1

Contextualising Appraisal:

origins and challenges

J R Martin

Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney

1. Development

2. SFL

3. Challenges

1. Development

- story genres

- literature/art appreciation

- media discourse

- history discourse

- popular science

- legal discourse

- academic discourse

Rothery, J 1994 Exploring Literacy in School English (Write it Right Resources for Literacy and Learning). Sydney: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program.

Plum, G 1988 Text and contextual conditioning in spoken English: a genre-based approach. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Sydney. www.wagsoft.com/Systemics/Archive/

- initially, problem of evaluation in story genres...

recountanecdoteexemplumobervationnarrativenews story...

- then critical appreciation of literature and fine art...

personal responseinterpretationcritical response...

Rothery, J & M Stenglin 1997 Entertaining and instructing: exploring experience through story. in F Christie & J R Martin [Eds.]. Genre & Institutions: social process in the workplace and school. London: Cassell. 231-263.

Rothery, J. & Stenglin, M. 2000. Interpreting literature: the role of appraisal. L Unsworth [Ed.] Researching Language in Schools and Communities: functional linguistics approaches. London: Cassell. 222-244.

- then media discourse...

news story(event-based/issue based)featuresopinion...

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ethics/morality (rules & regulations)

aesthetics/value (criteria & assessment)

JUDGEMENT

APPRECIATION

feeling institutionalised as proposals

feeling institutionalised as propositions

AFFECT

- culminating in our basic cartography for ATTITUDE...

- canonically deployed for history discourse (Coffin)...

- Fuller’s work on heteroglossia (science and humanties) in popular science...

Fuller, G 1998 Cultivating science: negotiating discourse in the popular texts of Stephen Jay Gould. J R Martin & R Veel [Eds.] Reading science: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of science. London: Routledge. 35-62.

...developed as ENGAGEMENT by Peter White for media discourse...White, P R R 2003 Beyond modality and hedging: a dialogic view of intersubjective stance. Text 23.2 (Special Issue on Appraisal edited by J R Martin & M Macken-Horarik). 259-284.

contract

proclaim

disclaim

deny

counter

no, not, failed to…

but, even, amazingly…

confirm

of course, naturally, rhet  Q…

commit

pronounce

endorse

I contend, indeed…

experts convincingly  showed…

expand

entertain

attribute

acknowledge

distance

she said, I heard…

they claimed to have shown…

perhaps, might, possible,  I reckon…

- Henrike Korner on grading in legal judgements (FORCE and FOCUS)...

Korner, H 2000 Negotiating Authority: the logogenesis of dialogue in common law judgments. Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney PhD Thesis.

- Susan Hood on graduation inacademic discourse...

14

APPRAISAL thus came to be regiona lised as three interacting domains - ATTITUDE, ENGAGEMENT and GRADUATION.

ATT ITUDE is co ncerned with our fee lings, includi ng emotional reactions, judgements of behaviour and evaluation of things. ENGAGEMENT deals with s ourcing attitudes and the p lay of voices around opinio ns in disco urse. GRAD UATION attends to grading phenomena whereby feelings are ampl if ied and categories blurred.

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ENGAGEMENT�monogloss

heterogloss

ATTITUDE

AFFECT...

JUDGEMENT...

APPRECIATION...

GRADUATION

FORCE

FOCUSsharpen

soften

raise

lower

APPRAISAL

2. SFL

- strata

- metafunction

- appraisal, alongside cohesion, multimodalityand genre, have been successful exports from systemic functional linguistics to wide range of consumers outside SFL...

... but it is important to consider its position as part of a functional model of language and social context.

- SFL realisation hierarchy (strata)

semantics

lexicogrammar

phonology

textual

interpersonal

ideational

- SFL meaning complementarity (metafunction)

textual interpersonal

ideational

- metafunction x stratification...

- metafunction and structure...

semantics

lexicogrammar

phonology

context

- privileging context as a stratum (Firth, Halliday….)

textual

interpersonal

ideational

field

tenor

mode

- mapping context with metafunctions (register)

- IFG3 cover...

- stratified context plane (register and genre)…

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are needed to see this picture.

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

ENGAGEMENT�monogloss

heterogloss

ATTITUDE

AFFECT...

JUDGEMENT...

APPRECIATION...

