study feasible. Some further
research into a limited number of block files at the Maori Land Court and Maori Trustee would
also be required. Legislative background has been covered extensively in the casebook and could
be briefly summarised as required in the report. It is estimated that a case study could be
completed in six to eight weeks.
5.3 Option 3: Dealing with Issues in Tangata Whenua Evidence
The contents of this scoping report could be drawn to the attention of parties to the inquiry and
the Tribunal may wish to call for tangata whenua evidence on the following issues:
a) The experiences of iwi and hapu using the trout fishery at Lake Rotoaira both as a food
source and as an opportunity to develop a tourist venture.
b) The experiences of iwi and hapu in tourism within the inquiry district, either as owner-
operators or employees, including any difficulties they have encountered with regard to
obtaining concessions to operate tourist ventures in the Tongariro National Park.
c) The experience of iwi and hapu in the removal of the community at Huimako overlooking
Otukou so that blasting at Otukou Quarry could take place in 1964.
d) The experiences of iwi and hapu in relation to official responses to the activities of tohunga in
the inquiry district.
e) The experiences of iwi and hapu in accessing and utilising health, housing and education
services over the course of the twentieth century.
123 National Park Statement of Issues, December 2005, 7.4.5 and 7.4.4(c) respectively
186
f) The experiences of those involved with the Tuwharetoa Trust Board programme to improve
Maori health and living conditions from the 1930s onwards by provide water supplies,
sanitation, district nurse, hospital and dental services.
5.4 Comment on options
These options are those considered most useful to the Tribunal and parties arising from the
scoping exercise at this stage. Option 1 requires no research and can be actioned immediately.
Of the two options requiring further commissioned research, option 2(B) could be completed in
the shorter time frame of 6 to 8 weeks and would likely provide useful evidence relating to the
particular issue of indigenous timber lease agreements for a specific Maori community. It could
not, however, necessarily be considered as representative due to its focus on the Otukou
community. Option 3 is a matter for inquiry parties to consider (if they have not already done
so) should the Tribunal elect to call for oral evidence on these specific issues.
124 Walzl, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo, Kaingaro, Rotorua), 1890-1990’, October 2004, Wai 1130, #A44, pp 342 - 347
187
6. Bibliography
6.1. PRIMARY SOURCES
Archives and Manuscripts
Archives New Zealand, Wellington
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS, HEAD OFFICE (AAAC)AAAC W3207, 57, WIL 22/8/5, State Forest Lands - Wellington Conservancy, 1978-1982
TOURIST & PUBLICITY DEPARTMENT, HEAD OFFICE (AABN)AABN 408, 1909/757, Charges made by Maoris for right to fish in Tongariro River, 1909
AABN 851 W3096, 7, 11/1, pt 5, Fishing regulations and licences and guides, 1979-1982
AABN 851, W3096, 83, 63/16 pt 1, THC Tokaanu Hotel, 1932-1976
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, LOWER HUTT OFFICE (AABQ)AAQB W4073, 269, 31/471, Otukou Native School, Te Rato, 1926-1980
NEW ZEALAND FOREST SERVICE, HEAD OFFICE (AADY)AADY W3564, 15, 6/3/42/4 pt 1,Taurewa SF 42 - East and West Blocks - Wellington Conservancy
(Maori Leases), 1920
AADY W3564, 15, 6/3/100 pt 2, Karioi SF 100 - Wellington Conservancy, 1948-1961
AADY W3564, 26, 36/3100 pt 1, Working Plan - Karioi S.F. [State Forest] 100 - Wellington
Conservancy, 1948-1962
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, HEAD OFFICE (AAFB)AAFB 632 W3463 box 7 194/24, Maori Hygiene - consumption of liquor by Maoris, 1939-1954
NEW ZEALAND TIMBER LANDS LTD, WANGANUI DISTRICT (AANQ)AANQ W3797, 19, 30/100/5/3, Re-establishment of Karioi SF 100, 1968-1969
AANQ W3797, 25, 92/1/100, Karioi SF 100 roads and bridges, 1977-1979
DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION, HEAD OFFICE (AANS)AANS W3546 box 3 WIL 1/6/17, Legislation - breaches and prosecutions of wildlife legislation -
Waimarino Acclimatisation Society district, 1969-1975
AANS W3832 box 4 2/19/6, Waimarino Acclimatisation Society - Game Season, 1967-1977
WANGANUI EDUCATION BOARD RESIDUAL MANAGEMENT UNIT (ABDV)ABDV W3571, 922, 181/37, School subject files - Otukou Maori - general, 1966
188
TE PUNI KOKIRI WELLINGTON (ABJZ)ABJZ 4948, 7a, 8/5/1 pt 1, Taurewa Tribal Committee, 1947-1986
ABJZ 4948, 7g, 7/7/13, REAP (Rural Education Activities programme) - central plateau, 1967-
1988
ABJZ 4948, 8a, 7/7/13 pt 1, REAP (Rural Education Activities programme) - central plateau,
1982-1989
ABJZ 4948, 8b, 7/7/17, survey on unemployment, n/d
ABJZ 4948, 9c, 7/3/3 pt 1, Joint ventures, 1988-1989
ABJZ 4948, 9d, 7/3/3 pt 2, Joint ventures, 1988-1992
ABJZ 4948, 9e, 7/3/11/1, Access training - Central Organic Gardens, 1988
ABJZ 4948, 10b, 7/3/11 pt 1, Access, 1988-1990
ABJZ 4948, 10c, 7/3/11 pt 1, Access, 1988-1989
ABJZ 4948, 11b, 7/3/0 pt 1, Vocational training (vol. 1), 1988-1989
ABJZ 4948, 11a, 7/3/0/1 pt 1, Vocational training (vol. 1), 1990
ABJZ 4948, 12d, 7/2/1 pt 1, Turangi and Taupo, 1988-1991
ABJZ 4948, 17b, 7/3/13, Trade trainees, 1988-1990
ABJZ 4948, 22a, 7/7/1 pt 1, COGS (Community Organisations Grant Scheme), 1988-1991
ABJZ 4948, 23c, 7/7/5 pt 1, Turangi Enterprise Agency & Youth Development, 1987-1991
ABJZ 4948, 28a, 8/3/5 pt 1, marae - Otukou, 1949-1991
ABJZ 4948, 30d, 5/5/3, Plateau Enterprises Ltd, 1987-1989
TE PUNI KOKIRI, WANGANUI REGIONAL OFFICE (ABRP) ALL FILES RESTRICTEDARBP 6844 4598/22, 7/0/12 pt 1, District sub-offices (correspondence with housing), 1945-1992
ABRP 6844 W4598/22, 7/0/33 pt 1, Housing Schedule, Taumarunui-Tokaanu, 1948-1984
ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 1, Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1948-1956
ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 2, Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1956-1961
ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 3, Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1960-1974
ABRP 6844 W4598/23, 7/0/59 pt 4, Raetihi - Ohakune Housing, 1974-1981
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 1, Housing sections - General, 1967-1971
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 2, Housing sections - General, 1971-1975
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 3, Housing sections - General, 1975-1980
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 4, Housing sections - General, 1980-1982
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 5, Housing sections - General, 1982-1983
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 6, Housing sections - General, 1983-1986
189
ABRP 6844 W4598/24, 7/0/66 pt 7, Housing sections - General, 1986-1992
ABRP 6844 W4598/26, 7/0/66/4 pt 1, Housing sections - Raetihi and Ohakune, 1956-1971
ABRP 6844 W4598/26, 7/0/66/4 pt 2, Housing sections - Raetihi and Ohakune, 1974-1984
ABRP 6844 W4598/26, 7/0/66/4 pt 3, Housing sections - Raetihi and Ohakune, 1984-1990
ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 1, Housing sections - Turangi, 1964-1968
ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 2, Housing sections - Turangi, 1968-1977
ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 3, Housing sections (Turangi), 1977-1987
ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/7 pt 4, Housing sections (Turangi), 1988-1990
ABRP 6844 W4598/28, 7/0/66/10 pt 1, Housing sections - National Park, 1965-1989
ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/66/15 pt 1, Maungaronga Marae (Housing cases - Ohakune),
1983-1990
ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/66/19 pt 1, Turangi Housing - General, Tuwharetoa, n/d
ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/67 pt 1, Annual Reports - Housing, 1967-1974
ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/67 pt 2, Annual Reports - Housing, 1974-1988
ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/72 pt 1, Survey of housing localities where bad conditions exist,
ABRP 6844 W4598/29, 7/0/72 pt 2, Survey of housing localities where bad conditions exist,
1963-1990
ABRP 6844 W4598/32, 7/0/89 pt 1, National Housing Survey, 1962-1971
ABRP 6844 W4598/32, 7/0/90 pt 1, Housing - Remote and rural areas, 1961-1983
ABRP 6844 W4598/33, 7/0/137 pt 1, Housing Survey-Raetihi/Ohakune/Taihape areas, 1985
ABRP 6844 W4598/34, 7/0/142/1 pt 1, Maungarongo Papakainga, Pauro Marino Trust
(Ohakune), 1990-1991
ABRP 6844 W4598, 179, 31/2/4/3/2 pt 1, Maori Welfare - community work - Maori associations
Otukou Maori Committee, 1951-1978
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, HEAD OFFICE (ADBZ)ABJZ 4948, 11c, 7/2/25, Temporary housing register, n/d
ABJZ 4948, 12e, 7/2/1,Turangi & Taupo Housing, 1988-1989
ABJZ 4948, 13c, 7/2/1/3, Housing reports, 1989-1991
DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION, BAY OF PLENTY CONSERVANCY (BAHT)BAHT 5118 box 6a 2/19/5 pt 1, Acclimatisation Societies - Waimarino Acclimatisation Society
Appointment of Rangers, 1969-1985
NEW ZEALAND FOREST SERVICE (F)F 1, 9/2/9, Pukawa and Ohuanga Blocks, 1920-1942
190
F1, 18/3/66, Weir and Kenny Limited, Native timber sale Waimana 2D Wellington Conservancy,
1943 – 1947
F1 18/3/87/9, Lake Timber Company Limited sale Maori Land Pukawa 2G2 Lot 9 Wellington
Conservancy, 1951-1954
F1 18/3/97, Hopkins, Spiers and Winger, Pukawa 2F, Wellington Conservancy, 1948-1957
F1 18/3/209/2, Incorporated owners. Valuation for Maori land Board. Mangahouhou 2B
Wellington Conservancy, 1948-1954
F1 18/3/209/5, Lake Timber Co. Mangahouhou 2B lots 5-5A Wellington Conservancy, 1952-1954
F 1, 18/3/232, Timber Appraisal Urewera Blks 2E, 1C1, 1C2 & 1C3 Maori Land,
Wellington Conservancy
F1, 18/3/232, Marton Sash and Door Timber Company Limited and Hopkins Spiers and Wanger
Limited, Mill number 64 National Park Wellington Conservancy (Question of black marketing),
1943-1952
F1, 19/3/53, Pokaka Timber Company Mill Number 53 Wellington Conservancy (policy of selling
State Forest cutting areas to large or small companies), 1943-1956
F1 19/3/65, Molt and Sons Urewera Block 2E, 1C1, 1C2, 1C3 Wellington Conservancy, 1952-1954
F1, 19/3/129, Dominion Timber Company Limited, Mill number 129 Wellington Conservancy-
contains lengthy review of sawmilling operations on Egmont Box concession area, 1943-1952
F1, W3129, 53, 6/3/42/2 pt 1, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Tongariro -Taurewa
number 4 Block, 1947-1948
F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/42/4 pt 2, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Tongariro Taurewa
East and West Blocks, 1920-1962
F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/66 pt 1, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Oio, 1921-1968
F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/85/1 pt 1, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy – Rangataua
Contracts for Post Splitting and Delivery, 1948-1958
191
F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/85 pt 2, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Rangataua,
1948-1974
F1, W3129, 54, 6/3/88 pt 1, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Kaitieke, 1923-1961
F1, W3129, 55, 6/3/97, pt 6, State Forest Areas - Wellington Conservancy - Erua, 1957-1969
F1W3129, 145, 18/3 pt 3 Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy –
general, 1957-1961
F1W3129, 145, 18/3 pt 4, Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy –
general, 1961-1972
F1W3129, 146, 18/3/83 pt 1, Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy –
Waimanu Sawmilling Company/Hopkin, Spiers and Winger - Waimanu 2F Block, Block VIII Puketi
SD 4 Blk 1, Pihinga SD, 1947-1964
F1W3129, 146, 18/3/83/0 pt 1, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land – Wellington
Conservancy - Forest Service Timber Appraisal - Waimanu 2F Blk - Blk VIII, Puketi SD and Blk I
Pihanga SD Copies of Maori Trustees versus Waimanu Sawmilling Company, 1960-1961
F1W3129, 146, 18/3/83/2 pt 1, Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy
- Waimanu Sawmilling Company - Waimanu 2F Block, Lot 2 - Block I Pihanga SD, 1951-1962
F1W3129, 146, 18/3/84 pt 2, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington Conservancy –
Hautu Blks - Blks IV, VIII, XII Pihanga SD & Blks I, II, V, IX, Waiotaka SD, 1955-1960
F1W3129, 146, 18/3/84 pt 3, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington Conservancy –
Hautu Blks - Blks IV, VIII, XII Pihanga SD & Blks I, II, V, IX, Waiotaka SD, 1960-1965
F1W3129, 146, 18/3/210 pt 1, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington Conservancy
- Henderson & Pollard - Mangahouhou 3A blk - blks IV, VIII Puketi SD, 1953-1961
F1W3129, 147, 18/3/234 pt 1, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington Conservancy
- Waimanu 2G3 Blk - Blks V, VI Waimanu SD & Blks III, IV Tongariro SD & Blks VIII, IX Puketi
SD & Blks I, II Pihanga SD, 1950-1963
192
F1 W3129, 147, 18/3/235 pt 1, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington Conservancy
- J N Bishara/Cherrie Sawmilling Company - Mangahouhou 3D blk - Blk VIII, Puketi SD,
1954-1961
F1, W3129, 147, 18/3/242 pt 1, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land – Wellington
Conservancy - Weir and Kenny Limited - Okahukura 6A2 Block - Blocks III, IV Tongariro Survey
District, 1960-1961
F1W3129, 147, 18/3/242 pt 2, Licences to cut on Native or Maori land - Wellington Conservancy
–Weir and Kenny Limited - Okahukura 6A2 Blk - Blks III, IV Tongariro SD, 1960-1961
F1W3129, 147, 18/3/243 pt 1, Licences to Cut on Native or Maori Land - Wellington Conservancy
- Mountain Timbers Limited - Waimanu 2G1 Blk - Blk VI, Puketi SD, 1960-1961
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/52, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Carter Merchants
(Ohakune) Limited/ Bennett and Punch Limited - Ohakune - Section 2, Block V, Karioi Survey
District, 1943-1970
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/63, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Truck Sawmilling
Company - Erua - Section 31, Block VII, Manganui Survey District, 1943-1960
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/56, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Kings Speirs and
Company - Raurimu - Section 31, Block XII, Katieke Survey District, 1943-1963
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/68, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Ketetahi Timber
Milling Company - Mangatepopo - Okahukura, Block VII, Tongariro Survey District, 1943-1962
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/78, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Retaruke Timber
Company/Hopkins Spier and Winger Martin Sash - Erua - Block VIII, Manganui Survey District,
1943-1967
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/154, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Mountain Timbers
Limited/ Wanganui Sash and Door - Erua - Block VIII, Manunui Survey District, 1943-1961
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/56, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Kings Speirs and
193
Company - Raurimu - Section 31, Block XII, Katieke Survey District, 1943-1963
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/164, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Raurimu Sawmilling
Company - Raurimu - Section 26, 27, Block XII, Katieke Survey District, 1943-1963
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/172, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Pokaka Timber
Company - Taurewa - Block II, Tongariro Survey District, 1943-1963
F1, W3129, 156, 19/3/187, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Weir and Kenny
Limited - Otukou - Section 2E, Block I, Pihanga Survey District, 1943-1965
F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/239, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Pokaka Timber
Company - National Park, 1949-1966
F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/421, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Waterson Brothers
and MacDonnell - National Park - Section 42, Block XIII, Tongariro Survey District, 1949-1967
F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/249, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Waimanu Sawmilling
Company/Hopkins, Speirs and Winger Limited - Otukou - Waimanu 2F, Block I, Pihanga Survey
District, 1950-1960
F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/244, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - J.M. Bishara/Cherrie
Sawmilling Company/Ruapehu Timber Company - Mangahouhou - Block IV, Puketi Survey
District, 1950-1961
F1, W3129, 157, 19/3/277, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - W. Crighton and Son
Limited/Renown Timber Company/Lloyd and McKenzie - Ohakune, 1952-1965
F1, W3129, 158, 19/3/328, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - E.H. Cole/E.W.J.
