CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES

UNEP/CMS/COP13/Inf.7/Annex 1 7 November 2019 Original: English

13th MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES Gandhinagar, India, 17 - 22 February 2020 Agenda Item 26.2.6

REPORT ON STATUS, SCOPE AND TRENDS OF THE LEGAL AND ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN MARINE TURTLES, ITS CONSERVATION IMPACTS,

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS AND MITIGATION PRIORITIES

– MADAGASCAR

(Prepared by the Secretariat) (

Summary: CMS Decisions 12.17 Marine Turtles refers to CITES Decision 17.222, which mandates an assessment on marine turtle trade. This CITES assessment was published in June 2019 and is contained in UNEP/CMS/COP13/Inf.7. This document contains the annexed country report on Madagascar.

Assessingthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinmarineturtles,itsconservationimpacts,managementoptionsandmitigationprioritiesinMadagascar.ImplementationofCITESDecisions17.222and17.223onHawksbillturtle(Eretmochelysimbricata)andothermarineturtles(CheloniidaeandDermochelyidae)

Photo:JessWilliamsReportpreparedby:NicolasPilcher,MarineResearchFoundationJessWilliams,TartarugasparaoAmanhā,PraiadoTofo,Inhambane,MozambiqueOnbehalfoftheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofFaunaandFlora(CITES)Suggestedcitation:WilliamsJL&NJPilcher,2018.Assessmentofthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinmarineturtles,itsconservationimpacts,managementoptionsandmitigationprioritiesinMadagascar.ReporttotheCITESSecretariatProjectS-527.SSFA/2018/DKA.72pp.

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TableofContents ExecutiveSummary................................................................................................................................11.0Introduction.....................................................................................................................................2

1.1Background..................................................................................................................................21.2Countryoverview–Madagascar................................................................................................21.2.1Artisanalfisheries.....................................................................................................................41.2.2Commercialfisheries................................................................................................................51.2.3Fisheriesmanagementandlegislation....................................................................................61.2.4MarineturtlelegislationinMadagascar.................................................................................71.2.5Illegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)Fishing...............................................................101.2.6Fisheriesenforcement...........................................................................................................101.2.7Community-basedmanagementand‘Dina’..........................................................................101.3IntentionalandaccidentaltakeofmarineturtlesinMadagascar...........................................111.4Domestictradeinmarineturtles..............................................................................................121.5Exportofmarineturtles............................................................................................................141.4Cultureandtraditions...............................................................................................................151.4.1Traditionalbeliefsandtaboos(‘fady’or‘faly’).....................................................................151.4.2Vezoculture...........................................................................................................................151.4.3Consumptionandillness........................................................................................................16

2.0Methodology..................................................................................................................................162.1Literaturereview.......................................................................................................................162.2Fieldwork...................................................................................................................................162.3Rapidassessmentinterviews....................................................................................................16

2.3.1.KeyInformants..................................................................................................................172.4OnlineSurvey............................................................................................................................182.5Samplingsites............................................................................................................................18

3.0Results............................................................................................................................................183.2Fisherydescription....................................................................................................................183.3Turtleinteractions.....................................................................................................................213.4Domesticmarineturtletrade...................................................................................................253.5Casestudies...............................................................................................................................283.4.1CaseStudy1:Traffickingacross180kmfromAnalalavatoMahajanga...............................293.4.2CaseStudy2:TraffickingfromAnalalava..............................................................................293.4.3CaseStudy3:MorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavy.....................................................303.4.4CaseStudy4:TurtlemeatvendorsofMahavatse,Toliara...................................................313.5Domesticmarineturtletraderoutes........................................................................................323.6Magnitudeofdomestictradefromartisanalfishing...............................................................333.7Internationaltrade....................................................................................................................35

4.0Discussion.......................................................................................................................................364.1Artisanalfishingimpacts...........................................................................................................374.2Commercialfishingimpacts......................................................................................................384.3Internationaltradeimpacts......................................................................................................384.4Illustrativefeedbackfromkeyinformants...............................................................................394.4.1CSPMahajangaFeedback......................................................................................................394.4.2Feedbackfromanartisanalmaritimetransporter................................................................404.5Managementchallenges...........................................................................................................414.5.1Applicationandenforcementofthelaw...............................................................................414.5.2Traffickingturtleplastron......................................................................................................424.5.3Corruption..............................................................................................................................424.5.4Culturalsensitivity/bushmeatdemand...............................................................................43

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6.0Conclusions....................................................................................................................................437.0 Recommendations....................................................................................................................44

7.1Conservation&Management...................................................................................................447.2Biology&Sustainability............................................................................................................457.3Additionalprioritysurveyareas...............................................................................................46

8.0 LiteratureCited.........................................................................................................................47AnnexI:Fieldworkitinerary.................................................................................................................52AnnexII:Interviewquestionsforfishingcommunities........................................................................53AnnexIII:Interviewquestionsformanagementexecutives................................................................59AnnexIV:SurveyConstraints...............................................................................................................66AnnexV:Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................67

PhotocourtesyofMichelStrongoff,ChrisScarffeFilm&Photography

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ListofAcronyms ASH–AgenceSanitaireHalieutiqueBRD–BycatchReductionDeviceCBD–ConventiononBiologicalDiversityCCL–CurvedCarapaceLength(ofseaturtles)CITES–ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraCLP–ComitéLocauxdePecheCMS–ConventioninMigratorySpeciesCPUE–CatchPerUnitEffortCSP–CentredeSurveillancedesPêchesEEZ–ExclusiveEconomicZoneEIA–EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentFAO–FoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNationsIHSM–InstitutHalieutiqueetdesSciencesMarinesIOSEAMoU–MemorandumofUnderstandingontheConservationandManagementoftheMarine

TurtlesanditsHabitatsintheIndianOceanandSoutheastAsiaIOTC–IndianOceanTunaCommissionIUCN–InternationalunionfortheConservationofNatureandNaturalResourcesIUU–Illegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(fishing)IWT–IllegalWildlifeTradeLMMA–LocallyManagedMarineAreaLNG–LiquefiedNaturalGasMEEF–MinistryofEnvironmentsandForestMGA–MadagascarAriary–1000MGA=approximately28USDMMA–MarineManagedAreaMNP–MadagascarNationalParksMPRH–MinistèredelaPêcheetdesRessourcesHalieutiquesMRF–MarineResearchFoundationMPA–MarineProtectedAreaNGO–Non-GovernmentalOrganisationSSF–SmallScaleFisheriesSWIO–SouthWestIndianOceanTED–TurtleExcluderDeviceUNEP–UnitedNationsEnvironmentprogramme,nowUNE–UnitedNationsEnvironmentUSD–UnitedStatesDollarsWCS–WorldConservationSocietyWIO–WesternIndianOcean

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ExecutiveSummaryMadagascarishometofivespeciesofmarineturtles:thegreen(Cheloniamydas),loggerhead(Carettacaretta),hawksbill(Eretmochelysimbricata),Oliveridley(Lepidochelysolivacea)andleatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea),whichareprotectedbynationallawandundertheinternationaltreatiesMadagascarisaPartyto.TheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)listsallspeciesofmarineturtlesonAppendixIandtheConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(CMS)listsallspeciesfoundinMadagascarwatersonAppendixIandII.TheselistingsobligeMadagascarto:1)baninternationaltradeinthespeciesand2)tobantakingofthewildanimalsforanycommercialpurposesandreducethreatstothesurvivalofthesespecies,seekingtostrengtheninternationalcooperationonprotectingthem.Forthepurposeofenhancinginternationalcooperation,amongstothers,theCMSMemorandumofUnderstandingontheConservationandManagementofMarineTurtlesandtheirHabitatsoftheIndianOceanandSouth-EastAsia(IOSEAMarineTurtlesMoU)wasalsosignedbyMadagascar.TheconservationandManagementPlanoftheMoUcallsupontheSignatoriestobandirectharvestofturtleswithexceptionsfortraditionalharvest,providedthattheturtlepopulationsinquestioncansustainthatharvest.DespitethelegislativeframeworksinplacetosafeguardmarineturtlesinMadagascar,theseareregularlyandabundantlycaughtaccidentallyoraretargetedillegallybyartisanalandcommercialfishers.Commercialfisheriesofconcernincludetheshrimptrawlandthetunalonglinefishery,bothofwhichareknowntoimpactturtlesintheabsenceofbycatchreductionmeasures.TurtleExcluderDevicesaremandatedonshrimptrawlers,butnomeasurestosafeguardturtlesareinplaceinthelonglineindustryinMadagascar.Inaddition,thereiswidespreadillegal,unregulatedandunreported(IUU)fishinginMadagascarwaterswhichlikelyalsoimpactsmarineturtles.However,themainconcernlieswiththerampantcollectionofmarineturtlesforfoodandtradebytheapproximately100,000fisher-strongartisanalfishery.LegalstructuresareinplacetoprotectmarineturtlesinMadagascar,andwhiletherearelegislativeinstrumentsthatgovernthefisheriessectors,thesearelargelyineffectiveatmanagingthesmall-scalefisherysectorthatisthenormalongmuchofMadagascar’scoastalregions.Coupledwiththis,alackofresources,fundsandstaffmeansthatenforcementisseverelylacking,andillegalcollection,saleandconsumptionofmarineturtlesisrampant.OursurveyssupportearlierfindingsthattheartisanalfisherysectorisextractingthousandsofmarineturtlesfromMadagascarcoastalwaterseachyear.Amongthe153respondentstooursurveyweestimatetheserespondentsalonewereresponsibleforsome3,500turtles,bothasbycatchandmostlyasdirectedtake.Veryfewrespondentsindicatedbycaughtturtleswereeverreleased.Whileextrapolationsfromlimitedreachrapidassessmentsareproblematiconvariousfronts,suchasuniformityofeffortdistribution,varyingcustomsandbeliefs,andregionaldifferencesineachfishery,weestimatethatthepotentialtoremoveapproximately150,000to300,000turtlesperyearexistsgiventhesizeofthecountryandnumberoffishersintheartisanalfisherysector.Ofimportancehereisthemagnitudeofthetotaltake,whichisnotinthehundredsorthousands,butwhichexceeds100,000turtles.Over90%ofmarineturtlescaughtinMadagascararedestinedforlocalconsumptionorforlocaltrade.Wefoundnoevidenceofanysystematicexportmarket,andsuggestthatifthisoccursitisopportunisticandinfrequent,andofafarlesserscalethanthedomestictrade.AnumberoflocalcustomsincludingDinaandfady(traditionalbans)existwhichcouldprotectmarineturtlesfromlocalexploitation,buterosionofsocialnormsmeansthatthesearelesseffectivetodaythaninthe

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past.Oursurveywefoundthatlessthan20%offisherswouldreleaseturtlesbacktotheseaiftheywereaccidentallycaughtinfishinggear,andtheseresponseswereusuallylinkedtolocalfady.Effectivemeasurestoaddresstheillegalcapture,consumptionandtradeinmarineturtlesinMadagascararelikelytoincludestrengtheninglocaltraditionalmanagementapproachessuchasDinaandfady,andprovidingopportunitiesforlocalcommunitiestosupportenforcementofnationallegislation.Inadditiontothiswebelievethereisaneedforincreasingexposureofincidencesofpoachercapturesandturtlereleasesamongstcoastalcommunities;raisingawarenessonthelegalstatusandconservation/managementneedsofmarineturtles;buildingcapacityforenforcementamongstfisheryandtradeMinistryofficials,alongsideprovisionoffundingandresourcestoeffectivelycombatillegalturtletrade;revisingfisherylegislationtoadequatelyaddresstheartisanalfisherysector;addressingIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)fishingandimplementingbycatchreductionprogrammesinlicensedcommercialfisheries;eliminatingcorruptionamongstenforcementofficials;andexploringthepotentialforalternativelivelihoodandincentiveprogrammestolessendependenceonmarineturtlesamongcoastalcommunities.FromabiologicalperspectivethereisaneedtounderstandtheprovenanceofmarineturtlesbeingtakenoutofMadagascarwatersanddeterminetheoverallproductivityofthesesourcerookeriestakingintoaccountotherregionalimpactareas(suchasMozambique);andtoexpandthecurrentrapidsurveytoagreatergeographicalareaandrefinetheestimatesoftotalannualturtletakeinMadagascar.Thesedatacanthencontributetomoreeffectivemanagementofturtlestocks.