GRADUATION

FORCE

FOCUSsharpen

soften

raise

lower

APPRAISAL

ENGAGEMENT�monogloss

heterogloss

ATTITUDE

AFFECT...

JUDGEMENT...

APPRECIATION...

GRADUATION

FORCE

FOCUSsharpen

soften

raise

lower

APPRAISAL

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apprai sal in SFL. . . On the basis of th e hie rarchies and comple mentarities introd uced above we can locate apprai sal as an interperson al system at t he level of discourse semantics. At this leve l it co-articulates interpersonal me aning with two other system s – negotia t ion and involvement.

Negotiation complements apprais al by focussing on the interactive aspects of discou rse, speech function and exchange struc t ure (as presented in Martin 1992b). Eggins & Slade 1997 present a de t ailed SFL fra mework for analysing interactive moves in casual conversation.

Invo lvement complements appraisal by focussing on non-gradable resources for negotiating tenor relations, especia lly solidarity. Terms of address fa ll into this ar ea, along with expletives (and related eup hemisms)and interjections (thes e wi ll be re lated to attitude in Chapter 2 below). Lexical resources which function as signals of group af fil iation can also be considered here, including slang (cf. Halli day 1976b on the criminal argot he re fers at as anti -language), and technical and specialised l exis (and attendant acronyms). To this collection we could add secret scripts and pig-latins, various markers of social d ialect (accent, non-standard morphol ogy, semantic sty le etc.) and also, following Chang 200 4, idioms.

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power

solidarity

negotiation

involvement

appraisal

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REGISTER DISCOURSE SEMANTICS LEXICOGRAMMAR PHONOLOGY

TENOR

pow er(st at us)

solidarit y(cont act)

NEGOTIATION- speech fun ct ion- exchange

APPRAISAL- engagement- aff ect- judgement- appreciat ion- g raduat ion

INVOLVEMENT- naming- t echnicalit y- abst ract ion- ant i-language- swearing

- moo d- t agg ing

- ' evaluat ive' lexis- modal verbs- modal adjunct s- po larity- pre/ numerat ion- int ensifi cati on- repet it ion- manner ; ext ent- logico-semant ics- vocat ion

- pro per names- t echnical lexis- specialised lexis- slang- t aboo lexis- idioms- grammat ical met apho r

- t one (& 'k ey' )

- loudness- pitc h movement- voice quality- phon aest hesia- [f orma tt ing]

- ' accent' ...- whisper...- acron yms- ' pig l at ins'- secret script s

3. Challenges

- lexical relations

- inscribing/invoking (commitment)

- annotation

- visualisation

- intermodality (image/sound/space)

- ...

- search for recognition criteria for attitude categories...

- Collins Cobuild dictionary- Roget’s Thesaurus

[tip: consult a translator!]

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attitude differe ntiatin g frame s AFFECT {It makes person feel AFFECT that [p roposition]} It makes m e feel happy that they'v e come. JUDGEMENT {It was JUDGEMENT of person to do t hat} It was silly of them t o do that. APPRECIATION {Perso n consid er thi ng APPRECIATION} I consid er it beautiful . [Person se e it as APPRECIATION] . . . they see it as

- the issue of double+ coding...

36

- overlap s

AFFECT & JUDGEMENT (feeling indicat ing judgement about behavi our) guil t y, emba rrassed, proud, disgusted, jealous, env ious, ashame d... I feel disgusted wi t h John for refus ing t o apologis e.

JUDGEMENT & APPRECIATION ( value indicating ju dgeme nt abo ut behavi our) he played skilfully he's a skilful player ------ it was a skilful innings

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judgement appreciation he proved a fascinating player it was fascinating innings (impact) he proved a splendid player it was a splendid innings (quality) he proved a balanced player it was a balanced innings (balance) he proved an economical player it was an economical innings (complexity) he proved an invaluable player it was an invaluable innings (valuation) he was an average player (normality) it was an average innings he was a strong player (capacity) it was a strong innings he was a brave player (tenacity) it was a brave innings he was an honest player (veracity) it was an honest innings he was a responsible player (propriety) it was a responsible innings

- criteria for modelling lexical relations...