King/National Park Timber Company/Horopito Sawmilling Company - Horopito - Section 20, Block XVI,
Manganui Survey District, 1957-1970
F1, W3129, 158, 19/3/343, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Fletcher Timber
Company - Turangi, 1960-1972
F1, W3129, 158, 19/3/365, Sawmill Registration - Wellington Conservancy - Carter Merchants
194
(Ohakune) Limited - Ohakune - Section 5, Block VI, Karioi Survey District, 1967-1970
F1W3129, 165, 20/3/42/2, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - A J Hinds –
Tramway Licence - Blk VIII, Manganui SD - Tongariro SF, 1947-1949
F1W3129, 165, 20/3/42/4, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - G McDonnell
and Waterson Brothers - Roadway Licence - Blk XVI, Kaitieke SD - Blk XIII Tongariro SD –
Tongariro SF, 1948
F1, W3129, 165, 20/3/42/5, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - King Speirs
and Company - Roadway Licence - Block XII, Katieke Survey District - Block IX, Tongariro Survey
District - Tongariro State Forest, 1948-1954
F1W3129, 165, 20/3/97/2, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - C McDonnell –
Tramway Licence - Blk VIII, Eru SF - Manganui SD, 1930-1934
F1, W3129, 165, 20/3/97/4, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Marton Sash
and Door-Housing Site Lease - Block VIII Eura State Forest Manganui Survey District, 1947-1950
F1, W3129, 165, 20/3/97/5, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Marton Sash
and Door - Sawmill Site Lease - Tramway Licence, Block VIII Eura State Forest Manganui Survey
District, 1936-1960
F1W3129, 165, 20/3/100/1, Privileges in State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - G Syme and
Company - Sawmill Site Lease - Blk XII Karioi SD - Karioi SF, 1927
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/232, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy - King
Speirs and Company - Sawmill Area 232 - Block IX Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro Survey
District, 1958-1964
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/249, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy - K.R.
Kapoor Limited - Sawmill Area 349 - Block X - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro Survey District,
1966-1968
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/257, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy –
Pokaka Timber Company - Sawmill Area 257 - Block I - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro Survey
195
District, 1958-1964
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/314, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy –
Raurimu Sawmilling Company - Sawmill Area 314 - Block IX - Tongariro State Forest – Tongariro
Survey District, 1962-1966
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/329, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy - K.R.
Kapoor Limited - Sawmill Area 329 - Blocks VI, X - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro Survey
District, 1963-1965
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/339, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy –
Dominion Timber Company - Sawmill Area 339 - Blocks II, VI - Tongariro State Forest - Tongariro
Survey District, 1964-1966
F1, W3129, 178, 23/3/42/360, Timber Sales - Standing Timber - Wellington Conservancy –
Dominion Timber Company - Sawmill Area 360 - Block IV, Waimanu Survey District and Blocks II,
III - Tongariro State Forest, 1965-1969
F1W3129, 211, 30/3/100 pt 6, Forestry management - silvicultural management - period reports
- State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Karioi, 1953-1963
F1W3129, 211, 30/3/100/1, Forest Management - silvicultural Management - period reports –
State Forests - Wellington Conservancy - Karioi Nursery, 1931
F1W3129, 217, 31/3/97, Forestry Inventory - Wellington Conservancy - Erua, 1925-1959
F1W3129, 240, 36/3/85, Forestry operation and management - Wellington Conservancy –
Rangataua State Forest, 1952-1969
F1W3129, 280, 67/3/85, Departmental Logging Operations - Wellington Conservancy –
Rangataua State Forest, 1952-1958
F1W3129, 280, 67/3/100, Departmental Logging Operations - Wellington Conservancy - Karioi
State Forest, 1955-1978
196
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, HEAD OFFICE (H)H 1, 13/7/2 (8436), Maori Infant mortality, 1934-1937
H 1, 13/7/3 (3437), Maori Infant welfare, 1935-1936
H 1, 13/7/4 (13084), Maori maternal welfare, 1930-1938
H 1, 19 (B 5), Vaccination - general - public vaccinators, 1922-1937
H 1, 21/104 (11349), Maori girls as nurses, 1938-1941
H 1, 21/104 (23043), Maori girls as nurses, 1940-1949
H 1, 35 (B 8), Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1935-1940
H 1, 35 (20284), Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1941-1948
H 1, 35 (22479), Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1942-1949
H 1, 35, Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1960-1963
H 1, 35 (33612), Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1963-1967
H 1, 35 (39436), Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1971-1972
H 1, 35/1 (11566), Medical Inspections of schools Child Hygiene - general, 1935-1942
H 1, 35/1/4 (8797), Secondary schools, 1919-1939
H 1,, 35/1/11 (B 8), Native schools, 1935-1940
H 1,, 35/1/11 (17773), Native schools, 1941-1946
H 1, 35/78 (8911), Enquiry into conditions of rural school children, 1926-1930
H 1, 36 (13303), Sanitation in Maori settlements - general, 1919-1930
H 1, 36 (37923), Sanitation in Maori settlements - general, 1937-1950 (note in series binder says
this file is missing)
H 1, 36/74 (37930), Tongrio (tuwhere toa) [sic] [Title on front of the file reads ‘Sanitation of
Maori Settlements - Tongariro (Tuwharetoa) District’], 1937-1940
H 1, 44/1/32, Native Schools: Cleanliness, Health, Sanitation, Epidemics, 1903-1964
H 1, 74/1/5 (11189), Wanganui Hospital Board reports, 1921-1940
H 1, 74/3 (B 42), Taihape Hospital, 1919-1935
H 1, 74/3/1 (19386), Taihape Hospital - buildings, 1940-1945
H 1, 74/4 (19384), Raetihi Hospital, 1927-1943
H 1, 74/4 (B 42), Raetihi Hospital, 1911-1933
H 1, 92/42 (45534), Wanganui HB - Taihape Hospital - general, 1939
H 1, 92/42 (45535), Wanganui HB - Taihape Hospital - inspection reports, 1921-1968
H 1, 121/19 (B 75), Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1919-1928
H 1, 121/19 (B 75), Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1928-1935
H 1, 121/19 (B 131), Maori Health Councils - Tongariro, 1935-1938
H 1, 130/18 (24375), TB in Maoris - general, 1940-1951 (series binder says this file is missing)
H 1, 130/18/1 (20099), TB in Maoris - hospital accommodation, 1941-1947
197
H 1, 130/18/1 (24374), TB in Maoris - hospital accommodation, 1942-1948
H 1, 131/124 (9388), Statistics of disease among Maoris, 1929-1934
H 1, 131/3/136 (9151), TB Maoris, 1930-1939
H 1, 160 (12038), Native medical services - general, 1927-1939
H 1, 160/6 (13457), Native medical aid - Taupo, 1911-1936
H 1, 160/75 (B 107), Native medical men - general policy, 1927-1939
H 1, 160/75 (17676), Native medical men - general policy, 1938-1941
H 1, 160/75/1 (17677), Native medical men - general, 1936-1939
H 1, 162 (11667), Native schools - general, 1921-1940
H 1, 162 (17964), Native schools - general, 1940-1946
H 1, 169/22/24 (35829), Annual reports of division of school hygiene, 1948-1962
H 1, 169/24/18, Maori Hygiene - 21 July - 14 November, 1952
H 1, 172/21/52, Miscellaneous - Annual report - Maori Hygiene, 1921-1927
H 1, 177/19/2 (13817), Sanitation - complaint re Tokaanu, 1927-1928
H 1, 194, Maori Hygiene - General, 1928-1936
H 1, 194/1, Maori Hygiene - General 1928-1936
H 1, 194/1 (11560), Maori Hygiene - General 1936-1939
H 1, 194/1A, Maori Hygiene - Maori health - newspaper cuttings, 1938
H 1, 194/1/3, Maori Hygiene - Native health, 1920-1937
H 1, 194/1/17 (13934), Maori Hygiene - Native health - Taupo, 1921-1935
H 1, 194/1/19, Maori Hygiene - Native health - Wanganui, 1921-1933
H 1, 194/1/19 (B 125), Maori Hygiene - Native health - Wanganui, 1925-1928
H 1, 194/1/25 (13962), Maori Hygiene - Native health - Wanganui, 1931
H 1, 194/1/3, Maori Hygiene - Native health, 1920-1937
H 1, 194/2, Maori Hygiene - monthly reports, 1925-1927
H 1 194/2/3, Maori Hygiene - Native health - Inspector TRT Hooper, 1927-1931
H 1, 194/2/23, Maori Hygiene - Native health - Tokaanu, 1930-1931
H 1, 194/4 (11685), Employment of Maoris in market gardens, 1929-1939
H 1, 194/8, Maori Hygiene - Conference on Maori Health, 1933-1936
H 1, 194/8, Maori Hygiene - Conference on Native Health, 1936-1964
H 1, 194/8/1, Maori Hygiene - Conference on Maori Health, 1939, 1938-1941
H 1, 194/9, Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control)
meetings, 1934-1940
H 1, 194/9, Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control)
meetings, 1940-1961
H 1, 194/10, Maori Hygiene - Native health-Indigent Maoris - Relief by Native
198
Department, 1934-1935
H 1, 194/11, Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori Purposes Board (Fund Control)
meetings, 1935-1938
H 1, 194/17, Maori Hygiene - Maori welfare - old age pension for Maoris - question of payment in
cash or goods, 1936-1937
H 1, 194/18 (8839), Maori Welfare - housing, 1935-41
H 1, 194/25, Maori Hygiene - Privies, 1938-1941
H 1, 194/25, Maori Hygiene - Privies, 1941-1953
H 1, 194/25, Maori Hygiene - 18 December 1941 - 14 May 1953, 1941-1953
H 1, 194/26 (B 126), Maori Hygiene - Maori health - water supplies, 1938-1941
H 1, 194/26 (14428), Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori health - water supply, 1941-1942
H 1, 194/26 (17924), Maori Hygiene - Native health - Maori health – water supply, 1944-1946
H 1, 194/27 (16944), Hutments for TB Maoris, 1941-1945
H 1, 194/27 (35351), Hutments for TB Maoris, 1944-1956
H 1, 194/27 (B 126), Hutments for TB Maoris, 1936-1941
H 1, 1936 194/1, Maori health - Maori Hygiene, Maori health - General, 1939-1965
H 3/1, Commission of inquiry into influenza epidemic, 1919 - transcripts of evidence (including
some submissions) Gazette notice appointing Commission, Interim report and final report, 1919
H 4/2, Map of the North and South Islands showing hospital board districts - 10 miles to 1",
1920s
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS (IA)IA1 46/16/17 pt 1, Wildlife - Shooting Season - Game - Waimarino Acclimatisation
Society, 1937-1954
IA1 49/2/3, Wildlife - Opossums - Season – Waimarino Acclimatisation Society, n/d
IA1 79/69 pt 1, Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Roto-aira - Control of etc., n/d
IA1, 79/69 pt 2, Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Roto-aira - Control of etc., n/d
IA1, 79/69 pt 3, Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Roto-aira - Control of etc., n/d
IA1, W2578, 79/72, Fisheries - Taupo - Lake Rotopounama [sic], 1929-1938
MARINE DEPARTMENT (M)M1 1/7/56, Fishing regulations: Waimarino Acclimatisation Society complaint of
management, 1923
DEPARTMENT OF MAORI AFFAIRS (MA)MA 21/1, papers relating to the supply of tanks to Maori houses (special file 217), 1898-1905
MA 21/2, papers relating to the supply of water to pahs and of tanks (special file 218) & file re
199
seed potatoes, 1900-1909
MA 21/3, seed potatoes and vegetables (special file 199), 1906-1907
MA 21/4 2, files regarding seed potatoes and vegetables (special file 200) 1906-1908
MA 21/5, potato blight leaflet - Distribution of leaflet to Maoris (special file 203), 1905 -1906
MA 21/6, potatoes and seeds - general correspondence - 2 files no special file
number, 1906-1907
MA 21/7, seed potatoes - refunds (special file 210), 1906-1907
MA 21/8, kumaras from Amercia (special file 211), 1906-1907
MA 21/9, potatoes - arrangements for spraying (special file 209), 1906
MA 21/10, potatoes - reports from school inspectors (special file 207), 1905-1906
MA 21/11, potatoes - applications (special file 207), 1906
MA 21/12, potatoes - applications (special file 212), 1906
MA 21/17, seed potatoes - districts where the need is not great (special file 202), 1906
MA 21/20, medical - general (special file 154), 1906-1919
MA 21/21, medical drugs (special file 155), 1907-1911
MA 23/14, report on Maori Councils, 1906 -1907
MA 31/23, Lake Taupo fishery and Maori fishing rights (special file 137), 1924-1929
MA 31/42, Dr Buck, miscellaneous correspondence and notes, 1909-1925
MA 31/35, file on Maori employment in Chinese market gardens, n/d
MA 1/168, 6/0/14 pt 2, medical attendance for Natives, 1933-1942
MA 1/316, 18/1/4 pt 2, contribution to Health Department for Civil List - Native Purposes – for
Maori medical services, 1933-1939
MA 1/316, 18/1/4 pt 3, Ccontribution to Health Department for Civil List - Native Purposes - for
Maori medical services, 1949
MA 1, 341, 19/1/11, Tongariro Power Development - Head Office Policy File, 1964-1966
MA 1/343, 19/1/27, reports on Tohungaism, 1932-1977
MA 1/465, 21/4/73, Turangi Native School, 1944
MA 1/465, 21/4/74, Moawhanga [sic] Native School, 1946
MA 1/521, 26/6/9 pt 1, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Medical Services, 1933-1937
MA 1/522, 26/6/9 pt 2, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Medical Services, 1938-1945
MA 1/522, 26/6/10 pt 1, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Loans to Natives, 1933-1938
MA 1/522, 26/6/10 pt 2, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Loans to Maoris, 1938-1953
MA 1/525, 26/6/16, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Store accounts and Indigent Natives, 1934-1940
MA 1/526, 26/6/19, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Tongariro Maori Council, 1935-1943
MA 1/526, 26/6/20, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Dental Clinic and Services, 1936-1939
MA 1/526, 26/6/23, Tuwharetoa Trust Board - Public Convenience, water supply and
200
roading, 1937-1957
MA 1/632, 30/15/33, Housing survey follow up - Taupo (Wanganui) County, 1965-1966
MA 1/660, 36/4/A pt 1, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement
Act, 1947-1956
MA 1/660, 36/4/A pt 2, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement
Act, 1950-1951
MA 1/660, 36/4/A pt 3, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement
Act, 1952-1954
MA 1/661, 36/4/4A pt 5, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act, 1955
MA 1/661, 36/4/4A pt 6, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement
Act, 1955-1956
MA 1/661, 36/4/4A pt 7, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and EconomicAdvancement
Act, 1956-1957
MA 1/662, 36/4A pt 8, Wardens - Maori, general - Social and Economic Advancement Act, 1957
MA 1/648, 36/1 pt 1, Welfare - general, 1935-1944
MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 3, Welfare - general, 1947-1950
MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 4, Welfare - general, 1950-1952
MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 5, Welfare - general, 1953-1954
MA 1/649, 36/1 pt 6, Welfare - general, 1954-1956
MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 7, Welfare - general, 1956-1958
MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 8, Welfare - general, 1959-1960
MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 9, Welfare - general, 1960-1961
MA 1/650, 36/1 pt 10, Welfare - general, 1962-1963
MA 1/651, 36/1 pt 11, Welfare - general, 1964-1968
MA 1/651, 36/1 pt 12, Welfare - general, 1968-1972
MA 1/652, 36/1 pt 13, Welfare - general, 1972-1975
MA 1/662, 36/14 pt 1, Drinking, 1936-1947
MA 1/662, 36/14 pt 2, Drinking, 1948-1951
MA 1/663, 36/14, pt 3, Drinking, 1950-1952
MA 1/663, 36/14, pt 4, Drinking, 1952-1955
MA 1/663, 36/14, pt 5, Drinking, 1955
MA 1/664, 36/14, pt 6, Drinking among Maori, 1955
MA 1/664, 36/14, pt 7, Drinking, 1956-1957
MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 8, Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1959-1961
MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 9, Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1961-1962
MA 1/689, 44/2 pt 10, Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1962-1964
201
MA 1/690, 44/2 pt 11, Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1964-1966
MA 1/690, 44/2 pt 12, Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1966-1968
MA 1/690, 44/2 pt 13, Progress with Housing Programme - general, 1968-1972
MA 1/691, 44/16/1 pt 1, Native housing - quarterly return for government statistician, 1933-1943
MA 1/691, 44/16/1 pt 2, Housing organisation - quarterly return for government statistician
- housing organisation, 1944-1951
MA 1/781, 57/2/16, Pre-school centre, Ohakune, 1963
MA W 1369 5a box 23, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1920
MA W 1369 5b box 24, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1908-1916
MA W 1369 21a box 24, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1914
MA W 1369 21b box 24, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902
MA W 1369 21c box 25, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1903-1919
MA W 1369 21d box 25, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1910-1912
MA W 1369 21e box 25, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1912
MA W 1369 21f box 25, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1912
MA W 1369 22a box 25, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1919
MA W 1369 22b box 26, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1904-1919
MA W 1369 23a box 26, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1902-1912
MA W 1369 23b box 26, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1903-1912
MA W 1369 23c box 26, Superintendent of Maori Councils, 1904-1920
MA W 1369, 26/3/1 pt 1 box 14, Maori councils - districts defined, 1900-1940
MA W 1369, 26/3/1 pt 2 box 14, Maori councils - districts defined, 1940
MA W 1369, 26/3 pt 1 box 13, Maori councils - general, 1920-1943
MA W 1369, 26/3 pt 3 box 14, Maori councils - general, 1945-1954
MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 1 box 15, Members of Maori councils - appointments and
gazetting, 1920-1924
MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 2 box 16, Members of Maori councils - appointments and
gazetting, 1924-1928
MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 3 box 16, Members of Maori councils - appointments and
gazetting, 1928-1930
MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 4 box 17, Members of Maori councils - appointments and
gazetting, 1931-1935
MA W 1369, 26/3/2 pt 5 box 17, Members of Maori councils - appointments and
gazetting, 1936
MA W 1369, 26/3/22 box 20, Tongariro Maori Council bylaws, 1924-1938
MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 1 box 178, Lake Rotoaira, 1927-1947
202
MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 2 box 178, Lake Rotoaira, 1948-1957
MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 3 box 178, Lake Rotoaira, 1957-1960
MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 4 box 178, Lake Rotoaira, 1961-1972
MA W 2459, 19/1/344 pt 5 box 178, Lake Rotoaira, 1972-1975
MA W 2459, 249, 30/1 pt 2, Maori Housing - general, 1942-1947
MA W 2459, 249, 30/1 pt 3, Housing organisation - general, 1947-1951
MA W 2459, 249, 30/1 pt 4, Housing organisation - general, 1951-1960
MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 5, Housing policy - general, 1956-1959
MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 6, Housing policy - general, 1960-1961
MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 7, Housing policy - general, 1961-1963
MA W 2459, 250, 30/1 pt 8, Housing policy - general, 1963-1967
MA W 2459, 251, 30/1 pt 9, Housing policy and general, 1968-1973
MA W 2459, 251, 30/1 pt 10, Housing - general, 1973-1975
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 4, Housing loan policy, 1947-1950
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 5, Housing loan policy, 1951-1953
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 6, Housing loan policy, 1954-1956
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 7, Housing loan policy, 1956-1958
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 8, Housing loan policy, 1958-1960
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 9, Housing loan policy, 1960-1963
MA W 2459, 253, 30/1/3 pt 10, Housing policy, 1963-1964
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 11, Housing policy, 1964-1966
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 12, Housing policy, 1967-1970
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 13, Housing policy, 1970-1974
MA W 2459, 252, 30/1/3 pt 14, Housing policy, 1974-1977
MA W 2459, 261, 30/1/42 pt 1, Housing loans - lending policy in remote areas, 1954-1968
MA W 2459, 269, 30/3/187, Turangi Housing Survey, 1958
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 2 box 74, Health & Hygiene, 1958-1960
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 3 box 74, Health & Hygiene, 1960-1962
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 4 box 75, Health & Hygiene, 1963-1967
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 5 box 75, Health & Hygiene, 1968-1971
MA W 2490, 36/2 pt 6 box 75, Health & Hygiene, 1972-1975
MA W 2490, 36/3 pt 1 box 74, Health & Hygiene, 1932-1956
MA W 2490, 36/3/1 box 76, Maori Health Inspectors, 1928-1933
MA W 2490, 36/3/5 pt 1 box 79, ante-natal: post-natal care, 1930-1959
MA W 2490, 36/3/6 box 79, Typhoid fever, 1932-1950
MA W 2490, 36/3/7 box 79, Dental treatment, 1939-1952
203
MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 2, box 107, Tuberculosis, 1947-1952
MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 3, box 107, Tuberculosis, 1952-1954
MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 4, box 107, Tuberculosis, 1955-1958
MA W 2490, 36/12, pt 5, box 108, Tuberculosis, 1958-1961
MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 1 box 81, Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1949-1953
MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 2 box 81, Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1954-1957
MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 3 box 81, Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1958-1966
MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 4 box 82, Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1966-1970
MA W 2490, 36/4 pt 5 box 82, Wardens, Policy and Appointment: Maori Social and Economic
Advancement Act, 1970-1971
MA W 2490, 36/24 pt 2 box 130, Women's Health League, general, 1949-1967
MA W 2490, 36/24 pt 2 box 131, Women's Health League, general, 1968-1976
MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 1 box 131, Women's Health League, general, 1950-1956
MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 2 box 131, Women's Health League, general, 1956-1959
MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 3 box 131, Women's Health League, general, 1959-1962
MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 4 box 132, Women's Health League, general, 1962-1970
MA W 2490, 36/26 pt 5 box 132, Women's Health League, general, 1971-1975
MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 1 box 143, Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1949-1954
MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 1 box 143, Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1954-1957
MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 1 box 145, Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1957-1959
MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 4 box 144, Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1959-1961
MA W 2490, 36/29/6 pt 4 box 145, Welfare Officers Report: Aotea, 1960-1961
MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 1 box 88, Wardens M.S.E.A Rotorua, 1960-1961
MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 2 box 88, Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1962-1963
MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 3 box 89, Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1963-1964
MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 4 box 89, Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1964-1966
MA W 2490, 36/4/4 pt 5 box 89, Wardens Maori Welfare Rotorua, 1966-1969
MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 10 box 83, Wardens General, 1958
MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 11 box 83, Wardens General, 1958
MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 12 box 83, Wardens General, 1958-1959
MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 13 box 83, Wardens General, 1959
204
MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 14 box 83, Wardens General, 1959-1960
MA W 2490, 36/4A pt 9 box 82, Wardens General, 1957-1958
MA W 2490, 42/4/6 box 187, Taupo Community Welfare Group, 1962-1968
NATIVE LAND PURCHASE DEPARTMENT (MA-MLP)MA-MLP 1, 1913/10, Notes re Ketetahi Springs c. 17 February 1930, 1930
TOURIST AND PUBLICITY DEPARTMENT (TO)TO 1, 20/70, Tokaanu-Turangi, 1901-1935
TO 1/36, 1902/100, Pipiriki, Waiouru, Tokaanu road, 1902-1910
TO 1/47, 1903/119, Tokaanu-Kakahi Road, 1903-1906
TO 1, 55/1, Tokaanu - General, 1944-1948
TO 1, 55/2/1 pt 1, Fishing Lodges and camps, 1938-1959
TO 1, 55/6 (pt1?), Bar Trade etc, 1944-1951 & 1952-1954
TO 1, 55/6 (pt2?), Bar Trade etc, 1955-1960
TO 1, 55/14/1, Sale of Picture Hall, 1953-1955
TO 1, 55/18 (pt 1?), Hotel licence and health report, 1943-1950
TO 1, 55/18 pt 2, Hotel licence and health report, 1951-1956
TO 1, 55/25, Petrol Pump, 1945-1953
TO 1, 55/25/1, Fish store and smoke house, 1910-1950
TO 1, 55/32, Purchase by Government, 1943-1948
TO 1, 55/33, New hotel, 1942-1950
TO 1, 55/29/1(pt 1?), F W Edkins - sublease, 1944-1949
TO 1, 55/29/1(pt 2?), F W Edkins - sublease, 1950-1959
TO 1/57, 1905/119, Pipiriki-Raetihi road bush, 1905-1906
TO 1/80, 1908/513, Tokaanu-Waihi Road, 1908
TO 1, 55/14 (pts 1 & 2?), Picture Hall, 1944-1950 & 1950-1953
TO 1, Acc 2954, 11/1 pt 4, Fishing regulations and licences and licencing guides, 1956-1978
TO 1, Acc 2954, 11/1 pt 13, Fishing, trout, salmon, river and lake rates, 1974-1979
TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 16, 11/4, vol 11, Fishing - trout - salmon - rivers and lakes, 1970-1972
TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 16, 11/4, vol 12, Fishing - Licences, 1962-1974
TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 22, 20/27, vol 2, Tokaanu - Turangi, 1911-1969
TO 1, Acc 1664 bundle 48, 63/13/1, vol 2, Tokaanu Hotel, 1964-1973
TO 3, 15/20/1 box 8, Fishing and hunting, 1951-1955
205
Archives New Zealand, Auckland
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, NORTHERN REGIONAL OFFICE (BAAA)BAAA 1001, a, 44/6 989, Maori Schools - general correspondence and inspector's reports –
Otukou, 1930-1937
BAAA 1001, 16d, 44/1/44, Maori Schools - attendance returns - Otukou, 1926-1946
BAAA 1001, 102a, 44/1/31, Maori Schools - policy - dental treatment for Maori
children, 1929-1945
BAAA 1001, 102c, 44/1/31pt 2, Maori Schools - dental services, 1949-1965
BAAA 1001, 103a, 44/1/32 pt 1, Maori Schools - policy - epidemics among & cleanliness of Maori
- reports on health of Maori, 1913-1937
BAAA 1001, 103b, 44/1/32 pt 2, Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1920
BAAA 1001, 103c, 44/1/32 pt 3, Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1919
BAAA 1001, 104a, 44/1/32 pt 4, Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1938-1941
BAAA 1001, 104b, 44/1/32 pt 5, Maori schools - policy - closure of Native schools owing to
influenza epidemic, 1903-1921
BAAA 1001, 105a, 44/1/32 pt 6, Maori Schools - Health and cleanliness (polio vaccine, TB tests,
scabies, typhoid etc) Health education and school lunches, 1937-1963
BAAA 1001, 105c, 44/1/32 pt 7, Maori Schools - Health and cleanliness (polio vaccine, TB tests,
scabies, typhoid etc) Health education and school lunches, 1963-1966
BAAA 1001, 121b, 44/1/35 pt 1, Maori Schools - policy - Maori Welfare - general
correspondence, 1957-1970
BAAA 1001, 127c, 44/1/38 pt 1, Maori Schools - policy - Maori Schools officer – misc
correspondence, 1959-1969
BAAA 1001, 424a, 44/4 pt 2, Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou 1947-1952
BAAA 1001, 424b, 44/4, Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou 1919-1933
BAAA 1001, 424c, 44/4 pt 1, Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou 1933-1947
BAAA 1001, 425b, 44/4 pt 3, Maori Schools - buildings and site files - Otukou, 1952-1960
BAAA 1001, 425c, 44/4 pt 4, Maori Schools - buildings and site files – Otukou 1961-1967
BAAA 1001, 809b, 44/5 pt 1, Maori Schools - equipment & supplies - Otukou, 1934-1956
BAAA 1001, 880a, 44/8 pt 3, Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport
- Otukou, 1937-1945
BAAA 1001, 880b, 44/8 pt 4, Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport
206
- Otukou, 1946-1951
BAAA 1001, 878a, 48/8 pt 1, Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport
- Otukou, 1930-1937
BAAA 1001, 879a, 48/8 pt 2, Maori Schools - conveyance & board, school transport
- Otukou, 1936-1938
BAAA 1001, 1093c, 44/1/43 pt 3, Maori schools - policy - conference and investigation re
secondary education of the Maori, 1930-1942
BAAA 1003, 1h, Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1898-1901
BAAA 1003, 1I, Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1901-1903
BAAA 1003, 1j, Maori schools - log book - Karioi, 1903-1904
BAAA 1004, 4a, Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals
- Moawhango, 1916-1951
BAAA 1004, 4b, Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals
- Moawhango, 1897-1921
BAAA 1004, 12j, Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals
- Tokaanu, 1895-1914
BAAA 1004, 12k, Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals
- Tokaanu, 1935-1944
BAAA 1004, 13a, Maori schools - register of admissions, progress and withdrawals
- Tokaanu, 1914-1935
BAAA 1016, 4a, 37/11/9, Workshops and technical education - Tokaanu, 1909-1947
BAAA 1016, 11d, 37/8/9, Gardens - Karioi, 1906-1919
BAAA 1016, 12c, 37/8/87, Gardens - Tokaanu, 1906-1917
DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, COMPANIES OFFICE, AUCKLAND (BADZ)BADZ 5181, 585, 3593, Otukou Timber Company Limited, 1929-1941
DEPARTMENT OF MAORI AFFAIRS, ROTORUA DISTRICT OFFICE (BAJJ)BAJJ 4945 1465a, Welfare - Health matters 1949-1960
BAJJ 4945, 1471f, 31/20/5 pt 1, Tuwharetoa No. 1 Tribal Executive, 1947-55
BAJJ 4945, 1471g, 31/20/5 pt 2, Tuwharetoa No. 1 Tribal Executive, 1947-55
BAJJ 4945, 1471m, 31/20/15 pt 1, Tuwharetoa Tribal Executive, 1949-1955
BAAJ 4945, 1471n, 31/20/15 pt 2, Tuwharetoa No. 2 Tribal Executive, 1949-1954
WAIKATO AREA HEALTH BOARD, HEALTH DEVELOPMENT UNIT (YCBE)YCBE 1990 70d, Maori Hygiene Maori Buildings and Sanitation General, 1936-1939
YCBE 1990 77b, Maori Hygiene - proposed Maori survey, 1954-1959
207
YCBE 1990 77d, Maori Hygiene - Maori Councils, 1936-1966
YCBE 1990 79b, Maori and Polynesian Health - general, 1968-1972
YCBE 1990 82b, Child Hygiene - Maori schools, 1937-1966
Department of Conservation, Wellington
PALR box 1780, Submission of Rakato Te Rangiita, Ngati Tuwharetoa, n/d
PALR, box 1779, Proposed National Parks, Marine and Protected Areas Bill, 2 December 1988
PALR box 1780, Submission of Rakato Te Rangiita, Ngati Tuwharetoa n/d
Alexander Turnbull Library, Manuscripts Collection
MSY-4600, Journals/Dudley Alexander [aide-de-camp to Governor General Lord Ranfurly], journal
of a March 1901 tour on the Governor’s train through the Central North Island to Lake Taupo.