1.0Introduction1.1BackgroundTheSecretariatoftheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)incooperationwiththeSecretariatoftheConventioninMigratorySpecies(CMS)contractedtheMarineResearchFoundation(MRF)toassessthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinseaturtlesinMadagascarandMozambique.ThisreportaddressesfindingsfromthisassessmentforMadagascar.ThepresentassessmentcontributestotheimplementationofCITESDecisions17.222and17.223ontheHawksbillturtle(Eretmochelysimbricata)andothermarineturtles(CheloniidaeandDermochelyidae).Particularly,theassessmentcontributestodeterminingthestatus,scopeandtrendsofthelegalandillegalinternationaltradeinseaturtles;determiningtheconservationimpactsassociatedtothistrade;identifyingwaystoimprovethemanagementofseaturtlesinthecontextofthistrade;andidentifyingareas(geographicalandoperational)whereimmediatemitigationeffortsmaybeneeded.TheMarineResearchFoundationwascontractedtocompileinformationonthetradeinseaturtleswhereupdated,scientificallysounddataareavailable,andconductprimaryresearchtogenerateandcollectdataonthetradeinseaturtleswhereitisnon-existing.ThisassessmenthasbeenfundedundertheUS-NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)projectStrengtheningCITESimplementationforselectedmarinespecies(US-NOAAAwardNA17NMF0080186).

1.2Countryoverview–MadagascarMadagascarhostssomeofthemostbiologicallydiversemarinelifeintheWesternIndianOcean(WIO;Koopman2008).Thecountryhasacoastlineof5,697km(MEEF2014),includingextensive

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islandarchipelagos(270islets).Extensivefringingcoralreefsandmangrovesystemsoccuralongthewestcoast(MEEF2014),whichischaracterizedbyabroadshallowcontinentalshelfandishometothemajorityoftheartisanalorsubsistencefishers(LeManachetal.2013).However,whilemostsubsistencefishersoperateinthewest,theeasternpartoftheislandhasthehighesthumanpopulationdensity(SEDAC2000).FivespeciesofmarineturtleoccurinMadagascar:thegreen(Cheloniamydas),loggerhead(Carettacaretta),hawksbill(Eretmochelysimbricata),Oliveridley(Lepidochelysolivacea)andleatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea).ThesystematiccollectionofeggsandnestingfemaleshasledtosignificantdeclinesinnestingactivityonthemainlandofMadagascar(Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Walker&Roberts2005,Humberetal.2016).It’sthoughtthatthereisaminimumofapproximately1,200nestsdepositedperyearinMadagascar(mostlygreens~75%andhawksbills~24%),withthelargestrecordednestingaggregation(approximately1,000nestsperyear)foundonislandsoffthewestandnortherncoasts(Humberetal.2016).Humberetal.(2016)reportmorethan40siteswherenestinghasnotbeenrecordedsince2000.Thereare56MarineProtectedAreas(MPAs),includingsmallLocallyManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs)andthreeMarineManagedAreas(MadagascarMPAAtlas2018;Fig.1).ProposalstoincreasemanagementeffortsandplansforanextensivenetworkofMPAs(Allnutetal.2012)havebeendevelopedbutimplementationhasvariedinsuccess.MPAmanagementcanbebestdescribedasacollectionofmultipleresource-userestrictionsanditsimplementationreliesstronglyonoutsidesupport(Rakotoson&Tanner2006,Cinneretal.2009).

Figure1:Protected/managed/conservationareasinMadagascar(datasource:UNEP-WCMC2018)

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1.2.1ArtisanalfisheriesSmall-scalefisheriesarewidespreadthroughoutMadagascar,withthebulkoffishingeffortfocusedonthewesternandsouthcoasts(Fig.2).Robustmonitoringofthefishingeffort,stockstatusesandtrendsoftheartisanalfishingsectorareseverelydatadeficient,andenforcementoftraditionalzonesagainstMalagasycommercialoperatorsremainsproblematic.Numeroussourceshavesuggestedsomestocksareclosetofisheriescollapse(i.e.elasmobranchs,seacucumbers)whileothershavealreadyundergonesignificantcatchdeclines(shrimpfishing):seriousconcernsaboutdecliningcatchesandstocksofinvertebrates,mainlycollectedthroughreef-gleaning(Cripps2009,2010),havebeennotedinseveralcases(Rasolofonirina&Conand1998,Sabatinietal.2008,Andersonetal.2010).Increasingpressures(politicalinstability,climateinsecurity)aredrivingthemigrationofartisanalfishersatunprecedentedratestoincreasinglyremoteandisolatedregionsandislandsofthewestcoastasadirectresponseandcopingmechanismofdecliningcatchrates(Cripps2010).

Figure2:Commercialfishinggrounds,mangrovehabitatsandmajorfishingportsofMadagascar(as

presentedinRazafindrainibe2010).

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Thetraditionalfisheriesaretypicallycarriedoutfromdugoutcanoesusingoarsandsailsandexploitmarinemammals,marineturtles,fish,sharksandrays,echinoderms,molluscs,crustaceansandsomeseaweeds.Inaddition,non-edibleresourcessuchasaquariumfish,coralsandspongesarealsoperiodicallycollected.Thecollectionofseacucumberfromdeeperwatersisalsoagrowingindustry(Kasprzyck2008).

1.2.2CommercialfisheriesThemajorityofMadagascar’scommercialfishingconsistsofshrimpfishing.Theshrimpfleetoperatesalongthewestcoastinwatersbetween5to30mdeep,focusingonadultPenaeidshrimp(Razafindrainibe2010).Fiveshrimpfishingportsarelocatedalongthewestcoast(fromnorthtosouth):Nosy-Be,Mahajanga,Maintirano,MorondavaandToliara.LandingsitesarelocatedinnearbyprocessingunitsoperatedbyshrimpcompaniesinNosy-Be,MahajangaandMorondava(Razafindrainibe2010).Theoverallcatchperuniteffort(CPUE)oftheshrimpfisheriesisdecreasing.Thisdeclineintheecologicalsustainabilityandeconomicviabilityofthisfisheryisnowcausingownerstoreducetheirfleets(Razafindrainibe2010,McNeish2011).Sincetheearly1980s,tunapurseseineshavebecomemorecommon,landingsome25,000tin2010,andthisfisheryisrequiredtoreportlandingstotheMinistryofFisheriesandHalieuticResources(MinistèredelaPêcheetdesRessourcesHalieutiques,orMPRH).Since2010,mudcrabsanddemersalfishhavealsobeentargetedcommercially,althoughthereisnotyetarobustobserverprogrammetodetailcatchandbycatchrecordsinanyofthesefisheries(MPRH2012).TurtleExcluderDevices(TEDs)havebeenalegalrequirement(underDecree2003-1101of23rdNovember2003)andthisDecreeincludestheuseofBycatchReductionDevices(BRDs)thatreportedlyhaveresultedinreducedincidentalbycatchofmarineturtles(Razafindrainibe2010).TEDsarereportedtohavereducedthebycatchofturtlesintheentireshrimpfleetfrom120turtlesfrom64vesselsin2004totwoturtlesfrom63vesselsin2005(Razafindrainibe2010;TableI).In2007,20turtles,mostlygreen,werereportedasbycatchbetweenFebruaryandJulyamongfivevesselsoperatingofftheEastcoast(Razafindrainibe2010).TheFisheriesSurveillanceCentre(CentredeSurveillancedesPêches,orCSP)claimsthattrawlersoperatingoffthewestcoastarehighlycompliantwiththeTEDregulation,reportingmorethan85%compliance(Razafindrainibe2010).Itisestimatedthat30%ofthewestcoastfleetcarryon-boardobserversfromtheCSPprogramme,howeveritcannotbeconfirmedwhethercrewsuseTEDsandbycatchreductiondevices(BRDs)whennotundersupervision(LeManachetal.2012).Discardedbycatch(includingdiscards,juveniles,andendangeredspecies)fromtheshrimpingsectoristhoughttoequateto12,300tonsorabout2.5millionUSDperyearthatiseitherdiscardedorillegallysoldinAsianmarkets(LeManachetal.2013).TableI:IncidentalcatchofturtlesobservedbyCSPinMadagascarin2004and2005.ZoneA:AmbaroBay;ZoneB:NarindraBay,MahajambaBayandnorthofMajajangaBay;ZoneC:southofMahajambaandCape

St.Andre;ZoneD:westcoast(presentedinRazafindrainibe2010).

Zones2004(99trips) 2005(53trips)

Total Live Dead Total Live Dead

A 30 24 2 0 0 0B 16 14 1 0 0 0C 63 56 6 1 1 0D 11 8 3 1 1 0

Total 120 102 12 2 2 0

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1.2.3FisheriesmanagementandlegislationLegalambiguityandconfusionissystemicinMadagascar’sfisheriessector(LeManachetal.2013,Carver2018).“Thepolicyandlegalframeworkgoverningthesectorisincoherentandambiguous,”aWorldBank(2013)reportstates.“ThereisnoofficialdocumentthatstatestheGovernment’sfisheriessectorpolicy.”Anewfishingcodewasdraftedin2015,buttherulesremainuncertain.AcomprehensivereviewofrelevantfisherieslegislationsisdetailedinRazafindrainibe(2010),LeManachetal.(2013)andBreuil&Grima(2014),andabriefsummaryofthekeyfisheriesdecreesispresentedinTableII.ThefisheriessectoriscurrentlygovernedbytheMinistryofFisheriesandAquaticResources(MPRH).MPRHcomprisesover40directorates,servicesandagenciesandhas184employees:87atcentralheadquartersinAntananarivo,and97staffspreadacrossthe22regions(LeManachetal.2013).

TableII:OverviewofkeyfisherieslegislationinMadagascar,sortedbyfisherysectors.

Instrument Description Details

Commercial/IndustrialSector

DecreeNo.2007-957

Definestheexploitationrulesfortheshallowwatershrimpfishery.

Effortcontrolandindividualtradablepermitsaretwomechanismsspecificallymentionedinthedecree

Ordinance93-022(4May1993)anditsassociatedDecree94-112of18Feb1994

Isthemainregulationsgoverningthefisheriesandaquaculturesectors.

MinistryofFisheriesandAquaticResourcesMinistèredelaPêcheetdesRessourcesHalieutiques(MPRH)preparesandmaintainsfisheriesmanagementplansandstockconservationplans

Decree71-238of18May1971

Allowstrawlingincoastalwaters Establishedthatthezonewithin2nauticalmilesofshoreisnotexclusivelyreservedforsmall-scalefishing

Decree73-171of22March1973

Prohibitsmotorisedtrawlingincoastalwaters.

Trawlingbyboatsover25horsepowerinthe2-mileareawasagainprohibitedin1973

Law90-033of21Dec1990accompaniedbyDecree99-954

TheMalagasyEnvironmentalCharter-Fisheriessectormustcomplywithassociatedenvironmentallegislation

Thereisalackofcompatibilitybetweeninvestmentinitiativesandenvironmentalconcerns

Decree2010-137of23Mar2010

Fisheriessectormustcomplywithassociatedenvironmentallegislation

Integratedcoastalzonemanagement.

Decree2000-415of16Jun2000

Thenumberoftrawlinglicenseswasfrozenin1999.20-yearlicensesweregrantedtoexistingtrawlerusersin2000

Newlicensescannotbeissueduntil2019,althoughthelicensescanbesold.