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SOCIAL ESTEEM 'venial' POSITIVE [ admire] NEGATIVE [c rit icise]normality [ fa t e]

' is s/ he special?'

lucky , for t unat e, charmed... ;nor mal, average, every day... ;in, f ashion able, avant garde...

unfor t unat e, pit iful , t ragic...odd, peculiar, eccent ric... ;dat ed, dagg y, ret rograde...

capacit y

' is s/ he capable?'

pow erful , vigorous, robust ... ;insight ful , clever, gif te d... ;balanced, t oget her, sane...

mild, weak, whimpy... ;slow, st upid, t hick... ;fl aky, neurot ic, insane...

tenacit y [ resolve]

' is s/ he dependable?'

plucky , brave, heroic... ;reliable, dependable... ;t ireless, persevering, resolu te

rash, cowar dly, despon dent. .. ;unreliable, undependable...weak, dist ract ed, dissolut e...

SOCIA L SAN CT ION 'm ortal' POSITIVE [praise] NEGATIVE [ condemn] veracit y [ t rut h] 'is s/he h onest ?'

tr uth ful, hones t , credible ... ; real, authent ic , genu ine... ; fran k, dire ct ...

dishones t , deceitfu l, insincere .. ; glitz y, bogus, fake ... ; decept ive, manipulativ e...

propriety [ eth ics] 'is s/he b eyond repro ach?'

goo d, moral, eth ical... ; law abiding, fai r, just ... ; sensitive, kind, caring ...

bad, imm oral, evil ... ; corrupt , unfair, unjust. .. ; insensitive, mean, crue l...

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BEYOND TYPOLOGY

- delicacy; topo logy

AFFECT POSITIVE NEGATIVE

dis/ inclinat ion miss, long for , yearn for wary, fe arful , t erroris edun/ happiness cheerful buoyant, jubilant ;

fon d, loving, adorin gsad, melancho ly, despon dent;cut -up , heart -broken... broken-heart ed, heavy-heart ed, sick atheart ; sor rowful ... grief-st ricken, woebegone...dejecte d... ; dejecte d, joy less,dreary, cheerless, unhappy,sad; gloomy, despon dent, ...dow ncast , low, dow n, dow n int he mout h, depressed... ;weepy, wet- eyed, t earful , int ears. ..

in/s ecuri ty t oget her, confi dent , assured;comfor tab le, confi dent , t rust ing

uneasy, anxious , fr eaked out;st artl ed, surprised, ast onished

dis/ sat isf acti on curiou s, absorbed, engrossed;sati sfi ed, impressed, proud

bored, fe d up, exasperate d;cross , angry, fur ious

- distinguishing inscribed from invoked attitude...

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She had dug him out, she believed, but was not sure.

I rescued my little brother, who had been buried in the sand with her.

It did not take her long and soon she had her brother in her arms.

But this story, which she had just told, had affected her profoundly when she had first heard it from the nurse in Francistown. Now it was having that effect on Mr J.L.B. Matekoni as well; she could see that.

Mma Ramotswe: “...The children were fine children – you only had to hear the story of the girl’s courage to realise that – and their life had taken a sudden and dramatic turn for the better.”

Mma Potokwane: “I am glad that she was happy here,” said Mma Potokwane. “She is a very brave girl, that one.”

- degrees of attitudinal commitment

afford

flag

inscribe

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invoke

invite

flag

afford I rescued my little brother

The child crept out and scrabbled quickly at the sand.

provoke she turned on her heels and ran like a gazelle through the bush

inscribe a very brave girl

- attitudinal commitment (degrees of explicitness)

- annotation and vosualisation (“can’t see the froest for the tree” issue)...

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key: inscribe d affe ct , jud gem ent , appr eciat ion 1 In 194 2 an A ustralian soldier went to war on a mud dy t rack in New Guinea. As Jack farewelled his wife, she held his hand to her preg nant belly. ‘Promise me you’ll ret urn, ’ Peggy whispered. Jack nodded and kissed her. /2 Jack joined soldiers from across Australia. Tog ether th ey tr avelled north to t ry and stop t he advance of t he Japanese army. 3 A nother solider went t o the same war on the same mud dy t rack. The man’s name wasHoshi. He’d left his wife and ba by girl in Japan and gone to f ight f or his Emperor. /4 Hoshi tr avelled south f rom his home in Shikoku, fighti ng battles alongside his comrades. They were brave me n, but months of war had hardened t hem. Some of the soldiers had bec ome cruel. This made Ho shi sad, as he knew th ey were good men at heart. 5 J ack’s bat talion landed in the south of Papua New Guinea. They practised jungle -fighti ng and learned to use their rifles. /6 ‘The Japanese have landed on the nor t hern beache s,’ said Jack’s captai n. ‘To st op them reachi ng Port Mores by , we have to march ov er steep mou ntains along t he Kokoda Track. It ’s ninet y-six kilome t res, but we m ust hold the line.’ Jack hated war, but to prot ect Peggy and his chil d, he knew he had to fi ght for his count ry .