MS-Papers-1396-082, [Maori Women’s Welfare League] Papa Kai, Manunui, Kauriki Isolated
Branches, Koata District Council, Tangarakau-Whangamomona, Ohura Branch and Turangi
Pihanga Branch reports, 1958-1967
MS-Papers-1396-083, [Maori Women’s Welfare League] Turangi-Pihanga Branch, Owhango
Isolated Branch and Taumarunui District Council reports, 1959-1965
MS-Papers-1396-084, [Maori Women’s Welfare League] Moawhango, Nihoniho, Taihape, Picton
Isolated Branches and Nelson Branch reports, 1952-1968
Maps
Alexander Turnbull Library, Map Collection
932/1 WN-10, Lithograph of the Pihanga Survey District, 1924
832.16gmbd/1945/Acc.7354, Taupo and Turangi road district planning map, scale - 1:506, 880
832.17cbh 1891 2724, The Tongariro district shewing the volcanoes (n/d)
832.17ee/1946/Acc. 39815, Forestry Tracks in Tongariro timber areas and Maori historical places,
Lake Taupo
832.17gbbd/1933/Acc. 40290-99, Tracing showing that part of the Rohe Potae of Taupo-Nui-A-
Tia awarded by the court to Ngati Tuwharetoa and that claimed by Ngati Maniapoto [shows
placenames etc round Rotoaiara, Taupo & Ruapheu]
832.18bje 1903 23,671, Plan of West Taupo County
208
832.17 gme/[1900]/Acc.37117, Sketch map of the survey for the purposed route of a railway
from Waimarino to Waikune
Alexander Turnbull Library, Manuscripts Collection
MS-Papers-0261-10/11B, [Maps and diagrams showing Maori sites and placenames (including
Taupo, Rotorua and Tokaanu]
Land Information New Zealand (LINZ)
ML 2177 (1895), ‘Plan of Subdivision of Okahukura Block. Tongariro Survey District, Mount Eden
South Meridional Circuit, Provincial District of Wellington, boundaries pointed out by Te Keepa
Puataota, June 1895’
ML 2178 (1883), ‘Plan of Okahukura Blocks survey districts of Tongariro, Ruapehu and Pihanga –
Counties of Whanganui and Taupo West - Provincial District of Wellington - Applied for by Te
Heuheu Tukino, Matuaha Te Wharerangi and Ora - Boundaries pointed out by Patena
Hokopatake and Te Keepa. 40 chains to an inch, June 1883’
SO 14534 (1900), ‘Topographical Plan of Pihanga Survey District, March 1900’
Photographs
Alexander Turnbull Library, Pictorial Collection
PA1-q-913, [a photograph album containing a group of images of Maori at Otukou and the
meeting house called Okahukura. Images of Otukou village & hot springs, also Ketetahi Springs
and cookhouse/shelter (1913)]
F3004 ½, Taupo County, Tokaanu 'Tokaanu with thermal area in foreground (telephoto shot),
July 1952, National Publicity Studios
F33013 ½, Taupo County, Turangi, 1962 'Aerial view of Bridge Lodge - Turangi Jan 1962,
National Publicity studio
Newspapers
Bain, Helen, ‘Talk of the Town’, The Dominion, 8 January 2002, p 10.
Houston, John, ‘Current Maori Problems - Progressive Tokaanu Health Unit - Report of Director-
General of Health, 1938 - Question of Landless Maori’
K [Kennedy], ‘A Visit to Lake Rotoaira, printed at the Daily Telegraph Office, Napier, 1885
209
Kitchin, Philip, ‘Power to the People', The Dominion, 23 March 2001, p 9
Reid, Graham, ‘A River flows through it; Turangi: The town that could have been', the New
Zealand Herald, 10 April 1999, J:1-2
Schwimmer, Erik, ‘In the Shadow of Ruapehu’, Te Ao Hou, No. 14, April 1956, pp 28 -31
‘Industry in the Country’, Te Ao Hou, No. 17, December 1956, p 31
Official Publications
Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives (AJHR)
AJHR 1895, G-1, ‘Pakeha and Maori: A narrative of the Premier’s Trip through the Native Districts
of the North Island’
AJHR 1890, G-5, ‘Leprosy Among the Maoris at Taupo and Rotorua (report by Dr Ginders on)
AJHR 1906, G-4, ‘Return on Medical Attendance on Maori, for year ending 31 March 1906’
AJHR, E-2, Annual Reports of the Native Schools Department
AJHR, H-13, Annual sheep return published (1888-1910)
AJHR, H-26, Maori Census of Population and Dwellings (1886 – 1911)
Electoral Rolls
1908 Maori Voters Roll, Western Mori
1919 Maori Voters Roll, Western Maori
1949-1951 Electoral Roll, Western Maori
1954 Electoral Roll, Western Maori
New Zealand Official Year Book
‘Up the Wanganui River to Tokaanu’, New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1900, pp 509-519
Commissions of Inquiry
AJHR 1907, G - 1A, 1B & 1C, The Stout Ngata Commission report, ‘Native Lands in the
Whanganui District (Interim report on)’
AJHR 1919, H-31A, John E Denniston, ‘Influenza Epidemic Commission Report, 1919’
AJHR 1929 G – 11, T J Hughes, ‘Report of the Committee on employment of Maoris on Market
Gardens, 1929’
Hunn, J K, Report on the Department of Maori Affairs, Government Printer, Wellington, 1960
210
6.2. SECONDARY SOURCES
Books
Allen, Elizabeth C, In the Hills of the Waimarino: The Human Story of the Development of the
District, Wanganui Newspapers Ltd, Wanganui, n/d
Allsop, F, First Fifty years of New Zealand's Forest Service: A History from the Time of its Setting
up in 1919 to the Celebration of its Fiftieth Anniversary in 1969, A R Shearer, Government
Printer, Wellington, 1973
Barrington J M; Beaglehole, T H, Maori Schools in a Changing Society: An Historical Overview,
New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, 1974
Batley, R A L, Moawhango Valley and School: A Short History of the Inland Patea, published to
commemorate the diamond jubilee of the Moawhango Maori School, 1897 - 1957, Moawhango
School Jubilee Committee, /Taihape Times, Taihape, 1958
Cooke, Ron, Kakahi Memories: To commemorate the Kakahi School 85th Jubilee, Easter 1994, C
& S Publications, Taumarunui, 1994
Cooper, Allan, Pools of the Tongariro: Some History and Humour, Turangi District Historical
Society, Turangi, 1975
Cooper, Barbara, The Head of the Lake=Te Mata o Tauponui a tia: A History, Turangi District
Historical Society, Turangi, 1981
Cooper, Barbara, The Remotest Interior: A History of Taupo, Moana Press, Tauranga, c. 1989
Dow, Derek, Maori Health and Government Policy, 1840 - 1940, Victoria University Press in
association with the Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1999
Gardiner, Deirdre, He Ohaki na nga matua tupuna ko Okahukura: The Story of a Tuwharetoa
Wharepuni, Otukou Marae Committee, Turangi, 1993
Grace, John Te H,Tuwharetoa: A History of the Maori People of the Taupo Area, Reed, Auckland,
reprint 2005 (first published 1959)
211
Hill, Kate, Raurimu Frontier Town 1900-1925: A Social Archaeological Perspective, Department
of Anthropology, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1999
Hill, Richard S, State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy: Crown-Maori Relations in New
Zealand/Aotearoa, 1900 - 1950, Victoria University Press, Wellington, 2004
Kakahi School Jubilee Committee, Kakahi School: Jubilee Magazine, Harland & Bourke,
Taumaranui, 1959
Kirkland, Andrew, A century of State-honed Enterprise: 100 Years of State Plantation Forestry in
New Zealand, Profile Books, Auckland, 1997
Lange, Raeburn, May the People Live: A History of Maori Health Development, 1900 - 1920,
Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1999
Leslie, G H, New Zealand School Dental service, 1921 - 1971, Department of Health, Wellington,
1971
Mako, C N, A Directory of the Location of Statistics on the New Zealand Maori Population from
Official Sources, Ministry of Maori Affairs, Wellington, 1991
Martin, John E (ed), People, Politics and Power Stations: Electric Power Generation in New
Zealand, 1880 - 1998, Electricity Corporation of New Zealand and Historical Branch, Department
of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1991
McLintock, A H (ed), Encyclopedia of New Zealand, R E Owen, Government Printer, Wellington,
1966 (3 vols)
McClure, Margaret (ed), A Civilized Community: A History of Social Security in New Zealand,
Auckland University Press in association with the Historical Branch, Department of Internal
Affairs, Auckland, 1998
McClure, Margaret, The Wonder Country: Making New Zealand Tourism, Auckland University
Press, Auckland, 2004
McDowall, R M, New Zealand Freshwater Fishes, a Guide and Natural History, Heinemann
212
Educational, Auckland, 1978
McIntyre, Peter, Kakahi New Zealand, AH & AW Reed, Wellington, 1972
Pool, Ian, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Projected, Auckland
University Press, Auckland, 1991
Pomare, Eru W; de Boer, Gail, Hauora: Maori Standards of Health, Medical Research Council of
New Zealand, Wellington, 1988
Rice, Geoffrey, Black November: the 1918 Influenza Epidemic in New Zealand (1st ed), Allen &
Unwin NZ Ltd in association with the Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs,
Wellington, 1988
___________, Black November: the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand, Canterbury
University Press, Christchurch, 2005
Roche, M M, Forest Policy in New Zealand: An Historical Geography 1840 - 1919, Dunmore Press,
Palmerston North, 1987
Roche, M M, History of New Zealand Forestry, New Zealand Forestry Corporation in association
with GP Books, Wellington, 1990
Win, Rodger Donald, Waiouru School 25th Jubilee: Historical Notes, The school?, Waiouru, 1973
Simon, Judith (ed), Nga Kura Maori: The Native School System, 1867 - 1969, Auckland University
Press, Auckland, 1998
Simon, Judith; Tuhiwai Smith, Linda, (eds), A Civilising Mission? Perceptions and Representations
of the New Zealand Native Schools System, Auckland University Press, 2001
School Dental Service, The New Zealand School Dental Service: The Policy regarding the
Establishment, Maintenance and Functions of School Dental Clinics, Department of Health,
Wellington, 1928
The New Zealand School Dental Service, The Policy regarding the Establishment, Maintenance
213
and Functions of School Dental Clinics, Department of Health, Wellington, 1935
The New Zealand School Dental Service, The Policy regarding the Establishment, Maintenance
and Functions of School Dental Clinics, Department of Health, Wellington, 1940
Volkerling, R H; Stewart, K L, From Sand to Papa: A history of the Whanganui County, Wanganui
County Council, Wanganui, 1986
Kakahi School 75th Jubilee, celebrated 3rd to 6th February 1984, C & S Publications, Taumaranui,
1984
Ohakune Primary school 75th Jubilee 1972, Central Jubilee Committee, Ohakune, 1972
Owhango, spanning 100 years: Owhango School & District Reunion, Feburary 6th-8th 2004,
Owhango School reunion committee, 2004
Pihanga School closure reunion, Labour weekend, 1983, Tongariro Welfare Association, Turangi,
1983
1909 - 1959, Rangataua School Golden Jubilee, January 1959, Taihape Times, Taihape, 1959
Souvenir booklet of St Joseph's Convent School, Ohakune: golden Jubilee, 1918-1968, Raetahi
Printing Co, Raetihi, 1968
Articles and Book Chapters
Beaglehole, Ernest, ‘The Maori in New Zealand: A Case Study of Socio-Economic Integration’,
International Labour Review, vol. 76, No. 2, August 1957, pp 103-123
Belshaw, H, ‘The Maori people - One hundred Years After’, Economic Record, Vol. V, No. XV,
October 1939, pp 95-109
Bryder, Lynda, ‘If preventable, why not Prevented?: the New Zealand response to Tuberculosis,
1901 - 1940’, Lynda Bryder (ed) A Healthy Country: Essays on the Social History of Medicine,
Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1991, pp 109-127
Barrington, John , ‘Learning the 'Dignity of Labour': Secondary Education Policy for Maoris', New
214
Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1988, pp 45-58
Broughton, John R, ‘Te Niho Waiora me Te Iwi Maori: Dental Health and the Maori People', New
Zealand Dental Journal, January 1993, pp 15-18
Broughton John R, ‘Niho Taniwha: Te Hitori o Oranga Niho me Te Iwi Maori', Journal of Te Ao
Marama - The New Zealand Maori Dental Association, 1996, Vol. 1, pp 6- 9
Coddington, Deborah, ‘Palace of dreams: can they save the Chateau?', North & South, August
1992, pp 84-92
Dalley, Bronwyn, ‘Moving Out of the Realm of Myth: Government Child Welfare Services to Maori,
1925-1972’ New Zealand Journal of History, Vol. 32, No. 2, October 1998, pp 189-207
Forster, John, ‘The Social Position of Maori’, Erik Schwimmer (ed), Maori People in the Nineteen-
Sixties: A Symposium, Blackwood & Paul, Auckland, 1968, pp 97-117
Hall, Alistair, ‘Ski clubs on the ski slopes', New Zealand Wilderness, August 2004, pp 25-29
Harris Aroha, ‘Maori and ‘the Maori Affairs’, Bronwyn Dalley and Margaret Tennant (eds), Past
Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand History, Otago University Press, Dunedin,
2004, pp 190-205
Koopu, Pauline, ‘Dental Health Services and Maori People: Te Ripoata o He Rangahau Hauora
Maori', Journal of Te Ao Marama - The New Zealand Maori Dental Association, 1996, 1, pp 10-13
Labrum, Bronwyn, ‘Bringing families up from scratch: The distinctive workings of the Maori State
Welfare, 1944 - 1970’, New Zealand Journal of History, Vol. 36, No. 2, 2002, pp 161 – 184
Langton, Graham, ‘Early climbing in Tongariro National Park', New Zealand Wilderness, January
2002, pp 5 – 7
Lonie, Thomas C, ‘Some social factors in relation to Tuberculosis’, New Zealand Medical Journal,
Feb 1947, Vol. 46, No. 251, pp 25 - 31
Lowes, M N, ‘The Effect of Central Government Policy on the New Zealand house’, in New
Zealand Real Estate, Vol. 4, No. 8, September 1990, pp 31-37
215
McClure, Margaret, ‘A Badge of Poverty or a Symbol of Citizenship? Needs, Rights and Social
Security, 1935 - 2000’, Bronwyn Dalley and Margaret Tennant, Past Judgement: Social Policy in
New Zealand, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2004, pp 141-156
McCreary, J R, ‘Population Growth and Urbanisation', in Erik Schwimmer (ed) Maori People in the
Nineteen-Sixties: A Symposium, Blackwood & Paul, Auckland, 1968, pp 187-204
McKegg, Alexandra, ‘The Maori Health Nursing Scheme: An Experiment in Autonomous Health
Care', New Zealand Journal of History, Vol. 26, No. 2, October 1992
Pearson, B, ‘New Zealand since the War - The Maori People’, Landfall, Vo1. 16, No.2, June 1962,
pp 148-180
Pool, Ian, ‘The Age-Sex Distribution of Maori Mortality in the 1918 Pandemic of Influenza', New
Zealand Population Review, Vol. 9, No.2, July 1983
Rice, Geoffrey, ‘Maori Mortality in the 1918 Influenza Epidemic', New Zealand Population Review,
Vol. 9, No.1, April 1983
Schwimmer, Erik, ‘In the Shadow of Ruapehu’, Te Ao Hou, No. 14, April 1956, pp 28-31
_____________, ‘Government and the Changing Maori’, New Zealand Journal of
Public Administration, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1960, pp 13-37
_____________, ‘The Maori Education Foundation', New Zealand Quarterly
Review, Vol. 12, July 1962, pp 7-11
Thomson, W Murphy, ‘Ethnicity and Child Dental Status in the Manawatu-Wanganui
Area Health Board', New Zealand Dental Journal, January 1993, pp 12-14
Walton, Tony, ‘Settlement at Opotaka’, New Zealand Historic Places, 48: July 1994, 39-41
Ward, R G, ‘Maori Settlement in the Taupo County 1830-1880’, Journal of
the Polynesian Society, Vol. 65, 1956, pp 41-44
216
Whyte, Gaynor, ‘Beyond the Statute: Administration of Old Age Pensions to 1938’, Bronwyn
Dalley and Margaret Tennant, Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand, Otago University
Press, Dunedin, 2004, pp 125-140
Woods, Megan, ‘Dissolving the Frontiers: Single Maori Women's Migrations, 1942 - 1969', Lyndon
Fraser and Katie Pickles (eds), Shifting Centres: Women and Migration in New Zealand History,