Traditional/ArtisanalSector

Arrêté10404/97of13Nov1997

Requiresauthorizationtofishorcollectlobsters,crabs,seacucumbers,algae,shrimp,shellfish,octopus,squid,sharkfins,fish,eels,andgobies

Thisregulationhasneverbeenappliedinpractice(LeManachetal.2013).

DecreeNo.2056/2009

Registrationandlicencingofcommercialfishersandgleaners.

Everycommercialfisherandgleanerisrequiredtohaveaprofessionalcard,suppliedforfreebyMPRH

Effectivefisheriesmanagementisalsohinderedsignificantlybyalackofrobustdataonstockresources,catchlandingsandeconomicvaluesofthefisheriesresources(LeManachetal.2013).TherearenostockassessmentsavailableforMadagascar’sfisheriesexceptforinitialestimatesforshrimpstocks(upto2008;LeManachetal.2013)andlargerpelagicspeciesrequiredundertheIndianOceanTunaCommission(IOTC)agreement(Breuil&Grima.2014).OfficialreportstotheFAObyMPRHfailtoaccountforbycatch,finfishorsharksandarethoughttounderestimateactuallandingsupto30%(LeManachetal.2012,LeManachetal.2013).Worryingly,thefisheries

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licensingsystemforforeignfleetsallowsopportunitiesforexploitation,withmanagementregulationsprescribingalimittothetotalnumberoflicenseagreementsorvesselsratherthanlimitingtotalcatchvolumes(LeManachetal.2013).Finally,theartisanalandsubsistencesectorhasnotreceivedthesamemanagerialorlegislativeattentionasthemoreprofitablecommercialandindustrialsector.Subsistencefishingisgenerallyunregulated,unknown,andunmonitored(Breuil&Grima2014).TheonlymeasuresaddressingthissectorincludeartisanalfishersandvendorsbeingrequiredtoregisterthroughaprogramrunbytheMPRH,andfishingwithmosquitonetsisillegalinonly2of13coastalregions(LeManachetal.2013).

1.2.4MarineturtlelegislationinMadagascarWhilemarineturtlesareprotectedthroughseverallegislativemeasures(TablesIII&IV),therearecurrentlynogovernmentinitiativestomanagetheircaptureanduse(Humberetal.2011).InsouthwestMadagascarinparticular,aprolificdirectedtakeofmarineturtlesiswell-documented,notwithstandingnationaldecreesprohibitingexploitation(FrontierMadagascar2003,Jones2012,Gibbonsetal.2013,Goldingetal.2017).TableIIIsummarisesthedirectandindirectlegislativetoolsthatapplytomarineturtlesinMadagascar,whileTableIVdetailsinternationalInstrumentsandConventions.TableIII:LegislationrelatedtomarineturtleprotectioninMadagascar(adaptedfromHumberetal.2015).

InstrumentswithdirectrelevancetomarineturtlesinNationallegislation

Statute Description/keygoal Relevancetomarineturtles

Ordinanceno.93-022on4thMay1993

SetsoutRegulationsforfishingandaquaculture.Article9)textonprohibitedactivitieshasnotbeenadopted

Prohibitedactivities:killing,injuringandcatchingofanyendangeredspecies.

Decreeno.94-112on18thFebruary1994

Decreeconcerningthegeneralorganisationofmarinefishingactivities.Regulationofbycatchinfishinglicenses(Article16.3.candArt27.c)Recordingofbycatch(Article28)

TheMinistryofFisheriesdeterminesthequantityofeachspeciesallowedwithinfishinglicensesincludingrestrictionsonpermissiblebycatch.Boatcaptainsarerequiredtorecordinalogbookthequantityofspecies,includingbycatchspecies.

Decreeno.2003-1101on25thNovember2003

TurtleExcluderDevice(Article12)regulatingthepracticeoftrawlingintheMalagasyterritorialsea

ShrimptrawlersonthewestandeastcoastarerequiredtohaveTurtleExcluderDevices.

Lawno.2005-018on17thOctober2005

InternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraaddressingtrade(Article29)Penalties(Article30,32,33)

Prohibitionoftradeactivities:thepossession,buying,offertobuy,acquisitionforcommercialuseforprofit,exposuretopublicforcommercialpurposes,sale,detainingforsale,offeringforsaleortransportingforsale.Sixmonthstotenyearsimprisonmentandafineof10millionto200millionAr.TheamountofthefineandthesizeofthepenaltyisdoubledifthespeciesareonCITESAppendixI.

Decreeno.2006-097on31stJanuary2006

AddressestherulesfortheimplementationofthelawonInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraandissueofInternationaltradepermits(Articles6&11)

Themanagementbody,afterconsultationofthescientificauthorities,issuespermits,certificatesandauthorizationsundertheprovisionsofCITESandthenationallawonCITES,especiallyhunting,collectionorcapturepermits.

Decreeno.2006-400on13thJune2006

DecreeontheclassificationofwildlifespeciesdetailingthosewithAbsoluteprotection(Article2)

Prohibitedactivities:hunting,captureanddetention.

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Orderno.12.666/2014on28thMarch2014

Relatestotheconservationofmarineturtlescaughtbyfisheries(applicabletonationallonglinevessels).Careofinjuredmarineturtles(Article2)Bycatchequipment(Article3)Recordingofincidents(Article4)

Theboatcaptainshalltakeonboard,wherepossibleandassoonaspossible,anycaught/inanimate/inactiveturtleduringthefishingoperation,anddoeverythingpossibletoreleaseitalive.Boatsmusthaveonboardhook-cutterstofacilitatequickhandlingandreleaseofanymarineturtleshookedorentangled.ThisshouldbedoneincompliancewiththehandlingguidelinesintheidentificationsheetofmarineturtlesoftheIndianOceanTunaCommission(IOTC).Theboatcaptainshallrecordinthefishinglogbookallincidentsinvolvingmarineturtlesduringfishingoperations.Thisinformationshouldincludethespecies,locationofcapture,conditions,actionstakenonboardandtheplaceofrelease.

Draftfisherycodeof27thNovember2014

Harvestrestrictions(Article9) Itisprohibitedatanytime,anyplace,fishing,taking,detentionandsaleofallkindsofprotectedspeciesincludingmarineturtles(underadoption).

InstrumentswithindirectrelevancetomarineturtlesinNationallegislationStatute Description/keygoal RelevancetomarineturtlesNationalConstitutionofMadagascar2010

Hierarchyofinternationaltreatiesandnationallaws(Article137-4)

Treatiesoragreementsdulyratified,uponpublication,haveanauthoritysuperiortothatoflaws.

Decreeno.2010-137on23rdMarch2010

RegulatestheintegratedmanagementofcoastalandmarineareasofMadagascar.Cautionduty(Article6e)Sustainablemanagement(Article26)

Eachactorneedstoavoidcausingirreparabledamagetothenaturalresourcesandrisktothemselvesandforfuturegenerations.Actorsandlocalauthoritiestocommittorationallyandsustainablymanagingcoastalandmarineresources.

StrategicActionPlanfortheBiologicalDiversityofMadagascar.NationalBiodiversityandStrategyActionPlans2015-2025.Decreeno.2016-128ofFebruary232016,adoptingtheNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlansforMadagascar2015to2025

OBJECTIVE12:«By2025,theextinctionofendangeredspeciesisreducedandtheirconservationstatusimproved»

Reducetheextinctionfactorsofendemic,migratingandthreatenedspeciesaswellasthefactorsofdestruction/degradationoftheirhabitats.

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TableIV:Conventions,treatiesandnon-ratifiedagreementsrelatingtomarineturtlesinMadagascar(adaptedfromHumberetal.2015).

InternationalInstruments/Conventions/Agreementswithdirectrelevancetomarineturtles

Instrument/Convention Description Dateimplemented/Notes

ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)

RegulatesandcontrolstheinternationaltradeofthreatenedspeciesthroughthelistinginAppendicesaccordingtothreatlevel.HasbeenenactedintonationallegislationthroughLaw2005-018andDecree2006-097thatdetailstherulesfortheimplementationofLaw2005-018.

Ratifiedin1975.CurrentlyallspeciesofmarineturtlesareincludedonAppendixI.Internationaltradeofmarineturtles(orproducts)isillegal,includingtheimportandexportofjewellerypieces(e.g.necklaces,bracelets,rings,etc.).

ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(CMS)

Aimstoconservemigratoryspeciesandtheirhabitatsthroughouttheirrange.UndertheConvention,eachPartyisrequiredtostrictlyprotectendangeredspecies,listedonAppendixIandstrivetoconcludeinternationalagreementstobenefitspecieslistedonAppendixII.ArticleIIIofCMSdescribesobligationstoprotectAppendixIspecies,andallowstakeinexceptionalcircumstances,accommodating,interalia,“theneedsoftraditionalsubsistenceusers”butthetermhasnotbeenfurtherdefinedwithintheCMStext.

Ratifiedin1979.ThefivespeciesofmarineturtlesfoundinMadagascaranditswatersarelistedonAppendixIandIIofCMS.AppendixIlistingobligesPartiestoprohibittakingofanimals,allowingtakeonlyinexceptionalcircumstances.

MemorandumofUnderstandingontheConservationandManagementoftheMarineturtlesanditsHabitatsintheIndianOceanandSoutheastAsia(IOSEA-MoU)

Anon-bindingframeworkthroughwhichStatesoftheIndianOceanandSouth-EastAsia,aswellasotherconcernedStatesandpartners,collaboratetoprotect,conserve,replenishandrecoverseaturtlesandtheirhabitats.MoU’sconservationandmanagementplan(programme1.4)prescribestheSignatoryStatesto:Prohibitthedirectharvest(captureorkilling)of,anddomestictradein,marineturtles,theireggs,partsorproducts,whilstallowingexceptionsfortraditionalharvestbycommunitieswithineachjurisdictionprovidedthat:suchharvestdoesnotundermineeffortstoprotect,conserveandrecovermarineturtlepopulationsandtheirhabitats;andthemarineturtlepopulationsinquestionareabletosustaintheharvest

MoUsignatoryinApril2003

NairobiConvention Includesprogrammesthatstrengthenthecapacitytoprotect,manageanddevelopcoastalandmarineenvironmentssustainability.Listsoliveridley,loggerheadandleatherbackturtlesinAnnexII(speciesofwildfaunarequiringspecialprotection);greenandhawksbillturtlesinAnnexIII(harvestablespeciesofwildfaunarequiringprotection);andallfiveinAnnexIV(protectedmigratoryspecies).

Ratifiedin1998butthe2010conventiononthe“ProtocolfortheProtectionoftheMarineandCoastalEnvironmentoftheWesternIndianOceanfromLand-BasedSourcesandActivities”isyettoberatified.However,fortheintentsofthisreport,thislackofratificationisnotofmajorrelevance

Indirectincidence AfricanConventionforNatureandNaturalResourcesConservation

Maingoalistoensuretheuse,developmentandconservationofsoil,water,floraandfaunaresourcesofitsmemberStatesinaccordancewiththescientificprinciplesandinterestsofitspeople.Itdoesnotexplicitlymentionmarineturtles.

Signedoffonthe2003revisionsinFebruary2004.

ConventionoftheBiologicalDiversity(CBD)

Pertainstotheconservationofthebiologicaldiversity,sustainableuseofitscomponentsandfairandequalsharingofthenaturalresourcesatagloballevel.