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7 Hoshi and his comrades landed on a black sandy beach in the north of Papua New Guinea. They cut their way through dense jungle and waded through foul-smelling swamps, sloshing through mud that sucked the boots from their feet. Hoshi pulled blood-sucking leeches from his legs. Wild sago thorns ripped at his flesh and oozing tropical ulcers infected his skin. /8 Mosquitos and other biting insects made day and night a misery, but Hoshi and his comrades were determined. They must fight for their empire. When the officers yelled, ŌAttackÕ, they charged into machine-gun fire. And those that lived, marched south towards Port Moresby. 9 Jack was exhausted from weeks of fighting along the Kokoda Track. He woke to the grumbling sounds of soldiers and prayed that he would survive this war. The air was hot, humid and sticky, yet his body shivered with fever. Many of his mates had died, but so far Jack had been lucky. Reinforcements were on their way. If his luck held out, he would make it home as heÕd promised. /10 Hoshi hated having to kill, but it was his duty to fight. So many of his comrades had died from bullets and disease. He was tired and hungry and wanted only to sleep. As Hoshi prepared for yet another battle, he thought of his daughter Hana. Would he ever see her laughing eyes again? 11 Jack received a letter from home and every night his dreams were filled with images of Peggy and their baby. How he longed to hold his new-born son. /12 At night Hoshi dreamed of flying home, of lying in the garden, telling Hana stories, as cherry blossoms fell gently into her hair. How he longed for the war to end. 13 Gunshot shredded the jungle. ŌCome on, lads.Õ The Austalian captain yelled. Jack leapt out of his weapon pit to join his mates. As bullets whizzed through the air, Hoshi whispered a prayer and turned to face the enemy. ŌBanzai!Õ his comrades screamed.

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/14 Jack fir ed his gun. He saw shock and t erro r in th e Japanese soldier’s eye s as t hey fell. Jack want ed t o drop his rifl e and cover his ears, bu t it was impossibl e t o block the cr ies o f the injured and dying men. There wa s a lull in t he fighting and bo th side s wit hd rew. Hoshi and Jack had each seen great a cts of c ourage. Many men had fallen , but somehow Hosh i and Jack surviv ed. 15 The men bandaged thei r wound s and re gr ouped. Then Hoshi’ s commanding off icer rais ed his arm. ‘At t ack!’ Hoshi saw his brave comrades fall , dyin g all around him. Then a sniper’s bull et str uck th e of fi cer. ‘Lead t he men !’ the wou nded ma n cr ied. /16 Hoshi looked around. The oth er soldiers t rust ed him. Asking th em t o run t o thei r death was the hardest thing he could imagine. But is was now his du t y. ‘A t t ack!’ Hoshi screamed. His men ran i nt o a st orm of bullets . Hoshi fe lt shrapnel ri p in t o his flesh . He stumbl ed and felt himsel f falling. 17 A twig snapped. Jack crept deeper int o the jungle. The th ick vines blocked t he dusky light , creating st range shadows. An oth er snap. Hoshi raised his bayonet . Jack saw the flash of st eel – t oo lat e. /18 Hoshi st abbed th e young Aus t ralian. Jack groaned as he hu rtl ed into Hoshi . Grappling and shoving , th e t wo soldiers rolled down the slippery hill.