University of Otago Press, 2002, pp 117-134
Reports and Technical Papers
Bathgate, Murray, The Housing Circumstances of the Maori People and the Work
of the Housing Corporation in Meeting their Needs, Policy and Research Division, Housing
Corporation of New Zealand, Wellington, June 1987
______________________, Housing Needs of the Maori Community, Policy and Research
Division, Housing Corporation of New Zealand, Wellington, March 1988
Bedford, R; Joseph A and Ligard, J, Rural Central North Island: Studies of Agriculture-Community
Linkages, Department of Geography, University of Waikato, Hamilton, 1999
Bedford, R; Lidgard, J; McLaughlin B and Newell, J, Demographic Change and Employment in
the Central North Island, 1986 - 1996, Department of Geography, University of Waikato,
Hamilton, 2001
Bourassa, Steven C, Explaining Maori and Pakeha Home Ownership Rates, Real Estate Research
Unit Working Paper Series, No. 6, n/d
Clough, Peter William John, Whakapapa Area Economics Benefits Study, Winter 1985 and
Summer 1985/86, Department of Conservation, Wellington, 1989
Cornwall, J P M; Fouhy, G D, Maori housing Review: A Review of Maori housing Activities’,
1982
Crawford, Peter, Turangi 1975: Ministry of Works & Development Town, Community and Service
Centre: A Survey of the Social and Economic Problems of the Community of Turangi and a
Discussion of the Future Development of the Settlement, Taupo Regional Development
Committee, Taupo, 1976
217
Crothers, Charles and McPherson, Cluny, Selected Demographic and Social Characteristics of the
Forestry and Logging Workforces and Comments on their Possible Social Significance,
Department of Sociology, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1984
Department of Labour, Employment in the Forestry and Logging Industry, Research and
Planning Division, Department of Labour, Wellington, 1974
Department of Maori Affairs, Housing survey 1966, Department of Maori Affairs, Wellington, 1967
______________________, Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs,
Auckland, 197-
______________________, Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs,
Auckland, 1971
______________________, Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Wanganui Maori and Island Affairs
Department, Wanganui, 1974
______________________, Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs,
Auckland, 1977
______________________, Housing for Maoris and Islanders, Department of Maori Affairs,
Christchurch, 1979
Douglas, E M K, Fading Expectations: the Crisis in Maori Housing: A Report for the Board of Maori
Affairs’, Department of Maori Affairs, Wellington, 1986
Housing Corporation of New Zealand, Maori Women's Housing Research Project report., ‘-for the
sake of decent shelter -, Housing Corporation of New Zealand, Wellington, 1991
Hui Taumata, Maori and New Zealand Tourism’ prepared for the Hui Taumata
2005 by Ministry of Tourism, 2005
Hui Taumata, Trends in Maori Labour Market Outcomes, 1986 - 2003, prepared for the Hui
Taumata 2005 by the Department of Labour, 2005
218
Hui Taumata, Maori in Early Childhood Education and Schools, prepared for the Hui Taumata
2005 by the Ministry of Education, 2005
Hui Taumata, Maori in Tertiary Education: A Picture of the Trends, prepared for the Hui Taumata
2005 by the Ministry of Education, 2005
Kerr Suzi; Maré, Dave; Power, William and Timmins, Jason, Internal Mobility in New Zealand,
Treasury Working Paper, 01/4, 2001
Kitto, Catherine, Schools in Tuwharetoa rohe baseline data, Ministry of Education, Wellington,
2000
Lowe, R J, He Kaupapa Korero Te Puawaitanga o Nga Iwi 1874 - 1951: Iwi in Demographic
Change, 1874 - 1951, a working paper for the Department of Maori Affairs, Wellington,
June 1989
Maani, Sholeh A, Secondary and Tertiary Education Attainment and Income Levels for Maori and
Non-Maori over Time, Treasury Working Paper 00/18, 2000
Maré David C; Choy, Wai Kin, Regional Labour Market Adjustment and the Movement of
People: A Review, Treasury Working Paper 01/08, 2001
Maré, David C; Mawson, Peter and Timmins, Jason, Deprivation in New Zealand: Regional
Patterns and Change, Treasury Working Paper 01/09, 2001
Mikaere, Buddy; Loane, Gail, Education in Tuwharetoa: A Survey of Students, Parents,
Schools and Communities, Tuwharetoa Maori Trust Board/Ministry of Education, Wellington, 2001
Ministry for the Environment, Fish in New Zealand Lakes, Ministry for the Environment,
Wellington, 2002
Moteane, Matjato Neo, Maori Housing Programme in New Zealand: Its History, Services Currently
Offered and Issues of Major Concern, 1984
Nevin, D C; Nevin, G E, Archaeological Site Survey - Rotoaira State Forest 141, New Zealand
219
Forest Service Report June 1979
Newman, Mary, Archaeological Investigations in the Vicinity of Lake Rotoaria and the Lower
Tongariro River, 1966 - 1971, New Zealand Historic Places Trust, Wellington, 1988
Ministry of Tourism/Statistics New Zealand, Measurement of Maori Tourism: Te Ahu Mai - He
Tatau Taopi Maori, Ministry of Tourism/Statistics New Zealand, Wellington, October 2004
McNeill, Jeffrey, Taking the Pulse: Social, Economic, Environment: Manawatu Wanganui Regional
Profile, Horizons Regional Council, Palmerston North, 2004
NZ Forest Service/Department of Lands and Survey, Tongariro State Forest: A Management Plan
for the forest Areas and Raurimu and Taurewa Farm Settlements, NZ Forest Service, Palmerston
North & Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington, May 1986
New Zealand Tourist & Publicity Department, Tourism in the Eastern and Central North Island: A
Regional Profile, prepared by McDermott-Miller Group Ltd for Research section for New Zealand
Tourist & Publicity Department, research section, Wellington, 1988
Ogle, G B, Lending to Maori farmers, MAF Technical Paper 91/9, July 1991, Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries, Wellington, 1993
Reg J and Birchfield, Ian F G, Out of the Woods: the restructuring and sale of New Zealand's
State Forests, GP Publications, Wellington, 1993
Rowe, D K, Lake Rotoaira and its Trout Fishery: A Review, NIWA Client Report TUM 70207, 1997
Rowe, D K; Graynoth, E, The Lake Managers’ Handbook: Fish in New Zealand Lakes, Ministry for
the Environment, Wellington, June 2002
Ruapehu District Council, Economic Analysis of the Ruapehu District, quarterly (March,
June, Sept, Dec) for 2000 & 2001, Ruapehu District Council, Taumaranui
Shaw, Deryck J; Fletcher and M; Gibbs, E J, Taupo: A Treasury of Trout. The Economic Activity
Generated by Anglers, their Profiles, Fishing Patterns and Catch in the Taupo Fishing District, NZ
Wildlife Service, Department of Internal Affairs, Central North Island Wildlife Conservancy
220
Council, Rotorua, 1985
Small, Lesia Hay, Census data: a graphical representation, Taupo District Council, Taupo, 1998
Te Puni Kokiri, Regional housing issues: feedback from Maori, Te Puni Kokiri, Wellington, 1988
___________, He Kakano: a handbook of Maori Health Data, Te Puni Kokiri/Ministry of Maori
Development, Wellington, 1993
___________, A Study of Barriers, Impediments and Opportunities for Maori in Tourism, Report
prepared for the Office of Tourism and Tourism and Sport and Te Puni Kokiri by the Stafford
Group, June 2001
Wasley, Bill, Turangi in the 1980s: A Study of People, Employment and the Future of Turangi,
Taupo County Council, Taupo, 1980
Williams, Ann; Walton, Tony, Early Landuse Patterns in the Lake Taupo Area, Science for
Conservation 222, Department of Conservation, Wellington, 2003
Wilson, Andrew R, Turangi Community Survey, 1988 - 1989, Taupo District Council, Taupo, 1989
Wood, C, Fisheries Aspects of the Tongariro Power Development Project, New Zealand Marine
Department, Fisheries Technical Report No. 10, 1964
Theses and Research Essays
Cheetham, Stephaine K, ‘The development of Turoa Skifield and its economic implications upon
Ohakune’, a research report presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Resource and Environmental Planning, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1994
Goodfellow, K S, ‘Health for the Maori?: Health and the Maori Village Schools, 1890 - 1940’, MA
Thesis, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1991
Krivan, Mark, ‘The Department of Maori Affairs Housing Programme, 1935-1967’, MA thesis,
Massey University, Palmerston North, 1990
McKegg, A H, ‘Ministering Angels': The Government Backblock Nursing Service and the Maori
221
Health Nurses, 1909 - 1939’, MA thesis, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1991
Orange, Claudia, ‘A Kind of Equality: Labour and the Maori People, 1935 - 1949’, MA thesis,
Auckland University, Auckland, 1977
O’Neill, ‘Suzanne Margaret, ‘The Okahune Area: Its Market Gardens, their Significance, and the
Reason for their Location’, Research paper, BA (Hons), Massey University, Palmerston North,
1976
Ward, R G, ‘Land Development in the Taupo County’, MA thesis in Geography, University of New
Zealand, 1955
Waitangi Tribunal Reports
Waitangi Tribunal, Turangi Township Report 1995, Brooker, Wellington, 1995
Research Reports on the Waitangi Tribunal Record of Inquiry
Anderson, Robyn, ‘Tongariro National Park - An Overview Report on the Relationship between
Maori and the Crown in the Establishment of the Tongariro National Park’, April 2005,
Wai 1130, #A9
Bayley, Nicholas; Derby, Mark, ‘Tongariro National Park Management from 1980 to Present: A
Scoping Report’, September 2004, Wai 1130 #A6
Belgrave, Michael; Young, David and Deason, Anna, ‘Crown Policy with Respect to Maori Land,
1953-1999’, September 2004, Wai 1200 #A66
Berghan, Paula, ‘Block Research Narratives of the Tongariro National Park District, 1865 - 2000’,
July 2004, Wai 1130, #A5
Gould, Ashley, ‘Maori Land Development Schemes: generic Overview, c. 1920 - 1993’, September
2004, Wai 1200, #A67
Hamer, Paul, ‘Report of Paul Hamer on the Tokaanu Development Scheme, 1930-1968, Wai 84
#B12 [#B12(a) supporting papers]
Hearn, Terry, ‘Taupo-Kaingaroa Twentieth Century Overview: Land Alienation and Land
222
Administration: 1900-1993’, September 2004, Wai 1200 # A68
Kirkpatrick, R, Belshaw K & Campbell J, ‘Land based cultural Resources and Waterways and
Environmental Impacts (Rotorua, Taupo and Kaingaroa) 1840-2000, December 2004,
Wai 1130, #A7(a)
Koning, J, ‘Lake Rotoaira: Maori Ownership and Crown policy towards Electricity Generation,
1964-1972’, 1993, Wai 1130 #A14
Kukutai, Tahu; Pool, Ian and Sceats, Janet, ‘Central North Island Iwi: Population Patterns and
Trends’, April 2002, Wai 1200 #A44
Locke, Cybéle, ‘Maori & Tourism (Taupo - Rotorua), 1840-1970’, September 2004, Wai 1200
#A69 [#A69 (a) - (g) Support documents, 7 vols]
Mitchell, James; Innes, Craig, ‘Whanganui and National Park Alienation Study’, November 2004,
Wai 1130 doc #A6
Marr, Cathy, ‘The Waimarino Report: The Investigation, Purchase and Creation of Reserves in the
Waimarino Block, and Associated Issues, 2004, Wai 903 #A60
_________, ‘Crown Impacts on Customary Maori Authority over the Coast, Inland Waterways
(other than the Whanganui River) and associated mahinga kai in the Whanganui Inquiry District’,
June 2003, Wai 903 #A36
Marr, C; Hodge, R & White, B, ‘Crown Laws, Policies and Practices in relation to Flora and Fauna,
1840-1912’, 1993, Wai 262 #K5
McLean, R and Smith, T, ‘The Crown and Flora and Fauna: Legislation, Policies and Practices,
1983-1998’, Wai 262 #H6
Park, Geoff, ‘Effective Exclusion? An Exploratory Overview of Crown Actions and Maori Responses
concerning the Indigenous Flora and Fauna, 1912-1983’, 2000, Wai 262 #K4
Rose, Kathyrn, ‘Whanganui Maori and the Crown: Socio-Economic Issues’, March 2004, Wai 903,
#A61 [#A61 (a) - (j) Supporting documents, 10 vols]
223
Stevens, Emma, ‘Socio-Economic Consequences of Land Loss for Maori in the Whanganui,
Rangitikei, Manawatu & Horowhenua Districts 1870-1960’, June 1997, Wai 903, #A32 [#A32 (a)
- (d) Supporting documents, 4 vols]
Stirling, Bruce, ‘Taupo - Kaingaroa 19th Century Overview’, 2004, Wai 1130 #A39
___________, ‘Waiarapa Maori and the Crown: Vol. 4 Nonoke: The Struggle’, 2002,
Wai 863 #A51
Walzl, Tony, ‘Ngati Rangi Land Issues 1840-1970 (National Park version)’, 2004, Wai 1130, #A41
__________, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo, Kaingaro, Rotorua), 1890-1990’, 2004, Wai #A80
[#A80 (a) - (s) 19 vols Supporting documents]
__________, ‘Hydro-Electricity Issues: The Tongariro Power Development Scheme Report,
February 2005’, Wai 1130 #A8 [# A8 (a) Supporting documents]
___________, ‘Maori and Forestry (Taupo-Rotorua-Kaingaroa), 1890 - 1990: Supplementary
Report’, April 2005, Wai 1200 #G16
Williams, David, ‘Crown Policy Affecting Maori Knowledge Systems and Cultural Practices’,
Wai 262 #K3, n/d
Crown Forestry Rental Trust, ‘Maps of the National Park Inquiry District - A Thematic Overview
Map Book to Support the Waitangi Tribunal Hearings, June 2005, Wai 1130 #A48
Briefs of Evidence from Tribunal Inquiries
Evidence of Grace Family (claimant counsel), Wai 84 #A21
Evidence of David Alexander on the Turangi Township and the Public Works Act 1928 (Crown
Counsel), Wai 84 #B2 [#B2(a) supporting papers]
224
Websites
Statistics New Zealand Reports
COMMUNITY PROFILES:http://xtabs.stats.govt.nz/eng/statsbyarea/area_main.asp?rc=03#rc03
REGIONAL REPORTS ON TAMARIKI:http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/86F92FB2-5B33-4F7D-9C93-
1418A848476D/0/Waikato.pdf
http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/F14E97A3-2FB0-4E7F-9750-
6D37C70023E7/0/TaraManaWanga.pdf
REGIONAL REPORTS ON RANGATAHI:http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/793AE878-C58C-4B1F-A71C-
66B908CAB6F3/0/RangatahiWaikato.pdf
http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/C13B7925-2DB1-4C9A-BA7A-
2E414A3C186A/0/RangatahiTarManWan.pdf
ANALTYICAL REPORTS ON MAORI:http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/indus-con.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/emp-shifts.htm
http://www.ststs.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/imp-of-unemp.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/clpo.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/pil.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/hhip.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/fisc.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/grwt-in-ch-ed.htm
http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/inc-in-comp-edu.htm
http://www.statsgovt.nz/analytical-reports/maori/ial.htm
Other Websites
http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/lgip.nsf
http://www/moh.nsf/DHBnorthisland/2/$file/northisland2.jpg
225
Appendix1: Scoping Report Commission
WAI 1130
WAITANGI TRIBUNAL
CONCERNING the Treaty ofWaitangi Act 1975
AND CONCERNING National Park Inquiry
DIRECTION COMMISSIONING RESEARCH
1 Pursuant to clause 5A(1) of the second schedule of the Treaty of Waitangi Act1975, the Tribunal commissions Leanne Boulton, a member of the Tribunal’sresearch staff, to prepare a scoping report on background contextual materialto general socio-economic issues for Maori of the National Park inquiry districtbetween the period 1890 to 1990, (refer to para 4.5 of Wai 1130 #2.3.20).