Ratifiedin1997

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1.2.5Illegal,UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)FishingWhilsttheextentofIUUfisheriesisnotknown,LeManachetal.(2013)estimatedthelandingsofIUUat50,000tonsperyear.IUUfisheriesforsharkfinningandseacucumberarealsothoughttobeextensive(LeManachetal.2013).Withcontinueddeclinesinartisanalfishlandingsandmoreevidenceofprobablefisheriescollapsesforbothinvertebratesandfinfish,artisanalfishersareincreasinglymigratingfurtherinsearchofnewstocksoradoptingnewgearsandtechniques.Illegalfishingforseacucumbersindeepwaters(20–50m)usingcompressedairhasbecomewidespreadalongthewest(andnorth)coasts(Raberinarya&Benbowa2012).Seacucumberofficialexportratesarelikelytobesignificantlylowerthanactualharvestrates,asthemajorityofseacucumbersareexportedillegally(Raberinarya&Benbowa2012).It’snotyetclearhowtargetedmarineturtlehunting,ortraffickingofturtleproductsconnectstoIUUactivitiesinMadagascar.However,itisimportanttonoteIUUfishingisprolificandextensivetradenetworksalreadyexist.Newconcerns(September2018)aremountingregardingtheincreasedopportunityforIUUtotakeplaceinMadagascar’sExcusiveEconomicZone(EEZ)uptoIUUafterarecentapprovalofabetweenthegovernmentandChinatoallowtheoperationofanadditional330commercialfishingvessels(EJA2018).

1.2.6FisheriesenforcementEnforcementandpatrolofMadagascar’sfisheriesresourcesisseverelylimitedgiventheapproximately5000kmcoastline.Enforcementandpatrolscanonlybecoveredbythreemonitoringvessels,eightspeedboats,18inspectorsand22observers(R.Fanazavapers.comm.,reportedinRazafindrainibe2010).ThisdutyfallsonbehalfoftheCentredeSurveillancedesPêches(CSP)whosemandateistoenforceregulationsonfisheriesandaquaculture,aswellasfishingagreements.CommercialvesselsareinspectedbyCSPatthebeginningofeachseasontoensuretheirequipmentcomplieswithregulations,howeverthroughoutthefishingseason,enforcementandinspectionsareseverelyrestrictedduetobothlimitationsinthefinancialandhumanresourcesofthecentre(R.Fanazavapers.comm.,reportedinRazafindrainibe2010).

1.2.7Community-basedmanagementand‘Dina’Dinareferstoacommunitylevelagreementthatdictates/suggestsbehaviouramongthosethathaveagreedtoit,permittingandprohibitingactivitiesincludingthoserelatedtonaturalresourcemanagement.Dinaisapre-colonialconceptbasedonthenotionofasocialcontract(McClanahanetal.2014).Dinacanbelegallyrecognisedthroughvalidationviathecourts,oraspartofdefinedcontractualmanagementtransfersandco-managementofrenewablenaturalresources(Humberetal.2015),andhasbeenintegratedintothecountry’slegalframeworkandusedtodeveloplocalandcustomaryregulationsofnaturalresources.Dinacanbeusedasawaytocommunicatenationallegislation,enhanceitorvalidatelocalcustomsbutcannotcontradictexistingnationallegislation(althoughthisoftenhappens;seebelow).PunishmentforbreakingDinaisvariableandissetbyeachimplementingcommunity,butcanincludemonetaryfinesormaterialfines(e.g.1zebu,5kgofrice,5kgofsaltetc.).Typically,Dinarelatingtothemarineturtlefisheryimposeasizelimit,forinstancenotakeofanimalsunder70cminCurvedCarapaceLength(CCL),closedseasonsfortargetedhunting(i.e.duringthenestingseason),orprohibitingeggharvesting.Ofnote,thetwofirstexamplescontradictnationallegislation.AsummarytableoftheDina’sinplacerelatingtomarineturtlesarepresentedinHumberetal.(2015).Gouldingetal.(2017)alsodescribestheDinausedby13communitiesintheBayofRanobe,southwestMadagascartoprohibitthecatchofturtlessmallerthan70cminCCL.

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MarineturtleDinahavehadmixedresults,andsomedirectlycontradictnationallegislation.Thedifficultlyofmultiplemanagementsystemshasbeennotedaschallengingtonaturalresourcemanagement,asitrequiresmergingmodernlegislationwithtraditionalandemergingcustomssuchasDina(Rakotoson&Tanner2006).Humberetal.(2015)suggestedthatthesuccessofDinarelatingtoturtleswasduetothestrongculturalvalueplaceduponturtles,especiallybytheVezoethnicgroup,whicharebasedinToliara,southwestMadagascar.

1.3IntentionalandaccidentaltakeofmarineturtlesinMadagascarIllegaltakecomprisesdirectedfisheriesformarineturtlesandalsotheretentionofaccidentallycaughtturtles.Twostudiescomprehensivelyreviewtheintentional(illegal)marineturtlecapturesinMadagascar(seeHumberetal.2011,Goldingetal.2017).Intheformer,surveysofthemarineturtlefisheryin12majorvillagesinsouthwestMadagascardocumented699marineturtlelandingsrepresentingfourspeciesin2007,withthemajoritybeinggreenturtlesCheloniamydas(93.6%;Humberetal.2011).InToliaraProvincetheyreportedanillegaltakerateof817turtlesper60km.Usingdatafromcommunitysurveys,theyextrapolatedthesedataandestimatedthemarineturtlefisheryfromjustonesouthwesternProvincetorangebetween10,000and16,000turtlesperyear(Humberetal.2011;Figs.3&4).

Figure3:LocationsofartisanalmarineturtlefisheriesinMadagascarandrelativeestimatesoflandings

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(Source:Humberetal.2011).Goldingetal.(2017)presentsadetailedcasestudyofthemarineturtlefisheryintheBayofRanobe,insouthwestMadagascar.ThemarineturtlefisheryintheBayofRanobereportedlylandedatotalof1,521turtles,ofwhich867werekilledorsoldand654(43%)werereleasedin2016.Thisturtlefisherygeneratedanincomeof71.4millionMGA(approximately20,000USD)in2016foranestimated80fishermeninfourcommunities(Ambolomailaky,Andrevo,FitsitikieandIfaty;Goldingetal.2017).Isolatedcasestudiesalsosuggesthighlevelsofbycatch,with3,656turtlesperyearwithanaveragecaptureof20-25turtlesperfisherreportedintheartisanalfisheriesbetweenSoalaraandAmbola(Frontier-Madagascar2003).Inaddition,illegaltakeof180-300turtleswasreportedintheNorthbetweenJulyandNovember2012(Cétamada2012).Thesefindingshighlightthattheimpactasmallhumanpopulationcanhaveonmarineturtlesoveroneyearcanbesubstantial(Humberetal.2011).Consideringthesestudies,itislikelytheartisanalturtlefisheryinMadagascaristhelargestintheSouthwestIndianOceanRegion(SWIO)region,withthesouthwestMadagascarregionhostingthemostsignificantmarineturtlefisheryinthecountry(Humberetal.2011).Marineturtlelandingsfromintentionaltakeappeartohave(onaverage)remainedatconstantlevelssincethe1970s(Frazier1970,Hughes1974,Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Humberetal.2011)despitetemporalvariancesacrosstheyear,althoughclaimssuggestthatpoachingactivitymaybeintensifyinginotherareasofthecountry(IOSEA2014).Despitethesustainedillegaltakeofmarineturtlesreceivingnationalattention(Repoblikan'iMadagasikara2013a,2013b),effectivemanagementmeasures,directassessmentsoffisheriesimpactandillegalexporthaveyettobeimplemented.

Figure4:2017and2018trendsinthemonitoredlandingsofthemarineturtlefisheryatIfaty,Madagascar.UnpublisheddataandgraphcourtesyofReefDoctorandtheInstitutHalieutiqueetdesSciencesMarines

(IHSM),UniversitédeToliara(Madagascar).

1.4DomestictradeinmarineturtlesMarineturtlesareheavilyexploiteddirectlythroughillegaltargetedfisheriesandasbycatchalongthemajorityofMadagascar'scoastline(Humberetal.2015).In1971Hughes(1974)estimatedannualcatchesamongallfivespeciesofmarineturtlestobeinthethousandsinsouthwestMadagascar.Reportssuggestthatinhistoricaltimes(ca.1970-1980),turtlefishingwasregulatedbytraditionalresourcemanagementsystems(Jones2012,Humberetal.2015).Historical(priorto

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2000)captureswereona1to2turtles/weekbasisratherthanthegreater8to20/daytrendsreportedmorerecently(pers.comm.EmmaGibbons;inJones2012).Despitetheerosionofoldermarineturtlefishingtraditionsinfavourofmorecommercial-stylehunting,localconsumptionisthoughttohavecontinuedatsimilarlevelssincethe1970s(Frazier1970,Hughes1974,Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Humberetal.2011),andtodayKinangafano(turtlesales)havebecomeanestablishedbusiness(Lilette2006).Thehuntingofturtlestosellforprofitnowdrivesthefishery,especiallyforvillagesclosetothelargermarketsofToliaraandMorombe(Pascal2003,Lilette2007),whereturtlesfetchahighpriceincomparisonwithothermarineresources.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofmerchantsthatspecialiseinbuyingandsellingturtlemeat(Lilette2006,2007,Pascal2003,2008).Whilstthesouthwestisknownasthehubforturtlefishing,duetothehighdensityofartisanalfishers,ofwhichmostareVezowithstrongculturalandidentitytiestoturtlehunting,scatteredreportsfromthenorthandnorthwestofMadagascarsuggestturtlethatfishingandconsumptionarewidespread.Between2007and2010itwasestimatedthatmorethan40%ofthegreenandhawksbillturtlescapturedatseabylocalfishermenoffnorthernMadagascarvillageshadbeenlocallyconsumedorsold(Poonian&Whitty,unpublished).Metcalfetal.(2007)reportsmortalityeventsacrossacollectiveof115kmofbeachfromfieldsurveyscompletedinthreeregionsin2000;NosyHara(261green,119hawksbill,2oliveridleyand3loggerhead),NosyIranja(30green,33hawksbill)andtheRadamaIslands(295green,157hawksbilland3oliveridley).WhilstthelocalethnicgroupSakalavahaveafady(traditionalban)againstconsumptionofturtle,adherencetotraditionhasdeclined.Also,alargenumberofmigrantfishers(fromotherpartsofMadagascar)operateintheregiontoexploitlucrativefisheries(Metcalfetal.2007).Intentionalcaptureofturtleswasrecentlyreportedinthefarnorth,insixcommunitiesintheBayofRigny(Rahantanirina2018).Inthesouthwest,acrosseightcommunitiesspanninga60kmstretchfromAnakaotoAmbola,thevillageofMaromenahadthehighestmonthlycaptureofturtles,withareported300turtles/monthduringpeakfishingseasons(Walker&Roberts2005).AnakaovillageisalsowellknowninsouthwesternMadagascarforitsexploitationofturtlesandisthemostpopulousandthemostdependentonthattrade(Lilette2006).InIfaty,alsoinsouthwestMadagascar,morethan87%oftherespondentsinastudyontastepreference,marketdemand,andannualcatchinanindigenousmarineturtlefisheryinsouthwestMadagascarindicatedtheyconsumedmarineturtles“veryoften”;themajorityreportingtheyconsumedturtleeveryday(Jones2012).Acrosstheseeightvillages,itwasagreedthatthecatchesofturtleshaddeclinedoverthepasttenyears(Walker&Roberts2005).Diminishingcatchlevelsreportedlymadeitimpossibleforfisherstoexistsolelybasedonturtlelandings(Walker&Roberts2005)withmanytargetedturtlehuntersfocusingtheireffortonconsistentandprofitablecatchessuchasseacucumber,sharkfin,lobsterandoctopus,whileremainingonlyopportunisticturtlehunters.Lilette(2006)reportedthatturtlemeatportionsweresoldinshopsinToliara,southwestMadagascar,andmovedthroughatransportnetworkofbushtaxis,withturtlessufferingseveraldaysintransportbeforeslaughter.Ithasbeensuggestedthatshippingroutesusedbyoctopusandsquidcollectorsalsosustaintheturtletrade,ascollectorsfortheselegalproductsalsorequestturtleproducts.TheAndrokaregion(insouthwestMadagascar)isthoughttobeoneofthemajorprovidersofthedomesticsupplyofmarineturtles,wherebyturtlesaresentbymotorbike,sailboat(pirogue)orbytruckontoToliara.TurtlesarereportedtohavedecreasedinnumbersintheToliaralagoonandfromreeffringesofAnakaoduetothehighlevelsofdomestictakeanduse(Lilette2006).