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19 The men fell apart, gasping, in a ditch. Jack dropped his rifle in the scuffle. He tried to reach for it, but it slid out of his grasp. /20 Hoshi raised his bayonet. He tied to stand, but winced in pain. The bayonet slipped from his hand. Both men were badly wounded. They watched each other and waited. 21 Shadows lengthened. A full moon rose. The jungle was quietly eerie. In the soft light, Jack saw the Japanese soldier clutching a photograph. Tears were rolling down his face. /22 ŌShiawaseni narundayo (Be happy, with luck we will meet again), Hana,Õ Hoshi whispered to his little girl, trying to stay awake. ŌI donÕt know what youÕre saying, mate,Õ Jack muttered, Ōbut you donÕt sound like one of the vicious Japs theyÕve been telling us about.Õ 23 Hoshi and Jack stared into each otherÕs eyes. The Hoshi rolled closer, groaning with the effort. Scalding pain burned across his chest as he held out the picture. Jack took the photograph. A chubby girl with shining hair and laughing eyes smiled up at him. ŌSheÕs a real sweetie, mate,Õ he whispered softly. ŌHana,Õ Hoshi groaned. ŌSumimasen (IÕm sorry), Hana.Õ /24 Jack reached inside his uniform for his photograph. It was spattered with blood. ŌMy wife,Õ he said, gently wiping the picture and offering it to Hoshi. ŌWith my son, who IÕve never seen.Õ Jack sighed. ŌWarÕs a mugÕs game, hey?Õ Hoshi didnÕt understand the words but just as he loved his own family, he knew that this Australian soldier loved the woman in the photograph. 25 Insects crawled over the two men, feasting on their wounds, as the night became cold. ŌI think IÕm done for,Õ Jack moaned, Ōand you donÕt look too good either. But if you do make it home, tell your little girl IÕm sorry.Õ /26 Hoshi couldnÕt reply but the voice comforted him. HeÕd been afraid of dying alone. This man was his enemy, but Hoshi sensed he was a good man.

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appraiser inscrip t ion appraised att itu de Jack kissed Peggy affect Jack hated war affect Jack longed to hold his ... son affect Jack wanted to dr op rifle ... affect Jack loved the woman i n... affect Jack sighed son..never seen affect Jack moaned done for affect Jack sor ry Hoshi not t oo good affect X8 soldiers grumbling affect x1 Jack lucky Jack judgement Jack luck Jack judgement Jack not… vici ous Hoshi judgement Jack mug Jack & Hoshi judgement X4 Jack foul -smelling swamps appre ciation Jack strange shadows Jack sweetie Hana appreciation Jack (not) good Hoshi’s cond ition appreciation X4

- Australians appraising

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Hoshi sad affect Hoshi hated having to kill affect Hoshi wanted to sleep affect Hoshi longed for the war to end affect Hoshi tears phot ograph affect Hoshi groaned Hana Hoshi sumimasen ' sorry ' Hana affect Hoshi loved his own fami ly affect Hoshi comfo rted Jack's vo ice affect Hoshi afraid of dy ing alone affect X10 Japanese soldiers shock affect Japanese soldiers terror affect Japanese soldiers tru sted Hoshi affect x3 Hana laughing affect Hana happy affect Hana laughing affect Hana smiled affect x4 Hoshi brave comrades judgement Hoshi hardened comrades judgement Hoshi cruel comrades judgement Hoshi good at hea rt comrades judgement Hoshi determined Hoshi & comrades judgement Hoshi brave men judgement Hoshi luck Hoshi judgement Hoshi good Jack judgement X8 Hoshi foul -smelling swamps appreciation Hoshi misery day and ni ght appreciation Hoshi hardest asking them to run.. appreciation x3

- Japanese appraising

- prosodic visualisation of attitude (Bandar Almutairi)

- attitude in other modalities...

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55

- sample folk

taxonomy

for affect

56

- regions of ambient meaning

VIBRANCY

WARMTH

FAMILIARITY

How bright and bold is the colour ?

Which colour?

How many different colours?

57

VIBRANCY bold (highly saturated, med ian value) light (median saturated, relatively brigh t )soft dim ( median saturated, relatively dim) WAR MT H warm (red, orange, yellow) cool ( blue, purple, dark green) FAMILI... ARITY differentiated colour (fami liar) monochrome (removed)

58

- uses and users of attitude...

60

ENGAGEMENT�monogloss

heterogloss

ATTITUDE

AFFECT...

JUDGEMENT...

APPRECIATION...

GRADUATION

FORCE

FOCUSsharpen

soften

raise

lower

APPRAISAL

- uses of...