2 The report should identify and discuss the significance of sources relevant tothe following matters:
a) Maori population and settlement within the boundaries of the NationalPark inquiry district, including if possible, inward and outward migrationand any factors contributing to the demographic history of the inquirydistrict.
b) Economic and employment opportunities available to Maori within theinquiry district and the extent of Maori involvement in the tourist industry,forestry and hydro power development.
c) The provision and use of health and education services by Maoricommunities residing in the inquiry district including any evidence relatingto income levels, housing standards and health status.
3 The report should make recommendations as to the feasibility of a furtherreport on specific claim issues and/or case studies illustrative of such issues,based on the sources identified.
226
4 This commission commences on 12 September 2005 and ends on 19December 2005. (This deadline date supersedes the date of 21 November2005 stated in para. 3.9 of the Direction of 29 September 2005, #2.3.24). By19 December 2005 a final report must be completed and a copy presented tothe Waitangi Tribunal.
5 At the discretion of the presiding officer the commission may be extended ifone or more of the following conditions apply:
a) the terms of the commission are changed so as to increase the scope ofwork;
b) more time is required for completing one or more project components owingto unforeseeable circumstances, such as illness or denial of access to primarysources;
c) the presiding officer directs that the services of the commissionees betemporarily reassigned to a higher priority task for the inquiry.
6 The report may be received as evidence and the authors may be cross-examined on it.
7 The Registrar is to send copies of this direction to:Leanne Boulton, Waitangi TribunalCounsel and non-represented claimants in the National Park InquiryActing Chief Historian, Waitangi TribunalInquiry Facilitator, Waitangi TribunalSolicitor General, Crown Law OfficeDirector, Office of Treaty SettlementsChief Executive, Crown Forestry Rental TrustChief Executive, Te Puni Kokiri
Dated at Wellington this day of November 2005
Judge Wilson IsaacPresiding OfficerWAITANGI TRIBUNAL
227
Appendix 2: Number of Maori Voters by Location andIwi/Hapu Affiliations, 1908(Source: Maori Voters Rolls for Western Maori, 1908)
Address Tribe Hapu NoKakahi Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Manunui 3Kakahi Total 3Karioi Ngati Raukawa Ngati Tukorehe 1
Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Rangi 1Ngati te Rangiita 2
Whanganui Ngati Hau & Ngati Rangi 2Ngati Hinearo & Ngapoutama 1Ngati Hoki 1Ngati Moeau & Ngati Patukai 1Ngati Rahiri 1Ngati Rangi 2Ngati Rangi & Ngapoutama 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Hau 4Ngati Rangi & Ngati Hine 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Hineau 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Kura 2Ngati Rangi & Ngati Puketerangi 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Rangihaereroa 2Ngati Rangi & Ngati Rangipoutaka 3Ngati Rangi & Ngati Ruaka 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Ruru 2Ngati Rangi & Ngati Tama 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Tamarua 5Ngati Rangi & Ngati Tapukau 1Ngati Rangi & Ngati Tongaiti 1Ngati Rangi and Ngati Ruaka 1Ngati Rangiauria 1Ngati Rangihaereroa 1Ngati Rangipotaka 1Ngati Rangipoutaka 6Ngati Rangipoutaka & Ngati Ruaka 1Ngati Rangiteauria 3Ngati Rangituhia 1Ngati Rangituhia 1Ngati Rangituhia & Ngati Rangipoutaka 2Ngati Taipoto & Ngati Kura 1Ngati te Patutokotoko & Ngati Hekeawai 1Ngatu Hau & Ngati Turanga 1
Karioi Total 59Mangahouhou Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Hinerau 1Mangahouhou Total 1Moawhango Ngati Kahungunu - 1
Ngai Tamaterangi 16Ngati Hinemanu 2Ngati Pamoana 1Ngati Tama 1Ngati Tamaterangi 1
Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Kurauia 1Ngati Marangataua 1Ngati Tama 8Ngati Whiti 16
Moawhango Total 48
228
Address Tribe Hapu NoOtukou Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Hikiaro 7
Ngati Kurauia 1Ngati Turumakina 1Ngtai Hikairo 1
Otukou Total 10Owhango Te Atiawa Ngati Tu 1
Whanganui Ngati Tu 2Ngati Tu & Ngati Kaitangata 1
Owhango Total 4Papakai Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Tama 1
Ngati Whiti 1Papakai Total 2Poutu Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Rongomai 2
Ngati Tama 2Poutu Total 4Raetihi Ngati Maniapoto Ngati Kahu 1
Whanganui Mgati Hau & Ngati Uenuku 1Ngati Hau & Ngati Hekeawai 1Ngati Hau & Ngati Kahu 1Ngati Hau & Ngati Taipoto 1Ngati Hau & Ngati Uenuku 7Ngati Kura 1Ngati Uenuku 2
Raetihi Total 15Toanui, Raetihi Whanganui Ngati Hau and Ngati Kahu 1Toanui, Raetihi Total 1Tokaanu Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Hikiaro 1
Ngati Hinemihi 2Ngati Kurauia 14Ngati Manunui 1Ngati Ngauru 1Ngati Parekura 1Ngati Pou 1Ngati Rongomai 3Ngati Tama 1Ngati Taurangitukua 1Ngati te Rangiita 12Ngati Turangi 18Ngati Turumakina 4
Te Arawa Ngati Rangiwewehi 1Tokaanu Total 61Tongariro Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Turangi 1Tongariro Total 1Waihi & Tokaanu Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Turumakina 1Waihi & Tokaanu Total 1Waimanu Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati te Marangataua 1Waimanu Total 1
Whanganui. Taupo Ngati Tuwharetoa Ngati Parekawa 2Ngati Tumarouru 1
Whanganui. Taupo Total 3Grand Total 214
229
Appendix 3: Number of Maori Voters by Location and Iwi/Hapu Affiliations, 1919(Source: Maori Voters Rolls for Western Maori, 1919)
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoKakahi Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Wera 1 Ohakune Ngati-Kahungunu Ngati-Hineuru 1 Tokaanu Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hihi 1
Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hinerua 1 Ohakune Total 1 Ngati-Hikairo 2Ngati-Manunui 10 Otokou* Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Kurauia 1 Ngati-Hine 4
Waikato Ngati-Haua 2 Otokou* Total 1 Ngati-Hinekura 1Kakahi Total 14 Otukou Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 4 Ngati-Hini 1Karioi Ngati-Apa Ngati-Paenga 1 Ngati-Turumakina 1 Ngati-Kurania 1
Ngati-Tamawaenga 1 Otukou Total 5 Ngati-Kurauia 16Ngati-Rangi Ngati-Tamarua 1 Papakai Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 1 Ngati-Marangataua 2Ngati-Raukawa Ngati-Tukoreke 1 Papakai Total 1 Ngati-Ngauru 1Whanganui Ngati-Hine 1 Raetihi Ngapuhi Ngati-Mahurehure 1 Ngati-Pouhore 1
Ngati-Rangi 35 Ngati-Uenuku 1 Ngati-Poukore 1Ngati-Rangiteauria 2 Ngati-Kahungunu Ngati-Whatu-i-Apiti 1 Ngati-Rongomai 16Ngati-Rangi-te-Auria 1 Te Whatu-Apiti 1 Ngati-Tama 4Ngati-Rangituhia 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hineiti 1 Ngati-te-Ika 1(blank) 1 Ngati-Hinemanu 1 Ngati-te-Maaunga 1
Karioi Total 45 Ngati-Manunui 1 Ngati-te-Rangiita 2Ketetahi Ngati Ruanui Ngati-Kanihi 1 Ngati-te-Rangiita 2 Ngati-Turangi 2
Ngati-Apa Ngati-te-Umutahi 1 Ngati-Uenuku 1 Ngati-Turangitukia 1Ngati-Umutahi 5 Ngati-Whiti 1 Ngati-Turangitukua 16
Ngati-Ruanui Ngati-Araukuuku 1 (blank) 1 Ngati-Turangitukura 1Ngati-te-Inuawai 1 Whanganui Ngati-Hekeawai 3 Ngati-Turumakina 3Ngati-te-Umutahi 1 Ngati-Hineiti 1 Ngati-Uenuku 1Ngati-Umutahi 2 Ngati-Kura 2 Ngati-Uruhina 1
Taranaki Ngati-Tuhekerangi 1 Ngati-Patutokotoko 1 Ngati-Waewae 2Ketetahi Total 13 Ngati-Rangitautahi 2 (blank) 1Moawhango Ngai-Tahu Ngati-Mamoe 1 Ngati-Rongomai 1 Taranaki Ngarauru 1
Ngati-Apa Ngati-Kanae 1 Ngati-Rongonui 1 Te Arawa Ngati-Tuhourangi 1Ngati-Kahungunu Ngati-Karupakiaka 1 Ngati-Ruaka 1 Tokaanu Total 85
Ngati-Kurupakiakia 1 Ngati-Ruru 2 Tokaanua* Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Kurauia 1Ngati-Manawa 1 Ngati-Tamakana 2 Ngati-Rongomai 1Ngati-Poroporo 2 Ngati-Uenuku 33 Ngati-Waewae 1Ngati-Rongomaiwahine 1 Raetihi Total 61 Tokaanua* Total 3Ngati-te-Upokoiri 1 Rangiwaea Ngai-te-Rangi Ngati-Romai 1 Whakapapa Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-te-Hapuiti 1Ngati-Toroiwaho 1 Ngati-Rongomai 1 Whakapapa Total 1Ngati-Whiti 1 Ngati-te-Ngare 1 Grand Total 301Te Whatau-i-Apiti 1 Te Whanau-a-Tauwah 1
Ngati-Porou Ngati-te-Araroa 1 Te Whanau-a-Tauwha 12Te Whanau-a-Rua 1 Ngati-te-Rangi Te Whanau-a-Tauwha 2
Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Tama 20 Whanganui Ngati-Rangituhia 3Ngati-te-Rangiita 1 Rangiwaea Total 21Ngati-Whiti 13 Tokaanau* Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Turangitukua 1
Te Arawa Ngati-Tuhourangi 1 Tokaanau* Total 1Moawhango Total 49
230
Appendix 4: Number of Maori Voters by Location andIwi/Hapu Affiliations, 1949-51
(Source: Maori Electoral Roll for Western Maori, 1949 - 51)
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoAwhango* Ngati-Tuwharetoa (blank) 1 Moawhango Matatua Ngati-Pukeko 1Awhango* Total 1 Ngapuhi Ngati-Whawhakia 1Erua Ngapuhi Mahurehure 1 Ngati-Kahungunu Pahauwera 1
Tupoto 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngaitama 1Ngati-Haua (blank) 2 Ngati-Rangiita 2Ngati-Maniapoto (blank) 1 Ngati-Tama 4Whanganui Ngati-Hau 1 Ngati-Turangi 1
Ngati-Uenuku 1 Ngati-Turumakina 1Erua Total 7 Ngati-Whiti 14Horopito Ngapuhi (blank) 1 Ngati-Whititama 4
Waikato (blank) 1 (blank) 1Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 1 Ngati-Whatua Ngati-Toro 1
Horopito Total 3 Te Arawa Ngati-Kea 1Kakahi Ngapuhi Ngahengahe 1 Ngati-Whakauea 1
(blank) 1 Tuhourangi 1Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Hari 1 Te Atiawa Ngati-Whiti 1
Ngati-Mate-Kore 1 Tuhoe Ngati-Whare 1Ngati-Pahere 2 Waikato Ngati-Tama 1
Ngati-Porou (blank) 1 Moawhango Total 38Ngati-Raukawa Ngati-Haa 1 National Park Ngapuhi Hikitu 1Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Haa 1 Ngaitu 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hauiti 1 Ngati-Kino 1
Ngati-Hikairo 10 Ngati-Mahurehure 1Ngati-Hine 2 Ngati-Tautahi 2Ngati-Hinekura 4 Ngati-Toro 1Ngati-Hinemihi 1 Ngati-Ue 2Ngati-Manunui 22 Pakau 1Ngati-Parekawa 4 Putukiri Kiri 1Ngati-Parewahawaha 1 Te Aupouri 1Ngati-Rangatahi 1 Te Rarawa 3Ngati-Te-Waikotero 1 Te Whanaukoata 1Ngati-Turumakina 12 (blank) 3Ngati-Waewae 1 Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Hari 3Ngati-Whititama 2 Ngati-Pahere 2(blank) 2 Pahere 1
Teaupouri (blank) 1 Ngati-Porou (blank) 1Waikato Ngati-Hikairo 4 Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Huri 1Whanganui Ngati-Haua 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 1
Ngati-Hauaroa 1 Marangataua 2Ngati-Kura 1 Ngati-Hikairo 7
Kakahi Total 81 Ngati-Hine 3Karioi Hinuawai (blank) 1 Ngati-Hinemihi 4
Ngapuhi Ngati-Pikiao 1 Ngati-Manunui 3Ngati-Apa (blank) 1 Ngati-Parekawa 1Ngati-Koroki Ngati-Hua 1 Ngati-Tamawhiti 1
Ngati-Tukorehe 1 Ngati-Te Rangiita 1(blank) 1 Ngati-Turangi 1