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1.5ExportofmarineturtlesDespitethemarineturtlefisherybeingclearlyreportedthroughouttheliterature,robustdatadocumentingexportnumbersremainsscarce(Jones2012,Goldingetal.2017).Whilstmostbycatchandillegaltakesupplydomesticdemandforturtlemeat(Humberetal.2011,Jones2012,Goldingetal.2017),scatteredreportsoftradeincidentsindicateillegalexportdoesoccur(Humberetal.2015).TableVdocumentsallrecordsintheliteraturethatpointtotheexportofmarineturtleproductsinMadagascar.

TableV:Documentedmarineturtletraffickingincidentsreportedinthepublishedliteraturesince2010.

Year Details Location Source

? Unofficialreportsofturtleplastrontrafficking SouthwestMadagascar

Humberetal.2015

2012 Targetedturtlefishingbycollector-exportersdestinedforinternationalexport

Mahajanga Humberetal.2015

Jan2012

Trafficofplastronshellwasidentified.Discoveryofastockpileledtofivepeoplearrested

Androka IOSEA2014p148

Jul2012

Estimated40kgofplastronshellwasbeingshippedeveryweektoToliara,involvingupto50%ofthefishermenofcertainmunicipalities

Itampolo IOSEA2014p149

Jul-Nov2012

Illegaltakeofanestimated180-300turtles.TurtlesmugglingnetworkwasalsouncoveredinnorthwestMadagascarinMarokibaywherebyisolatedfishingvillagesweresupplyingtradersestablishedinMahajanga,shipping10-38liveturtlesbyspeedboateverytwoweeks.Thefinaldestinationandendbuyerofproductswasnotidentifiedbutwaspresumedtobeforillegalexport.

FishersfromMarokibay,whofishintheMarambaBayvicinityandthenshipliveturtlestoMahajanga,NWMadagascar

Rakotondrazafy&Adrianasolo2012

Nov2012

FisheriesandgendarmerieofficialsraidedMarokibayvillage.FivepeoplearrestedandtakentoAntsohihy.20turtlesreleasedalive.

Marokibay Rakotondrazafy&Adrianasolo2012

Dec2012

Illegalturtlecollectionreported.ThreepeoplearrestedandtakentoMahajanga.

SouthofAnjajavy Rakotondrazafy&Adrianasolo2012

Aug2016

13“largegillnets(jarifa)”andthreeliveturtlesfoundonsite.Authoritiesdiscoveredhundredsofgreenturtleremains.

RadamaIslands WCS2016

Apr2016

RemainsofpoachedturtlesdiscoveredinAnkivonjyMarineProtectedArea,aco-managedMPAbetweenlocalcommunitiesandWCS.

AnkivonjyMarineProtectedArea(50kmsouthwestofNosyBe)

WCS2016

Pre2012

DemandforturtlecarapacebythekilobyArab,Indo-Pakistani,andEuropeanmerchants.

Anakao Lilette2006

2004 TradenetworkinthesouthofMadagascar,wherefisherssellliveturtlestodealers,anddealersthensellslaughteredwholeorportionsofturtletotraderswhoselltothegeneralpublic.28marineturtles(21green,4hawksbill,2loggerheadand1oliveridley)passedthroughthefourdealersofAnakaoduringthestudyperiod.

Anakao,Andriangy,Maramena,Befasy,Beheloka,Ampasimahaoro,BesambayandAmbola

Walker&Roberts2005

2017 AjointpatrolorganizedbyWCSwithlocalauthoritiesidentifiedacampofillegalmarineturtletradersinthenorthpartofAntsohihynexttotheMPAborder.Therewasnobodyatthecamp,buttherewerealotofmarineturtlecarapaces,anddrymeatthattheauthoritiescollectedandburnt.Nomoreinformationontheoffendersinvolvedinthetrafficking;theissueisquitesensitive.InAnalalavaandAntsohihy,theWCSteamsawfishersusingspecificnetstocatchmarineturtle.

AnalalavaandAntsohihy(nexttotheMPAborder).

pers.comm.,WCSviaemail

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1.4Cultureandtraditions

1.4.1Traditionalbeliefsandtaboos(‘fady’or‘faly’)Traditionallythesaleofmarineturtlesandtheirproductswashistoricallyconsideredatabooknownlocallyas‘fady’(Lilette2006).Sellingturtlemeatwastaboo,butgiftingturtlemeatwassociallyacceptableandconsumptionofturtlemeatwasregardedasagift.Numerousjustificationsforfadyexistwithreasonsrelatingtoaccidentaldeathoffamilyancestorsfromconsumptionofturtlemeatinsomegroups,andothergroupsdescribingacustomnottoeatanytypeofseafoodbecauseitcanbelethal(Jones2012).Growinginterestinacquiringpurchasingpowerandsymbolsofwealthforcelebrations,weddingsandfunerals,forbuildinghouses,andforbuyingbetterfishingnetshasrecentlyerodedrespectforfady(Lilette2006).Particularlyamongtheyoungergenerationsandthoseincloseproximitytocities,traditionalbeliefsregardingmarineturtlesaretodaylargelyignored(Rakotonirina&Cooke1994,Jones2012).

1.4.2VezocultureThemarineturtlefisheryisculturallyimportantinMadagascar,particularlytotheVezopeople,withturtletraditionslinkedtoancestorworship(Humberetal.2011).VezocultureisstronglytiedtotheoceanandVezopeopleareknownfortheirritualslinkedtothehuntingandconsumptionofmarineturtlesor‘fano’(Lilette2006,Pascal2003).Vezofishersoftenrefertomarineturtlesas“cows,”wheremarineturtlesareconsideredtobeananimalofsacrificecomparabletothesize,spiritual,andmonetaryvalueofazebu(Jones2012).Greenturtlesinparticularareoftenreferredtoas‘fanoaomby’or‘zebuturtle’astheyareconsideredcomparabletothezebuasasacrificialanimal(Lilette2006).Vezoarealsonotedforbeingskilledwatermenandareconsideredsemi-nomadic.Theypridethemselvesontheirinnovativefishingtechniquesandadoptionofnewfishingmethods,forexamplejarifanets(widemeshbenthicnets).Jarifanetswereintroducedinthe1990’s(Langley2006)totargetsharks,andhavesincebeenusedtotargetturtles(Humberetal.2011).Usingjarifastotargetturtles,whilstnottraditional,makesturtlefishingsignificantlymoreeffective(Astuti1995,Pascal2003,Walker&Roberts2005,Lilette,2007).Turtlefishingwithjarifanetsrequireslessskillandphysicaleffortcomparedtothetraditionalmethodoffreedivingwithatezaharpoon(Humberetal.2011).Thesaleofmarineturtlemeatisavaluedeconomicresource,providingeconomicstabilityandbuyingpowerinVezufishingcommunities(Goldingetal.2017,Lilette2002).Thecaptureandsaleofturtlesbringsinlargesumsofmoneywheretherearenoperceivedviablealternativestosupplementincome.Growthintheturtletradehasexpandedduetotheavailabilityofeffectivegeartotargetturtles(i.e.jarifa)andincreasesinthepriceofturtlemeatandproducts(Lilette2006).Callsforasystemthatcouldregulate(andlegalise)localusebutwhichprohibitsthesaleofturtleshasbeensuggestedasasolutiontotheexpansionoftrade(Goldingetal.2017,Lilette2006).Interestingly,whencomparingconservationcasestudiesinvolvingcommunitysupportfromVezovillages,attitudesarehighlyvariable.Lilette(2006)presentedadetailedcomparisononthismatter,demonstratingthatexogenousenvironmentalpoliciescanrangefrombeingcompletelyignored(prohibitionagainsttheexploitationofmarineturtles)tobeingenthusiasticallyembraced(protectionoftheNosyVeIslandred-tailedtropicbird).Additionalsocialinsightintomotives,driversandwillingnesstoembracealternativelivelihoodsandmanagementregimesisneeded(Lilette2006).

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1.4.3ConsumptionandillnessConsumptionoccurswidelythroughoutthecountrywithfrequentreportsinthemediarelatingtointoxication,sicknessanddeathamongthosewhoeatturtlemeat.InMay2014,thedeathsofsixchildrenandthesickeningofabout50peoplewerereportedfromthe ruralcommunityinBelobaka,MahajangaIIDistrict.SicknessfromturtleconsumptionoccurredasrecentlyasJanuary2018,whereeightpeoplelosttheirlivesandanadditional14peoplefromAmbavaranoruralcommunityofMahavanonainDiegoSuarezwerereportedtobethevictimsofmarineturtlemeatpoisoning(MidiMadagasikara2018).Ithasbeenproposedthatconsumptioniswidespread(highnumberofpeopleinvolved)withturtlemeatdistributedthroughnumerouslocaltrade/barteringnetworks(IOSEA2014),andthattheincidenceofillnessmaybehigherthancurrentlyreported.

2.0Methodology2.1LiteraturereviewAliteraturereviewwasconductedtoidentifypublishedandunpublishedreportsofillegaltakeofmarineturtleswithinMadagascarwhichcouldbeattributedtoartisanalfishing,targetedhunting,reportedbycatchfromcommercialfishingfleets(artisanalorcommercial),recordsofillegaltakethatmaysuggestillegalexport,andrecordsofillnessormortalityfromconsumptionofturtlemeat.BothpublishedpeerreviewandgreyliteratureincludingtheIndianOceanTurtleNewsletter,AfricanMarineturtleNewsletter,MarineturtleNewsletter,funding/donorreportsandMalagasyacademicworkswerereviewedforpertinentinformation.Madagascardoesnotcompileanannualnationalstatusreportformarineturtles,precludingdirectaccesstonestingandtradestatistics.

2.2FieldworkInterviewswereundertakenwithartisanalfishersandconservationmanagementpractitionersacrossfivecoastalregionsofMadagascarandthecapitalcityofAntananarivo(Fig.5)inSeptember2018.Twoteamsweremobilisedtocoverthisperiodcomprisingof32daysinthefield.AdetailedmovementrecordisprovidedinAnnexI.Inadditiontothis,opportunisticsurveysofmarketsandcuriostallswereconductedtodocumenttheavailabilityofturtleshellproducts(oftenreferredtoastortoiseshellproducts,butlistedhereasturtleshelltodistinguishthesefromlandtortoisespecies).

2.3RapidassessmentinterviewsMeasuringtheeffortandtheimpactthatsmall-scaleartisanalfisherieshaveonnon-targetspeciesinastandardisedandsystematicmannerhasbeenalongstandingchallenge.Knowledgegapsacrosstheseimpactsareamajorchallengetotheeffectiveconservationandmanagementofthreatenedspeciessuchasmarineturtles.Interviewsurveysareconsideredtobeoneofthemostinexpensiveandpracticaltechniquestoderivefisherydata(Aragonesetal.1997,Ortega-Argueta2012),andmanyresearchersnowuseinterviewstoquantifyfisheryeffortandgatherinformationonbothtargetedandincidentalcatch(Mooreetal.2010,Ortega-Argueta2012).Theuseoflocalandtraditionalknowledgederivedviatheseinterviewprocessesiscost-effectiveandhasbeenshowntoberelativelyaccurateforfisherybycatchstudies.Mooreetal.(2010)developedaquestionnairetorecordthetwoprimarytypesofinformationneededtoquantifyandspatiallycharacterizeincidentalcatchinfisheriesindevelopingcountries:ameasureoffishingeffortandameasureofincidentalcatch.Pilcheretal.(2017)laterexpandedontheMooreetal.(2010)surveytodocumentincidentalcaptureofdugongsandfisherypressuresthroughouttheIndianOceanandPacificOceanregion.Williams(2017)developedasemi-structured

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questionnairetoassessimpactstomarineturtlesbyartisanalfishersinMozambique,andRiskas(2018)alsodevelopedaseriesoffisherinterviewstoimprovetheunderstandingofIUUfishingandwildlifecrimeinMalaysia.Thesurveyquestionnairesusedforthisstudyincorporateaspectsofallofthesetools,tailoredtomeettherequirementsoftheTermsofReferencefortheproject.Twoquestionnairesweredevelopedtosolicitinformationonillegaltakeandexportormarineturtles.Onequestionnairewasusedtoengagewithartisanalfishermenorsmall-scalevendors,andtheotherwastailoredforconservationmanagementpractitioners.RefertoAnnexesIIandIIIforcopiesofthequestionnaires.2.3.1.KeyInformantsInadditiontotheartisanalfishingandconservationandmanagementpractitionerinterviews,someinterviewswereconductedwithanonymouskeyinformants.Theseinformantswereidentifiedthroughasnowballsamplingapproach(Goodman1961,Biernacki&Waldorf1981),wherebypotentialknowledgeablerespondentsweresuggestedbyexpertswithextensiveexperienceinMadagascar.Duetothesensitivityoftheinformationprovided,theyrequestedanonymityasaconditionofparticipation.Intotalfouranonymousinformantswereinterviewed.