1. ap p rai s al (s ys t e m )

- th e globa l pot e n t ia l of the langua ge for m aki ng e valu a ti ve mea ning s, e .g . for a c t iva t in g po s iti ve /ne ga t ive view po in t s, g ra du at in g for ce/ fo cus, ne go t ia t in g inter s ub je c t ive s t ance

2. k e y (regi s te r )

- s itu a t ion al va ria n t s or su b- sel e c ti on s of t h e g lo b al e valu a ti ve mea nin g ma king pot e n t ia l – t ypic a lly r e con figur a t io n of the p ro b ab ilit ies for the oc curr ence of pa r tic ular e va lu at ive m ea ning-m aki ng o p tion s or for the co- occ urr ence o f o p ti ons

3. s t a n c e (t ex t- t yp e )

- s ub- sele c ti ons of e va lu a ti ve o p ti ons with in t ext; p a t t erns o f use o f e va lu at ive o p ti on s with in a g iven ‘ke y’ asso cia ted with p ar tic ula r rh e to rica l ob je c t ive s an d the co n s tru c ti on of a u tho rial pers on ae

4. e v al u a ti on (in s tanc e )

- in sta n tia t io n of ev alu a ti ve o p t io ns in t ex t

5. re a c t ion (rea din g )

- th e tak e- up o f e va lu at ive m ea nings in a t ex t ac cor d ing to the lis tener/reade r’s s ub je c t ivel y d e t er m ine d rea ding po s iti on ; the a t t itu din al po s it ion s a c t iva t ed by th e reader as a res u lt of th e ir inter a c ti on with the t ext

- instantiation (system/instance scale)

…a process of subpotentialising the meanings factored by strata, metafunction and rank as realisation…

textual

interpersonal

ideational

clause

group

etc. phoneme

syllable

etc.word

sequence

figure

etc.

graph/phonology

lexicogrammar

discourse semantics

- climate/weather metaphor…

Wh erea s re ali s a tio n is a s cale of ab s tr a c tion, inv olving the r ec oding of on e p att ern of mea nin gs as an o th er, in s t an ti a ti on is a sc ale o f g ener alis a tio n, inv olving our perspe c tive on ine r tia and change – ar e we t r ying t o s tand back and g et an o vera ll p ict ur e of wh at is g oing on or ar e we s tan din g righ t up close, m icro sc opica lly subsumed in th e d ec on s t ru c tion of an inst anc e, or are w e so mewhere in b e twe en ? Hal lida y’s an alo gy her e is we a th er and clim ate (Hal liday & Mat thies s en 1 99 9 ), wea th er be ing the cap ricious flux we ex pe rienc e d ay to d a y, and c limate the rel a tive ly c om fo r ting ine r tia we t ry to us e to pl an. Critic al ly, wea th er and clim ate are t he sam e thi ng, lo oked at in d iffere n t wa ys ; clim ate is a gener alis a tion of we a th er p a t te rns, and we a ther is an ins ta nce of clim a tic tr ends.

- alongside realisation…

syste m (g eneralised meaning pote nt ial)regist er (semant ic sub-pot enti al)

t ext t ype (g eneralised act ual) t ext (affor ding inst ance)

reading (subject ifi ed meaning)

genre/ regist ersyste m

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ENGAGEMENT�monogloss

heterogloss

ATTITUDE

AFFECT...

JUDGEMENT...

APPRECIATION...

GRADUATION

FORCE

FOCUSsharpen

soften

raise

lower

APPRAISAL

- users of...

persona

sub-culture

master identity

culture

affiliation

allocation

- construing identity (individuation as a process of allocation and affiliation)

t ex t ua l

i nt e r p er s on a l

i de a t i on a l

fi e ld

t e n o r

m od e

g e nre

system

text

system

text

system

text

reservoir

repertoire

reservoir

repertoire

reservoir

repertoire

instantiation

individuation

realisation

propose

compose

commune

textual

interpersonal

ideational

clause

group

etc. phoneme

syllable

etc. word

sequence

figure

etc.

graph/phonology

lexicogrammar

discourse semantics

- ‘always already’…

system/ reservoir

repertoire

text instantiation

logogenes is

ph ylogenes is

ont ogenes is

- semiosis as a resource for users in uses…

system instance

persona

instantiation

individuation

realisation

[logogenesis]

[ontogenesis]

[phylogenesis]

foci of x-genesis

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