Ngati-Rangi Ngati-Rangipoutika 1 Ngati-Turumakina 2Ngati-Raukawa Ngati-Whakatere 1 Ngati-Wai Te Uri-o-hikihiki 1Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Whakatere 1 Taranaki Te Atiawa 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Tama 1 Te Arawa Ngati-Whakaue 1
Ngati-Te Rangiita 2 Tuhourangi 1(blank) 2 Waikato Hinerangi 1
Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Hau 1 Kirihika 1Ngati-Kura 1 Ngati-Hourua 1Ngati-Rangi 24 (blank) 1Ngati-Ruaka 1 Whanganui Nga Wairiki 1Ngati-Uenuku 3 Ngati-Pamoana 2
Whanganui Ngati-Rangi 2 Ngati-Rangi 1Ngati-Tama 1 Ngati-Tuera 3
Karioi Total 47 National Park Total 68Ketetahi Ngapuhi Ngaitu 2
Ngati-Hikutu 1Ngati-Kuru 1Ngati-Whakaeke 2Pangare 1(blank) 1
Ngati-Maru Ngati-Pukenga 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Marangataua 1
Ngati-Turumakina 1Whanganui Ngati-Rangi 1
Ketetahi Total 12
231
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoOhakune Muaupoko Ngati-Hine 4 Owhango Ngapuhi Ngati-Rangi 1
Ngati-Hune 1 Ngati-Tara 1(blank) 1 Te Aupouri 1
Ngapuhi Ngati-Hineira 1 Uri-O-Te Aho 1Ngati-Horahia 1 (blank) 2Ngati-Kuri 1 Ngati-Awa (blank) 1Ngati-Rua 1 Ngati-Haua Ngati-Rangi 1Ngati-Toro 2 Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Hari 1Te Uriohua 3 (blank) 1Tepatupo 3 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hine 1Tewhiu 1 Ngati-Rongomai 1
Ngaruahine Kanihi 1 Te Arawa (blank) 1Ngati-Apa (blank) 2 Te Atiawa Ngati-Whiti 1Ngati-Awa Pukerangiora 1 Waikato Ngati-Hikairo 1Ngati-Kahungunu Hiko Papauma 1 Whanganui Ngati-Huiaroa 1
Ngati-Hinehika 1 Ngati-Kura 1Ngati-Kere 1 Ngati-Uenuku 1Rangitane 2 Owhango Total 18
Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Kinohaku 1 Pokaka Ngapuhi Ngati-Toro 3Ngati-Porou Ngati-Kahungunu 1 Te Aupouri 1
Putaanga 1 (blank) 1Ngati-Raukawa Ngati-Kapu 1 Pokaka Total 5Ngati-Ruakawa (blank) 1 Raetihi Muaupoko (blank) 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Turangi 1 Ngapuhi Ngati-Whatua 2
Pikiahuwaewae 1 Te Popoto 1Waikato Kahukura 1 Te Rarawa 1
Ngati-Haua 1 Ngati-Kahungunu Rakaipaka 1Ngati-Koroki 1 Whatuiapiti 1Ngati-Mahanga 4 Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Tamainu 1Te Wehi 1 Ngati-Tu 1(blank) 3 Ngati-Uenuku 2
Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Hau 3 Ngati-Raukawa (blank) 1Ngati-Kura 9 Ngati-Ruakawa (blank) 1Ngati-Rangi 22 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hinemihi 3Ngati-Rangi, Tuhia 1 Ngati-Parekawa 1Ngati-Ruru 4 Ngati-Whiti 1Ngati-Uenuku 4 Ngati-Uenuku Ngati-Hau 2Rangituhia 2 (blank) 2
Whanganui Ngati-Kura 2 Ngawairiki (blank) 1Ngati-Rangi 1 Te Atiawa Ngati-Rahiri 1Ngati-Ruru 4 Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Hau 1Ngati-Uenuku 3 Ngati-Uenuku 1
Ohakune Total 101 Wanganui Iharaira 1Okahukura Ngati-Haua Ngati-Hekeawai 1 Whanganui Hinearo 1
Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Haua 1 Iharaira 1Parekaitini 1 Ngati-Hau 1
Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Kauwhata 1 Ngati-Haua 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hinemihi 1 Ngati-Hine 2
Ngati-Waewae 1 Ngati-Kura 11Waikato Ngati-Haua 1 Ngati-Pamoana 1Whanganui Ngati-Haua 5 Ngati-Ruru 5
Ngati-Hauaroa 1 Ngati-Uenuku 122Okahukura Total 13 Ngati-Whaenuku 1Okahukura, Taumarunui Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Haua 1 Ngati-Wheanuku 2Okahukura, Taumarunui Total 1 (blank) 4Otukou Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 10 Raetihi Total 179Otukou Total 10 Rangiwaea Ngaiterangi Ngati-Tuwhiwhia 1
Tauwhao 7Rangiwaea Total 8
232
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoRaurimu Ngapuhi Mahurehure 1 Turangi Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 2
Ngaitupoto 4 Ngati-Hine 2Ngati-Rehia 1 Ngati-Parekawa 1Ngati-Tautahi 1 Ngati-Rongomai 1Ngati-Waiora 1 Ngati-Turangi 9Te Whanau-Whero 1 Ngati-Turumakina 1(blank) 5 (blank) 1
Ngati-Ruanui (blank) 1 Turangi Total 17Ngati-Tamatera (blank) 1 Waiouru Ngapuhi Ngati-Torehina 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikuanau 1 Ngati-Paoa Ngati-Tamatera 2
Ngati-Marangataua 1 (blank) 2Ngati-Terangiita 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Turangi 1Parekawa 1 Te Arawa Tuhourangi 1(blank) 1 Whanganui Ngati-Awa 1
Te Arawa (blank) 1 Waiouru Total 8Whanganui Ngati-Kura 1 Grand Total 767
Ngati-Tupoho 1Ngati-Uenuku 1
Raurimu Total 25Taurewa Ngapuhi Hikitu 4
Mahurehure 1Ngati-Hikutu 3Ngati-Rangi 1Ngati-Whakaeke 2
Ngati-Raukawa Ngati-Huia 1Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Ahuru 1
Ngati-Huia 1Ngati-Tamatera Ngati-Pare 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 1
Ngati-Hikairo 3Ngati-Manunui 7Ngati-Parekawa 2Ngati-Te Rangiita 1Ngati-Turumakina 1
Whanganui Ngarauru 1Ngati-Rangi 1
Taurewa Total 32Taurewa, National Park Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Kira 2Taurewa, National Park Total 2Tokaanu Ngapuhi Ngati Whatua 1
Ngati-Hau 1Ngati-Toro 1(blank) 1
Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 21Ngati-Hikairo 1Ngati-Hine 2Ngati-Kurania 1Ngati-Manunui 2Ngati-Parekawa 1Ngati-Rongomai 5Ngati-Te Maunga 1Ngati-Turangi 6Ngati-Turumakina 15Parekawa 1
Ngati-Whatua Ngati-Rongomai 1Te Arawa Ngati-Pikiao 2
Tokaanu Total 63Tokaanu, Waihi Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Turumakina 1
Parekawa 1Tokaanu, Waihi Total 2Tongariro Ngapuhi Ngati-Whatua 1
Ngati-Haua (blank) 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 22
Ngati-Rongomai 1(blank) 1
Tongariro Total 26
233
Appendix 5: Number of Maori Voters by Location and Iwi/HapuAffiliations, 1954
(Source: Maori Electoral Roll for Western Maori, 1954)
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoErua Ngapuhi Mahurehure 1 National Park Muaupoko Ngati-Hine 1
Te Aupouri 1 Ngapuhi Ngai-Tawake 1Ngati-Haua (blank) 1 Ngati-Hikitu 1Ngati-Maniapoto (blank) 1 Ngati-Kino 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hine 1 Ngati-tautahi 3
Ngati-Whiti 1 Ngati-Tu 1(blank) 2 Te Whanaukoata 1
Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 1 (blank) 6Erua Total 9 Ngati Porou Hauraki 1Horopito Ngapuhi (blank) 1 Ngati-Haua (blank) 1
Ngati-Maru Ngati-Marunui 1 Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Hari 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 1 Ngati-Pahere 3Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Hau 3 Ngati-Parewaeono 1
Ngati-Uenuku 1 Ngati-Porou (blank) 2Horopito Total 7 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 1Kakahi Ngati-Awa (blank) 1 Ngati-Hikairo 3
Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hauiti 2 Ngati-Hine 2Ngati-Hikairo 5 Ngati-Hinemihi 2Ngati-Hine 2 Ngati-Manunui 1Ngati-Hinekura 3 Ngati-Marangataua 3Ngati-Manunui 17 Ngati-Tamawhiti 1Ngati-Parekawa 4 Ngati-Turangi 1Ngati-Parewahawaha 1 Ngati-Turumakina 1Ngati-Rangatahi 1 Taranaki Te Atiawa 1Ngati-Te Waikotero 1 Te Arawa Tuhourangi 1Ngati-Turumakina 7 Tuhoe (blank) 1Ngati-Waewae 1 Whakatere Tuwharetoa 1Ngati-Whititama 1 Whanganui Ngati-Pamoana 1(blank) 2 National Park Total 44
Waikato Ngati-Hikairo 4 National Park, Katiruta Ngati-Wai Te Uri-o-Hikihiki 1Whanganui Ngati-Haua 1 National Park, Katiruta Total 1
Ngati-Hauaroa 1 National Park, Matika Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 1Ngati-Kura 1 National Park, Matika Total 1
Kakahi Total 55 National Park, Okupata Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 3Karioi Hinuawai (blank) 1 National Park, Okupata Total 3
Ngapuhi Ngati-Pikiao 1 Ohakune Muaupoko Ngati-Hine 5Ngati-Apa (blank) 1 Ngati-Pariri 1Ngati-Koroki Ngati-Hua 1 (blank) 1
Ngati-Tukorehe 1 Ngapuhi Ngatatora 1(blank) 1 Ngati-Hine 1
Ngati-Rangi Wainui-a-Rua 1 Ngati-Kuri 1Ngati-Ruahine (blank) 1 Te Patupo 3Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Kikoperi 1 Te Uriohua 1Ngati-Tukorehe Ngati-Koroki 1 Teuriohua 2
(blank) 1 Tewhiu 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Te Rangiita 2 (blank) 1
Ratana 1 Ngaruahine Kanihi 1(blank) 3 Omoturangi 1
Taranaki Ngati-Ruanui 1 Ngati-Apa (blank) 2Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Rangi 23 Ngati-Awa Pukerangiora 1
Ngati-Uenuku 1 Ngati-Hau Ngati-Hau 1Whanganui Ngati-Kura 1 Ngati-Rangi 2
Ngati-Rangi 5 Ngati-Hine Ngati-Ruwai 1Karioi Total 48 Ngati-Hou Whanganui 1Ketetahi Ngapuhi Pangare 1 (blank) 1
Te Rarawa 1 Ngati-Kahungunu Hikopapauma 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 1 Ngati-Hinehika 1Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Rangi 1 Ngati-Kere 1
Ketetahi Total 4 Rangitane 2Moawhango Matatua Ngati-Pukeko 1 (blank) 1
Ngapuhi Ngati-Manu 1 Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Kinohaku 1Ngati-Ata (blank) 1 (blank) 1Ngati-Kahungunu Kurukuru 1 Ngati-Porou Ngati-Kahungunu 1
Tuwharetoa 1 Ngati-Rangi Whanganui 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Tama 4 (blank) 1
Ngati-Whiti 13 Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Hamua 1Ngati-Whititama 4 Ngati-Kapu 1Whitikaupeka 1 Ngati-Ruru Wainui-a-Rua 1(blank) 1 Whanganui 3
Ngati-Whakatohea Ngati-Terangi 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Turangi 1Te Arawa Ngati-Whakauea 1 Pikiahuwaewae 2Te Atiawa Ngati-Te Whiti 1Waikato Ngati-Tama 1Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 1
Moawhango Total 33
234
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoOhakune cont Ngati-Uenuku Whanganui 1 Raetihi Muaupoko (blank) 1
Rakaipaka Ngati-Kahungunu 1 Ngai-Tahu Ngati-Ruhikihiki 1Taranaki Ngati-Kahumate 1 Ngapuhi Ngati-Whatua 2Te Atiawa Taranaki 1 Te Popoto 1Te Atihau Whanganui 2 Ngati-Kahungunu Ngati-Marau 1Waikato Kahukura 1 Rakaipaka 1
Ngati-Koroki 1 Whatuiapiti 1Ngati-Mahanga 2 (blank) 2Ngati-Maniapoto 1 Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Tamainu 1Tamanu 3 Ngati-Tu 1Te Wehi 1 Ngati-Uenuku 2(blank) 2 Ngati-Ruakawa (blank) 1
Wainui-a-Rua Hineteha 2 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hinemihi 5Ngati-Hau 2 Ngati-Parekawa 1Ngati-Kura 5 Ngati-Whititama 1Ngati-Rangi 18 (blank) 1Ngati-Rangi, Tuhia 1 Ngati-Uenuku Ngati-Hau 2Ngati-Rangituhia 3 Tuwharetoa 1Ngati-Ruru 2 Whanganui 2Ngati-Uenuku 4 (blank) 5Rangituhia 2 Ngawairiki (blank) 1(blank) 2 Te Atiawa Ngati-Rahiri 1
Whanganui Ngati-Kura 1 Uritakiwha Ngapuhi 1Ngati-Rangi 1 Waikarapu Poutama 1Ngati-Ruru 1 Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Kura 2Ngati-Uenuku 7 Ngati-Rangi 1(blank) 2 Ngati-Ruaka 1
(blank) (blank) 1 Ngati-Uenuku 2Ohakune Total 120 Whanganui Iharaira 2Ohakune, Makaranui Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 2 Ngati-Hau 3Ohakune, Makaranui Total 2 Ngati-Kura 14Oio Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Hau 1 Ngati-Pamoana 1Oio Total 1 Ngati-Ruru 11Okahukura Ngati-Haua Ngati-Hekeawai 2 Ngati-Uenuku 103
Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Haua 3 Ngati-Wheanuku 2Pare Kaitini 1 (blank) 3(blank) 2 (blank) Ngati-Kura 1