Figure5:LocationssurveyedinMadagascarduringthisstudy.

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2.4OnlineSurveyInMay2018weconductedarapidelectronicsurveysearchingforsaleofseaturtleproductsoriginatingfromMozambique,whichincludedsocialmediasources(Facebook,Instagram),andthemainwebsitesearchengine(Google)andcontentbrowsers(Firefox,Chrome).Weusedkeywordsandcombinationsofkeywordssuchas‘turtle’,‘seaturtle’,‘Madagascar’,‘sale’,‘product’tosearchforevidenceofpubliclyavailableonlinesales/marketingofanysuchproducts.Weacknowledgewewereinnopositiontosearchanydarkwebsources,nordidwehavetimetoconductexhaustiveimagerecognitionanalyses,e.g.DiMininetal.(2018).WhilesurveyssuchasthesemayinthefutureprovidelinkstoonlinemarketsforseaturtlesfromMozambique,givenourfindings(particularlylinedtothelackofinternetaccessthroughoutmuchoftheareawhereseaturtlesarelanded),wefeelthesewouldbeinconsequentialtotheon-goingdomesticcaptureandtrade.

2.5SamplingsitesFieldsurveyswereconductedinsouthernMadagascar(AtsimoAndrefana,Androy&Anosyregions)fromSeptemberto1stto23rd2018,innorthwestMadagascar(Boeny,Diana)from24thto30thSeptember,andinthenorth(Antsiranana,Sofia)fromthe1stto30thofSeptember2018byasecondsurveyteam.Atotalof153artisanalfisherswereinterviewedand4interviewswerecompletedwithconservationmanagementpractitioners(TableVI).

TableVI:LocationssurveyedinsixcoastalprovincesofMadagascarduringSeptember2018.

Date Region Location n

03/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Tulear 204/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Mahavati 2

05/09/2018–06/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Anakao 907/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Beheloky 107/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Ambola 2

07/09/2018–09/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Itampolo 710/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Antsikoroke 5

10/09/2018–11/09/2018 AtsimoAndrefana Ambohibola 713/09/2018–14/09/2018 Androy Lavanono 10

15/09/2018 Androy FauxCap 318/09/2018 Anosy AmbinanyBe 419/09/2018 Anosy AnalapasyII 219/09/2018 Anosy Arabaraba 320/09/2018 Anosy Lokaro 525/09/2018 Boeny AntsaBigo,Mahajanga 225/09/2018 Boeny MahajangaPort 126/09/2018 Boeny PetitePlage,Mahajanga 328/09/2018 Diana Antitoro,NosyKomba 228/09/2018 Diana Antamotamo,NosyKomba 429/09/2018 Diana AndriaBe,NosyKomba 408/09/2018 Sofia/Antsiranana NosySuarez 1009/09/2018 SofiaAntsiranana Androvohonko 10

15/9/2018–16/9/2018 SofiaAntsiranana Ambodivahibe 3022/9/2018–23/09/2018 SofiaAntsiranana Ambolobozokely 20

27/09/2018 SofiaAntsiranana BayofDiegoSuarez 7Sep/Oct2018 Online ViaGoogleforms 4

3.0Results3.2FisherydescriptionGiventhatthemajorityofrespondentswereartisanalfishers(asthisgroupinteractswithturtlesonaregularbasis),webrieflydescribehereintheartisanalfisheriesthatweinteractedwithduringthe

19

survey.However,responseswerealsogatheredfromrespondentswhoalsohadarangeofotheroccupations;Fig.6).Whilethereareslightdifferencesamonglocations,webelievethefollowingdatagenerallydescribetheartisanalfisherysectorsintheareaswherethesurveywasconducted.Fishersweregenerallyyoung,withveryfewseniorfishersputtingtosea(Fig.7).ThisisinkeepingwithagenerallylowerlifeexpectancyrecordedforMadagascar(approximately65years;WHO2018).Averageageamongstfisherrespondentswasapproximately20years,andapproximately75%ofallfisherswereaged10to40years.Theartisanalfisheryismostlysmallscale,withprimaryvesseltypescomprisingwoodenboats(Fig.8),dhows,andpirogues(localcanoes;Fig.9).Asmallproportionofvesselsaremotorisedorcarrysails,withsailsbeingpreferred,astheydonotincurfuelcosts.Vesselsaremostlysmall,withlengthsrarelyexceeding5m.

Figure6:Primaryoccupationsofrespondentsduringthefieldsurveys(n=151).CLPdenoteslocalfisheries

council,orComitéLocauxdePeche).

Figure7:Agedistributionofinterviewrespondents(n=119).

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9

Fisher

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Figure8:VesseltypesusedintheartisanalfisheryinMadagascar(n=86).

Fig.9:TypicalfishingpirogueusedintheMadagascarartisanalfisheries(photocourtesyofMichelStrongoff,

ChrisScarffeFilm&Photography).

TargetcatchesinMadagascar’sartisanalfisheriescomprisedawiderangeofspecies,reflectingthewiderangeofgeartypesbeingusedinthevariedfisheries.Manyrespondentsindicatedtheytargetedcertainspecies,butacknowledgedtheykeptnearlyallcatches,irrespectiveofspecies.MarineturtlesareatargetedspeciesinMadagascar,andnotretainedsolelyfrombycatchinstances(e.g.Lilette2006,Humberetal.2011,Jones2012,presentstudy).OursurveysrevealedthattheartisanalfisheryinMadagascarismostlynon-selective,and(generally)allcatchisretained,irrespectiveifitwastargetedornot.Fishersgenerallyusemorethanonetypeofgear,andtargetdifferentspecieswitheachofthedifferentgears.Asaroughguide,freedivingandspearsareusedforlobsterandoctopus,longlineandhook&lineareusedforlargepelagicfishandsharks,andgillnetsaregenerallyusedforreefandlagoonfish.Jarifanets(alsoencounteredinMozambique)arelargemeshgillnets(upto45cmstretchedmesh)andareusuallyusedtocatchmarineturtles(e.g.Humber&Hykle2011).ThemaintargetspeciesgroupsareshowninFigure10.

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Figure10:PredominanceofmaintargetspeciesgroupsreportedinMadagascar’sartisanalfisheries,sortedbymost-targetedcatch.Therewere315responsesamong153respondentsduetofishersoftentargeting

multiplespecies.Manyrespondentsindicatedtheyusedmultiplegeartypes,withthedifferencesingearusegenerallybeingduetodifferingseasonsandtargetspecies.Figure11describesthemainfishinggeartypes,sortedbymostcommontoleastcommon.Thereportednumberofgearsexceedsthenumberofrespondentsduetomultiplegearsused.

Figure11:PredominanceofmainfishinggearsusedinMadagascar’sartisanalfisheries,comprising164

responsesamong78respondents.

3.3TurtleinteractionsThevastmajorityofrespondents(89%)indicatedtheyhadseenturtlesintheareasinwhichtheyfished,withthebalanceofrespondentsindicatingturtlesdidnotoccurintheirarea(oratleasthadnotbeenseen).Thelocationofturtlesightingswasgenerallyalignedwiththekeyfishinghabitatsfrequentedbyfishers,whotargetlagoonandreeffish,butalsolargerpelagicspeciesfurtheroffshoreFig.12).

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Figure12:Locationsofturtlesightingsreportedbyinterviewrespondents(n=236responsesamong133

respondents;respondentsoftenindicatedseeingturtlesinmorethanonelocation).Roughlyhalfofallrespondentsbelievedmarineturtlestocksweredeclining,withonly~10%ofintervieweesbelievingthatnumberswereincreasing(Fig.13).Oursurveysaskedrespondentstothinkacrosstimespansofoneandfiveyears,andalsowithintheirlifetimes,butwebelievetheseresponsesreflecttrendsoverthelastdecadebasedonanecdotalfeedback,roughlysince1995-2000.Asimilarsmallnumberofrespondentsbelievedthepopulationhadremainedunchanged.However,duringasubsequentfollow-upquestiononthelocaltradeinturtlesandtheirproducts,allrespondentsbelievednumbersofturtlesweredecreasingduetothetrade,andnobodysuggestedthatoverallnumberswereontherise(includingthe10%whorespondedpositivelytotheearlierquestion).Manyrespondentsindicatedthattheywerecatchingmoresmallturtlesinrecentyearsthantheydidinpastyears,suggestingmanyofthelargeradultshavebeenremovedfromthepopulation.Themostfrequentresponsesforthecauseofturtlepopulationdeclinesweretheincreaseduseofjarifanets,increasedfisherypressureoverall,changesinseagrasscoverage(presumablydecreasesincoverage),andincreaseddemandforturtlemeatandproducts.Thosesuggestingpopulationswereincreasedattributedthistothelegalprotectionstatusofmarineturtlesandadecreaseinthenumberofhunters.Giventhewidespreadandblatanttradeinmarineturtlesweobservedduringthissurvey,itisunlikelythateitherofthesetworesponsesarerealistic,andsimilarlyitislikelythatthestockisnotincreasing.

Figure13:Perceivedpopulationtrendinmarineturtlesdescribedbyinterviewrespondents(n5-years=137,

nlifetime=142).

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Morethanhalfofall153respondentsindicatedtheyhadcaughtturtlesaccidentallyintheirnets(manyalsotargetedtheturtlesdirectly:77respondentsindicatedthis,orroughly49%)andindicatedtheywereawarethatthemajorityoffisherscaughtmarineturtlesasbycatch(Fig.14).Afewrespondents(n=9)indicatedthatturtleswerecaughtasfrequentlyasdaily,andasubstantialproportion(~26%)ofrespondentsindicatedtheycaughtfourtosixturtleseachmonth.Itisproblematictodistinguishbetweendirectedtakeandaccidentaltake,becauseturtlesthatwerecaughtaccidentallywereretained,andrespondentoftenstruggledtounderstandthedifferencebetweenaccidentalanddirectedtake.Inmanycasestheystatedthattheysettheirnets,andanythingthatwascaughtwasretained.Overall,weestimatethatonlytherespondentsofthissurvey(153respondents)caughtapproximately3,500marineturtlesintotaloverthelast12months,eitherasbycatchorasdirectedtake.Themajorityoftheseturtleswereidentifiedasgreenturtles,andclassifiedaseitherjuvenile(18%)orsub-adult(53%)basedonthesizesreportedbyrespondents,withonly30%oflandingcomprisingadultturtles(Figs.15&16).Severaloftheadultswerereportedlycollectedonnestingbeachesratherthanatsea.Thesefindingssupporttheabovenotionthatthestocksmaybedeclining,withfisherstakingsmallerandsmalleranimalseachyear.Indeed,manyoftherespondentsindicatedthattheyusedtocatchmuchlargerturtlesinearlieryears.

Figure14:ReportedincidencesofmarineturtlebycatchinartisanalfisheriesinMadagascar(n=145).Personalreflectsinstanceswhererespondentsindicatedtheythemselveshadcaughtturtles.Byothers

referstoinstanceswhererespondentsindicatedtheyknewofotherfisherscatchingseaturtles.

Figure15:SizeclassesofmarineturtlebycatchinartisanalfisheriesinMadagascar(n=203from131

respondentswhocouldcatchmultipleturtlesofvarioussizes).

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24

Figure16:AsmalljuvenilegreenturtlecaughtintheartisanalfisheryinMadagascar(photocourtesyof

MichelStrongoff,ChrisScarffeFilm&Photography).Turtleswereeitherkeptfordomesticuse(asfood,primarily)orsoldtomiddlemenandbuyerswhoalsosoldthem(primarily)forfood(Fig.17).Veryfewrespondentsindicatedturtlesmightbeshippedoverseas(only2%of148respondents)orusedfortraditionalpurposes(medicinal,handicrafts).Only13%of148respondentsindicatedtheyreleasedbycaughtturtles,andinvirtuallyeveryinstancetheyindicatedthiswasbecauseturtleswereprotectedviafady.Theheavydependenceonmarineturtlesasafoodresourcemanyexplainthelack(orperceivedlack)ofinternationaltrade.Oursurveysfoundthat70%ofallrespondentsatebothturtlemeatandturtleeggs,andwefoundnosuggestionduringourinterviews/norespondentsindicatedthatoverseasbuyerswouldpayhigherpricesforturtlemeatandproductscomparedtolocalvillagerstofueltheinternationaltrade.Ofnote,whileweonlyencounteredgreenturtlesduringoursurveys,asubstantialnumberofrespondentsindicatedapreferenceforhawksbillsovergreensdespiterecordsofillnessfromconsuminghawksbillturtlemeat.

Figure16:Reportedfateofmarineturtlesinartisanalfisheries(n=216responsesamong148respondents).

Food43%

Sold36%

Shipped2%

Released13%

Traditionaluse6%

25

Figure17:Proportionofrespondentswhoindicatedtheyconsumedmarineturtlesormarineturtleeggs

(n=152).

3.4DomesticmarineturtletradeLivemarineturtles,turtlemeat,eggsandplastron/ligamentsareallpartofthedomestictradeinMadagascar(Fig.18).Marineturtletakeappearstobeprimarilyforfoodandfortradeinlocalmarkets,butthesemarketscanbemanyhundredsofkilometersaway.Basedonresponsestoourinterviews,thereappeartobeactivetransportnetworksthatmovemarineturtlesandtheirproductsaroundthecountry,withturtlesmovingnorthandsouthalongthewestcoast,butalsomovingtothecapitalcityofAntananarivo.45%of153respondentsindicatedthattheywereawareof/participatedintradeinmarineturtlesand/ortheirproducts.Inadditiontowholeturtles,wealsodocumentedseveralinstancesinwhichnonmeat-relatedproductswerebeingtraded(TableVII).

Figure18:Proportionaluseofmarineturtlesandmarineturtleproductsinthedomestictrade(n=133).

TableVII:Locationswheretradeinturtlescutesorplastronligamentwasdocumentedduringthesurvey.

Scutes-primarilyhawksbillturtles

Plastronligament(dryorwet)

LocationsbuyerssourcedorrequestedproductsfromAntsikoroke AnakaoAmbohibola AmbohibolaLavanono LavanonoFauxCap FauxCapArabaraba AmbinanyBeAntitoro,NosyKomba AmpasimarinyAntsaBigo,Mahajanga

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.91

Meat Eggs

No Yes

Meat45%

Eggs23%

Plastron/Liigaments

9%

Liveturtles23%

26

Theturtlecarapacesarealsoused,oftentomakejewellery(TableVIII)butwereoftenrepurposedlocallyforusesaroundthevillage,suchasanimalshelters(forducks,geese,puppies)andascontainerstostoreanimalfeedorscraps.Marineturtleshellproductsweredetectedinthreelocationsspreadacrossthreedifferentregions:inthevillageofAmbohibola(AntisimoAndrefana),NosyBe(Diana)andMahajanga(Boeny).Ontwooccasionsthecarapacehadbeenconvertedintocraftproducts,thethirdincidentinvolvedtheresaleofjuvenilecarapaces.Freshevidenceofillegaltake(liveturtlesorfreshlyslaughtered)waswitnessedonsixoccasionsduringthesurvey(TableIX),allinsouthwestMadagascar.Twojuvenilegreenturtleswerebeingheldinavillageawaitingslaughter,andtwoseparateportionsoffreshlykilledturtlewerealsofound.AnadditionaltwooccurrencesofcookedturtlemeatweredetectedwhilstconductinginterviewsinAnakaovillage.

TableVIII:TurtleshellproductsdocumentedopportunisticallyacrossthreeregionsofMadagascar.

Site Items Location Details Date Photographicevidence

AtsimoAndrefanaAmbohibola

Earrings Inhomeoffisherwoman.

AfisherwomeninvitedusintoshowusherearingwhichshefoundinAntananarivoandbroughtbacktoherhomeinAmbohibola.Itisunclearifthiswastobeusedasamodel/prototypetoreplicatelocally.

11/9/18

Photo:JessWilliams

Diana,NosyBe

Necklacependants

FasceneAirportcuriostore

Pendantsavailableforsaleinairportcurioshop,NosyBe.

3/10/18

Photo:JessWilliams

Boeny,Mahajanga

Carapace(greenandhawksbillturtles)

BazaarBetouristmarket

Turtlecarapacesavailableforsalealongwithnumerousotheranimals(seahorse,crocodile,corals,stingraytails,starfish)

25/9/18

Photo:JessWilliams

27

TableIX:Illegalturtletakeincidentswitnessedduringthestudyperiod.

Location Date Incidentdetails Photographicevidence

AtsimoAndrefana,Mahavativillage,TulearCity

4/9/18 LivejuvenilegreenturtlewasfoundbyourvillageguideatthelandingareaofMahavati,inTulear.Thefisherdisappearedintothebusyunloadingareasowewereunabletointerviewhim.TheturtlewaslikelytobekeptforpersonalconsumptiongiventhesmallsizeorresoldtooneoftwomainbuyersinMahavati.

Photo:J.Williams

AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao

6/9/18 Caughtwithspeargun.Keptaliveforadaybeforeslaughtered.Approximately50cmCurvedCarapaceLength(CCL).

Photo:J.Williams

AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao

6/9/18 Capturemethodunknown.Killedandportionedbeforewedetectedit.

Photo:M.Strongoff,ChrisScarffeFilmmaker

28

AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao

6/9/18 Averysmalljuvenilegreenturtle(approximately30cmCCL),withpartsofcarapaceandfrontshoulderjoint.Aninterviewwascompletedwiththisfisher.

Photo:J.Williams

AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao

5/9/18 Greenturtlemeat,freshlycooked,beingcutupintosmallerportions.

Photo:J.Williams

AtsimoAndrefana,Anakao

5/9/18 Greenturtlemeat,freshlycooked,beingcutupintosmallerportions.

Photo:M.Strongoff,ChrisScarffeFilmmaker

3.5CasestudiesAnumberofcasestudieshelpillustratethecomplexityandextentofthedomestictradeinmarineturtlesinMadagascar:

29

3.4.1CaseStudy1:Traffickingacross180kmfromAnalalavatoMahajangaAsourcewhorequestedanonymityprovidedacasestudyofaninvestigationconductedin2013inAnalalava.Thereporthighlightedtheexistenceofagroupthattargetedmarineturtles(mainlygreenturtles)onthenorthwestsideofMadagascarbetweenMahajangaandtheRadamaArchipelago.Thisillegaltakeactivitywasconductedbyateaminvolvingmorethan30migrantfishersfromMahajangaandAmpasibe.Thepoachersreportedlysetuptemporaryfishingcamps,buildingfencedareastoholdtheturtlesaliveuntiltheyhadenoughtotransportbacktoMahajangabyboat.Oneofthesecampswasdetectedon26thMay2013nearKomadzara,onabeachinamangroveareaataplacecalledBelalandana.Morethan70greenturtleswerefoundinholdingpens(Fig.19).Thesitewasabandonedbuthadsignsthatthefishershadrecentlyfled(warmriceinapotoverthefire).

Figure19:GreenturtleswaitingtobetransportedfromBelalandana,Komadzara,AnalalavatoArantsa,

Mahajanga.

3.4.2CaseStudy2:TraffickingfromAnalalavaAsecondinvestigationinJune2013involvedlocalauthoritiesinAnalalava,whoreleased20marineturtlesfromfencedenclosuresatAmbolobozo,inNarindraBay.Authoritiesarrestedsomeofthefishers,destroyedtheircampsandconfiscatedthenetsusedforturtlefishing(althoughthesenetswerereportedlylaterresoldinAnalalava).FurtherinquiryinKomadzaravillagerevealedthatlocalvillagerswerenotpleasedbythepresenceofthemigrantfishers,someofwhomoriginatedfromsouthernMadagascar.Analalavapolicecametodrivethemigrantfishersawayandduringthecourseoftheinvestigation,thePresidentofFokontany(villagechief)wasalsofoundtobeinvolvedandwasdismissedbyAnalalavadistrictauthorities.Reportsemergedfromvillagersthatthemigrantfishergrouphadbeenspottedfurthersouthandthisareawasthusinspected.Onarrivaltheauthoritiesfoundafishingcamp,withfivecarapacesand

30

threeholdingpens(oneofthelargestmeasured6mx4m).Localvillagersinformedtheauthoritiesthattheoffendershadbeenintheareaforafewweeksbeforerecentlyfleeing.Theyreportedlyusedseveralnetsinnearbyareas,andinwatersextendingoffshoretoNosyLavaIsland.Theyreportedlyfishedover4-5daycampaigns,catching20-25turtlesperday.AttheendofthecampaigntheywouldsailtoMahajangatoselltheturtles.VillagersreportedthatduringthelasttripbytheturtlefisherstoMahajangatheircanoesankwithmorethan40turtlesaboard.Furtherdetailsfromashrimp/fishcollectorconfirmedthatthegrouphadbeenoperatingintheareaforoverayear,basedoutofNosyLavabutusingseveraltemporarycampsinthearea.TheysenttheturtlestoMahajangaandunloadedinthefishingdistrictofArantsa.SomeoftheturtlemeatwasconsumedinMahajangaandpartofitwassenttoAntananarivo.ThefishermenarrestedbytheAnalalavapoliceweresubsequentlyreleasedanditisunlikelytheywereprosecuted.Twokeyinformantsduringourcurrentsurveyssuggestedthattheseactivitiesstillcontinuedupto2018.Theisolationoftheseareas,withthickmangrovesthatmakeiteasytohideclandestineactivities,coupledwiththeremotenessoftheareasandincipientcorruptionarelikelytofacilitatetheongoingexploitationofturtlesinthisareaandotherlocationswithsimilarconditions.

3.4.3CaseStudy3:MorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavyInMorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavyareas(Fig.20),localnewspapersreportedarrestsrelatedtotargetedhuntingandwidespreadillegalmarineturtleexploitation.Thisareaisremoteandonlyaccessiblebyboats/canoes.Respondentstooursurveyindicatedthatdirectedpoachinghasbeenincreasingsince2012inMorambaBayandcontinuestothisday,wherebyfisherscollectliveturtlesattherequestofadealerbasedinMahajanga,whichareheldinpensuntiltransportedbyspeedboatbacktothecity.Fishersusea500mlongnetinthebayareatocatch10-40turtlesperweek.AmiddlemanlocatedinMahajangacollectstheturtles,butthefinaldestinationisunknown.Theturtlesarereportedlysoldat5000MGA/kgoncetheyarriveinMahajanga.

Figure20:LocationofsitessurveyedwhereturtletraffickingwasreportedbyresearchesatCétamadain

2012(Cétamada2012).