Ngati-Ruakawa Ngati-Kauwhata 1 (blank) 1Ngati-Turangi 1 Raetihi Total 184
Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hinemihi 1 Raetihi, Oreore Whanganui Hinearo 1Ngati-Waewae 1 Ngati-Uenuku 2
Ngawairiki Ngati-Hura 1 Raetihi, Oreore Total 3Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Uenuku 1 Raetihi, Pakihi Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 1Whanganui Ngati-Haua 3 Raetihi, Pakihi Total 1
Ngati-Hauaroa 1 Raetihi, Parinui Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 1Okahukura Total 18 Raetihi, Parinui Total 1Otukou Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 8 Raetihi, Tawaewae Ngapuhi Ngati-Whatua 1
Waikato Hinerangi 1 Raetihi, Tawaewae Total 1Kirihika 1 Raurimu Ngapuhi Mahurehure 1
Otukou Total 10 Ngai-Tupoto 1Owhango Ngapuhi Ngati-Rangi 1 Ngati-Waiora 1
Ngati-Tara 1 (blank) 3(blank) 3 Ngati-Maniapoto (blank) 1
Ngati-Hari Ngati-Maniapoto 1 Ngati-Ruanui (blank) 1Ngati-Haua Ngati-Rangi 1 Ngati-Tamatera (blank) 1Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Hari 2 Ngati-Tuwharetoa (blank) 1
(blank) 1 Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Kura 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Marangataua 1 Ngati-Rangi 1
(blank) 1 Whanganui Ngati-Kura 1Ngati-Whatua Ngati-Toro 1 Ngati-Tupoho 1Te Arawa (blank) 1 Ngati-Uenuku 1Waikato Ngati-Hikairo 1 Raurimu Total 15Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Kura 1 Raurimu, Kaitieke Waikato Ngati-Apakura 1Whanganui Ngati-Huiaroa 1 Raurimu, Kaitieke Total 1
Owhango Total 17Pokaka Ngapuhi Ngati-Toro 2
Te Aupouri 1(blank) 1
Ngati-Maniapoto Parekahuki 1Ngati-Paoa (blank) 2Ngati-Porou Te Whanau-a-Rua 2
(blank) 1Pokaka Total 10
235
Address Tribe Hapu No Address Tribe Hapu NoTaurewa Ngapuhi Mahurehure 1 Turangi Ngapuhi Mahurehure 1
Ngati-Hikitu 2 Ngati-Whatua 1Ngati-Hikutu 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 3Ngati-Rangi 1 Ngati-Hikairo 1Ngati-Rehia 1 Ngati-Hine 12Ngati-Whakaeke 3 Ngati-Hirangi 1Ngati-Whatua 1 Ngati-Manunui 1
Ngati-Ruapani Tuhoe 1 Ngati-Parekawa 1Ngati-Tamatera Ngati-Pare 1 Ngati-Paretekawa 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 1 Ngati-Rongomai 7
Ngati-Hikairo 3 Ngati-Te Rangiita 1Ngati-Hine 1 Ngati-Turangi 19Ngati-Hinemihi 1 Ngati-Turumakina 1Ngati-Manunui 4 Ngati-Waewae 1Ngati-Parekawa 2 Turangitukua 2Ngati-Turumakina 1 Tu-te Mahuta 1
Te Arawa Ngati-Pikiao 4 (blank) 2Taurewa Total 29 Whanganui Ngati-Uenuku 1Tokaanu Ngapuhi Ngati-Toro 1 Turangi Total 57
Ngati-Whatua 1 Turangi, Korohe Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 2Te Hikutu 1 Ngati-Hine 9
Ngati-Awa Ngati-Pukeko 1 Tutemahuta 2Ngati-Maniapoto Ngati-Rongomai 1 Turangi, Korohe Total 13
(blank) 1 Turangi, Waiotaka Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Rongomai 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 18 Ngati-Rongonui 1
Ngati-Hikairo 5 Turangi, Waiotaka Total 2Ngati-Hine 2 Waiouru Arawa Ngati-Pikiao 1Ngati-Hinemihi 1 Ngapuhi Ngati-Maniapoto 1Ngati-Kuraria 1 Ngati-tautahi 1Ngati-Manunui 2 (blank) 1Ngati-Parekawa 1 Ngati-Kahungunu Ngati-Hori 1Ngati-Paretekawa 1 Ngati-Poporo 1Ngati-Pikiahu 1 Ngati-Paoa Ngati-Tamatere 2Ngati-Rangiita 1 (blank) 2Ngati-Rongomai 5 Ngati-Porou Rakairoa 1Ngati-Turangi 10 Tai Tanga-Mahaki 1Ngati-Turumakina 12 Ngati-Rangi Wainui-a-Rua 1Turangitukua 1 Ngati-Ruakawa Parewahawaha 1(blank) 1 Ngati-Tuwharetoa Kurauia 1
Ngati-Uenuku Ngati-Turangi 1 Ngati-Turangi 1Ngati-Whatua Ngati-Rongomai 1 Rangitaane (blank) 1Te Whanau-a-Apanui Te Whanau-a-Te Ehutu 1 Te Arawa Tuhourangi 1
Tokaanu Total 71 Te Atiawa (blank) 1Tokaanu, Hauwai Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Manunui 2 Wainui-a-Rua Ngati-Rangi 1
Ngati-Parekawa 1 (blank) 1Tokaanu, Hauwai Total 3 Waiouru Total 21Tokaanu, Hirangi Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Turangi 1 Grand Total 818Tokaanu, Hirangi Total 1Tokaanu, Te Ngohe Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Kurauwia 1Tokaanu, Te Ngohe Total 1Tokaanu, Waihi Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Parekawa 2
Ngati-Turumakina 6(blank) 1
Whanganui (blank) 1Tokaanu, Waihi Total 10Tongariro Ngapuhi Ngati-Whatua 1
Ngati-Haua (blank) 1Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 13
Ngati-Rongomai 1(blank) 1
Tongariro Total 17Tongariro, Poutu Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Hikairo 2Tongariro, Poutu Total 2Tongariro, Roto-Aira Ngati-Tuwharetoa Ngati-Marangataua 1
Whanganui Ngati-Rangi 1Tongariro, Roto-Aira Total 2
236
Appendix 6: Maori Agricultural Statistics from Census between 1890 and 1911(Census of Maori Population and Dwelling, AJHR, H-26)
Year County Potatoes Wheat Maize Other crops Sown grasses Potatoes Wheat Other crops Sheep cattle PigsWest Taupo 28.00 1.00 0.50 570.00 318.50 5.00 139.25 60.00 1,052.00 3,761.00East Taupo 384.00 57.00 1,000.00 1,325.00 4,144.00Waimarino not listedWanganui 306.50 39.50 304.00 12,065.00 1,438.00 2,178.00
28.00 0.00 1.00 0.50 570.00 1,009.00 44.50 500.25 13,125.00 3,815.00 10,083.00
Year County Potatoes Wheat Maize Other crops Sown grasses Potatoes Wheat Other crops Sheep cattle PigsWest Taupo 211.25 157.00 49.00 78.25 1,205.50 325.00 134.00 343.00 3,628.00 1,946.00 7,577.00East Taupo 891.00 62.00 11.00 178.00 44.00 870.00 77.00 241.00 3,105.00 1,058.00 6,134.00Waimarino not listedWanganui 339.50 187.00 190.50 98.50 91.00 14,145.00 1,061.00 2,180.00
1,441.75 406.00 250.50 354.75 1,340.50 1,195.00 211.00 584.00 20,878.00 4,065.00 15,891.00
Year County Potatoes Wheat Maize Other crops Sown grasses Potatoes Wheat Other crops Sheep cattle PigsWest Taupo 640.00 86.50 181.00 222.25 524.00 - - - 27,430.00 1,466.00 6,906.00East Taupo 46.00 - 1.50 6.00 - 228.50 - 33.50 2,560.00 223.00 1,500.00Waimarino not listedWanganui 293.00 19.00 143.00 241.00 2,496.00 - - - 15,395.00 568.00 2,214.00
979.00 105.50 325.50 469.25 3,020.00 228.50 0.00 33.50 45,385.00 2,257.00 10,620.00
Year County Potatoes Wheat Maize Other crops Sown grass Potatoes Wheat Other crops Sheep cattle PigsWest Taupo 493.50 69.25 21.75 9.00 171.00 306.50 231.00 127.00 20,107.00 3,087.00 3,264.00East Taupo 181.00 64.00 22.00 7,700.00 344.00 269.00Waimarino not listedWanganui & Waitotara 469.75 126.00 129.50 277.00 7,311.00 50.00 10.00 17,200.00 548.00 2,688.00
1,144.25 195.25 151.25 350.00 7,504.00 356.50 231.00 137.00 45,007.00 3,979.00 6,221.00
Year County Potatoes Wheat Maize Other crops Sown grass Potatoes Wheat Other crops Sheep cattle PigsWest Taupo ~Southern 276.00 69.25 36.25 2,222.00 147.50 15.25 1,400.00 1,298.00 957.00 ~Northern * * * * * * * * * *East Taupo 239.50 10.00 5.50 149.25 1,799.00 35.50 810.00 7,334.00 1,230.00 820.00Waimarino 266.50 55.50 187.50 4,361.00 9.00 10,608.00 1,363.00 1,573.00Wanganui 329.25 149.50 102.25 20.00 13,387.75 32.00 2,364.00 9,054.00 1,551.00 1,298.00
835.25 159.50 163.25 356.75 19,547.75 76.50 0.00 3,174.00 26,996.00 4,144.00 3,691.00
Year County In Potatoes (acres)
In Wheat (acres)
In Maize (acres)
In other crops (acres)
In sown grasses (acres)
In tussock or other
unimproved (acres)
Horses SheepCattle
including calves
Diary cows in milk or calf Pigs
West Taupo 560.25 90.50 330.75 691.00 12,344.00 265,319.25 1,914.00 5,680.00 3,594.00 655.00 2,802.00East Taupo 326.00 0.25 77.00 211.00 6,743.00 - 1,834.00 17,812.00 2,037.00 125.00 3,381.00Waimarino 140.75 45.50 55.25 52.50 6,409.00 5,603.00 868.00 19,832.00 1,038.00 298.00 1,104.00Wanganui 220.75 11.00 79.75 507.75 12,045.00 2,814.00 958.00 18,936.00 551.00 63.00 1,192.00
1,247.75 147.25 542.75 1,462.25 37,541.00 273,736.25 5,574.00 62,260.00 7,220.00 1,141.00 8,479.00
Land Cultivated in Common by Members of Hapu Livestock Held
1911 Total
1891
1896
1901
Land Cultivated by Individuals
1906
1911
1891 Total
1896 Total
1901 Total
1906 Total
Land Cultivated by Individuals Land Cultivated in Common by Members of Hapu Livestock Held
1886 Total
1886
237
Appendix 7: Sheep Numbers Owned by Maori and Non-Maori Farmers, 1888 – 1911(Source: Annual Sheep Returns, AJHR, H-23)
*Ethnicity, M= Maori, N-M = non-Maori, M/N-M = appears to be Maori and non-Maori farming jointly?, ? = Unclear
Area Ethnicity 1886 1887 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905Karioi ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 226
M 0 408 943 1,358 1,301 1,750 1,793 1,947 3,523 2,991 1,681 1,787 1,562 1,299 1,071 858 1,505N-M 0 0 51,000 52,285 47,450 48,718 47,045 46,694 48,094 54,064 2,771 50,644 51,515 48,396 4,668 1,889 931
Karioi Total 0 408 51,943 53,643 48,751 50,468 48,838 48,641 51,617 57,055 4,452 52,431 53,077 49,695 5,965 2,747 2,436Moawhango M 21,700 21,039 46,045 59,590 70,010 91,717 86,991 99,027 107,713 90,678 52,811 50,643 39,610 4,611 4,399 2,775 1,799
M/N-M 4,220 7,000 6,500 6,500 7,700 9,148 11,073 12,449 11,301 10,890 8,318N-M 35,064 40,830 25,712 49,008 39,725 44,969 42,595 58,660 51,973 59,182 55,496 63,462 62,232 20,563 16,800
Moawhango Total 60,984 68,869 78,257 115,098 117,435 145,834 140,659 170,136 159,686 149,860 119,608 124,995 110,160 25,174 21,199 2,775 1,799Moawhango [& Napier] N-M 0 0 1,350 1,900 1,800 2,318 2,300 2,173 2,197 2,360 1,974 2,282 1,976 1,997 1,356Moawhango [& Napier] Total 0 0 1,350 1,900 1,800 2,318 2,300 2,173 2,197 2,360 1,974 2,282 1,976 1,997 1,356Moawhangoiti M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 400 182 400 330 280 390Moawhangoiti Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 400 182 400 330 280 390Ohakune N-M 0 0 0 0 0 0 225 618 1,050 484 312 319 415 362 533 690 775Ohakune Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 225 618 1,050 484 312 319 415 362 533 690 775Raetihi ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 153 53 121 131 127 182 130 230 130 112 92
M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 468 626 457 818 863 1,285 1,093N-M 0 0 0 0 0 152 871 1,415 1,424 1,081 2,485 3,905 4,061 5,707 5,522 5,994 6,726
Raetihi Total 0 0 0 0 0 152 1,024 1,468 1,595 1,212 3,080 4,713 4,648 6,755 6,515 7,391 7,911Tokaanu ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,269 0 0 495 3,074 1,766 194 282 500
M 0 150 1,600 985 2,533 7,479 17,200 18,177 23,328 24,727 30,398 22,874 14,487 9,034 9,311 5,605 4,847N-M 0 0 3,156 2,050 3,000 1,220 4,685 4,035 1,090 1,370 946 304 0
Tokaanu Total 0 150 4,756 3,035 5,533 8,699 21,885 22,212 26,687 26,097 31,344 23,673 17,561 10,800 9,505 5,887 5,347Waiouru N-M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,018 1,260 11,360 1,020Waiouru Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,018 1,260 11,360 1,020Waiouru [Taihape] N-M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,000 8,093Waiouru [Taihape] Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,000 8,093GRAND TOTAL 60,984 69,427 136,306 173,676 173,519 207,471 214,931 245,648 243,014 237,468 161,100 208,693 188,227 95,801 46,333 38,850 27,381