31

AninvestigationledbytheNGOCétamadareportedthatmarineturtlehuntingandcollectionhasbeenincreasinginscaleoverthelastfewyears.Cétamada(2012)reportedthatfisherswereactivebetweenFebandNov2012andestimatedtheycaught180-300turtles(withanaveragecatchof20turtlespernetdeployment),whichweresenttoMahajangaeverysecondweek.AnothercaseofintensiveturtlefishingdestinedforMahajangawasrecordedinavillagefurthersouthofAnjajavy,wherethreepeoplewerearrestedandtakentoMahajangainDecember,2012accordingtolocalvillagers.TheownerofahotelinMarovasareportedintensiveturtlefishingtolocalauthorities,andinNovember2012,thegendarmerieandfisheryofficialscaughtfishersintheactofpoachingduringaraidonthevillageofMarokibay.FivepeoplewerearrestedandtakentoAntsohihy,andtwentyliveturtleswerereleased.

3.4.4CaseStudy4:TurtlemeatvendorsofMahavatse,ToliaraWeinterviewedthetwomainbuyersandresellersofturtlesinToliaracity-bothfemale,betweentheagesof51and60,eachofwhomhadasmallmarketstallattheirhomesinMahavatse,Toliara.Generallytheyonlypurchaseliveturtlestoensurethemeatisfresh,andtheybothestimatebuyingatleastoneturtledaily,averagingabout20turtlespermonth(accountingforbadweather,whenthefisherscouldnotgotosea).Onebuyerreportedthatfishersdonotgenerallycollectturtlesduringthenestingseason(Nov-Dec)butestimatedthatoneofevery20turtlesshepurchasedwasagravidfemale,andthattheeggsareextractedandsold.Shealsoreportedthatinthefewinstanceswhenthefishercaughtaturtlethatreleasedhereggsonboardaboardthevessel,thefishersthencollectedandsoldtheseontoher.BothwomenindicatedtheysourcedturtlesfromfishersoutsideofToliaracity(onesourcingnorthwards,theothersouthwards).Togetanideaoftheextentofthetrade,oneofthewomenwasreferredtobynameasthebuyerintwodifferentinterviewswithfishersinAmbohibola,200kmdistant.Thishighlightsthevastcoverageofthetraderoutes.Fisherstoldusthebuyerpaysaworkertokeepalookoutfortheirpiroguecomingfromthesouth,andifithasturtlestheworkerusesthezebucarttotransportthemfromtheirboattothebuyer’shouse.TheotherbuyersourcedturtlesfromfishersbasedinSalary,100kmaway,andfisherscalledaheadtobringtheturtlesinduringthenight.Bothbuyershadmultiplefishers(3-30)supplyingthem.Forthebuyersourcingfromthesouthcoast,thebestseasonwasreportedlyMarchthroughAugustwhenmoreturtlesaresupplied.TheotherbuyersuggestedJanuarytoAprilwasbetterduetocoolerweatherwhichpreventedturtlemeatgoingbad.Bothbuyerspurchasedlivegreenturtleslargerthan50cmatapproximately50,000MGA(approximately14USD)fora0.5mCCLturtleuptoapproximately200,000MGA(approximately57USD)foraturtle>1.2mCCL.Bothbuyersthenchoppedandcookedtheturtlesandselltheminportions.Portionssoldfrom100to2,000MGA(0.02-0.57USD).Themeatwasnotpreparedinanyparticularway,simplycookingtheturtlemeatinsaltywater.Carapaceswerenotusedforartisanalproducts,butwerebrokendownandfedtodomesticpigs.Bothbuyershadexperiencedencounterswithlocalauthoritiesbutneitherhadbeenfinedorissuedaninfringement.Bothhadofferedturtlemeatasabribe.ThesecondbuyersuggestedthatthecaseofarrestedfishersfromAmbohibolahaddeterredfishersfromsupplyingherandthatrecentlyshewasonlyreceivingthreetofourturtlespermonth.“Nooneisscaredtoeatturtlemeatifitsavailabletobuy,itisonlythefishersthatarescaredtocatchturtles”sheremarked.Thissuggeststhatwidelypublicisednewsofallmattersrelatingtoturtlefishingwouldlikelybenefitconservation

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efforts.ItalsosuggeststhatacampaignregardingthelegalityofturtlemeatconsumptioninToliaracityisanecessarysteptowardsstigmatisingthebushmeatconsumption.

3.5DomesticmarineturtletraderoutesDomestictraderoutescovervastdistancessupplyingturtlestothelargerinhabitedareasfromtheremotewildernessareas.Forinstance,coastalcommunitiesbetweenSt.Augustin,Anakao,Itampolo,Antsirkoroke,Ambohibola,FanambosatoLavanonocontributetotheillegaltakeandsupportdomestictraderoutes(seeFig.21).Thisareaisa300kmexpanseofcoastlineintheAtsimoAnrefanatoAndroyregion,withfisherssupplyingToliaracitywithmarineturtleseitherastheresultofopportunisticuseofbycatchorintentionaltake.Numerousparallelsbetweenthetortoiseandmarineturtledomestictraderoutesareevident.Thebushmeattradenetworkforradiatedtortoiseisthoughttoextendasfarasthecapitalcity,Antananarivo(Manjoazyetal.2017).Whilewedidnotdirectlywitnessthis,traderoutesformarineturtlesfromthesouthwesttoAntanarivowereconfirmedbyCSPMahajanga;driedturtlemeatissentfromAmbanjatoAntanarivo,andfreshturtlemeatissentthroughMahajangatoAntananarivo(Cétamada2012;seeFig.21).OurinterviewsintheAtsimoAndrefanaregionrevealedthatmarineturtlesaresentbypiroguetopre-establishedbuyersinTulear(seeFig.21).ThisisasimilarfindingtothatreportedinManjoazyetal.(2017)whosurveyeddiscardedcarapacesofAstrochelysradiatainurbanrubbishdumpstoquantifythescaleoftheradiatedtortoiseusedforbushmeattrade.Manjoazyetal.(2017)foundthatasinglerubbishdumpatMahavatse,anareaneartheartisanalfisherylandingbeaches,accountedfor93%oftheobservedcarapaces.TheyalsodocumentedthatMahavatsewasthemainarrivalpointfortortoise-ladenpiroguesatnight.OurinterviewswithturtlemeatvendorsinMahavastesuggestthesameoccursformarineturtlesthatarriveintoMahavastebypirogueatnight.ThemajorityofturtlesthataresenttoToliaraarebought,cookedandresoldbyjusttwokeyvendorsinMahavatse.BoththesebuyersanddealersinMahavatse,Toliaracityuseapre-establishednetworkoffisherstosupplythemwithturtlestocookandresell.Interviewswithoneofthetwoturtlebuyers/resellersinToliaracitysuggestedthatturtlesweresenttoherfromSalary,100kmfurtherNWofToliara,bymorethan20differentspear-fishers.ThebuyerexplainedthattradewasbetterfromJanuarytoAprilasthecoolerweatherpreventedtheturtlemeatfromdeterioratingduringtransit,asalreadyreportedabove.Regardlessofthespecies(tortoiseorturtle),itisimperativethatenforcementactivitiesinurbancentresandalongmajortransportroutesareintensifiedandrespondtoanychangesinthebehaviourofthetransporters,andbutchers(Manjoazyetal.2017).ParticularconcernshouldbefocusedtoAnakaowherewewitnessedseveralillegaltakeanddomesticconsumptionincidentsinthespanofathree-daysitevisit.AdditionaleffortsshouldalsobefocusedtotheneighbouringcommunitiesofAmbohibola,AntsirkorokeandFanambosawhichhadactiveturtlehuntinggroupsthatsailedwithpiroguesfullofliveturtlestoselltobuyersinToliara.

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Figure21:TraderoutesofturtleproductswithinMadagascar.

3.6MagnitudeofdomestictradefromartisanalfishingAsinthecaseofMozambique,extrapolatingfromashortrapidassessmenttoaNationalleveltrademagnitudeisproblematiconvariousfronts:Turtletradeandtakelikelyoccuralongtheentirecoast,whileoursurveyscoveredonlysmallextentsofthis.Similarly,publishedliteraturegenerallyreflectssmall,localisedstudiesratherthannationalassessments.Secondly,theturtletakereportedtousduringthesesurveysisunlikelytobeofthesamemagnitudeacrossallfishingareasandyears.Also,somefishersprovidedestimatesforturtletakeoverthelast12months,whileothersprovidedthisformultipleyears.Finally,fishersdonotindicatethetotalnumberoffishingdayswithclarity,soiftheyreportcatchingturtles‘weekly’thismightnotmeanthatcatchoneeveryweekoftheyear.However,inthelead-uptoourfieldresearchweselectedsitesthathadbeenreportedashotspotsofturtletakeanduse(asdenotedintheliteratureandinconversationswithNGOsthatwereactive

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inMadagascar(e.g.BlueVentures,CommunityCentredConservation[C3],ReefDoctor),andthustheestimateswehavefordirectedandaccidentaltake,whilenotnationalinscope,areinformativeandalarming.Directtakeofmarineturtlesisrampantalongthecoast,withoverhalfofallrespondentsindicatingtheypurposefullytargetedmarineturtles(Fig.22).Thenumberoftargetedturtlesinthelast12months(roughlyOctober2017toSeptember2018),onlyamongsurveyrespondents(n=148),was2,500.Thisonlycoverstargetedtake.Theestimatednumberofbycaughtturtlesoverthepreceding12monthsamongstsurveyrespondentswas2,543turtles,butgiventhechallengeofdistinguishingbetweendirecttakeandbycatch,weconsider3,500turtlestobearealisticfigureoverall.Thesenumbersareonlyestimates,becauseseasonsandbadweatherdaysarenotreported.Wehaveadjustedthefigurestoaccountfora‘season’basedontheindicationswereceivedfromturtlebuyersduringtheinterviews.Inaddition,someoftheintervieweeswerepartoforganised‘groups’whohuntedturtlesdestinedfortrade,whileotherssimplycaughtoneortwooccasionallyfordomesticuse.Extrapolatingfromthismixofrespondentswouldnotbeprudentuntilanestimatecanbemadeofthenumberofparticipantsineachformofturtleextraction.Regardless,theoverallfigurespointtowardssome3,500turtlesbeingextractedfromlocalwatersinjustthelastyearamongonlythe153respondentsreachedviathissurvey.Manyrespondentsindicatedthattheturtlecaptureswerehistoricandon-going,meaningthatthousandsofturtleshavebeenextractedovertheyears.

Figure22:Proportionofsurveyrespondentswhoindicatedtheypurposefullytargetedmarineturtles

(n=148).LeManachetal.(2012)suggestedthereweresome100,000fishersengagedinartisanalfishingin2008,thelatestfigureavailableestimatingthesizeoftheartisanalfishery.StatisticsbytheWorldBank(presentedinLeManachetal.2013)suggestthatthetwokeyprovincesinwhichturtlesareparticularlytargeted(AntsirananaandToliara;withMahajangabeingmoreofatradingcentre)arehometo~45,000fishers.Wedonotsuggestalloftheseareinvolvedindirectedoraccidentaltakeofmarineturtles,asmarineturtlesarenotspreadevenlyalongthecoast,norarelocalcustomsthesame.Thereforewesuggestthatthetworegionsweinvestigated(southwestandnorthwestMadagascar)arelikelythekeyareaswhereturtlesaretaken,giventheprevalenceofreportsonthetradeintheseregionsinearlierpublications(e.g.Humberetal.2011,Jones2012),andbasedonourpreliminaryresearch. Humberetal.(2011)indicatedthatsome6%to7%offisherstargetedturtlesmorefrequentlyandwithgreatereffortthanotherfishersintheirstudy,andweusethatfigureheretoestimateatotalnumberofturtlefishersforthesetwoprovinces.Conservativelywesuggestthatsome3,068fishers

Yes53%

No47%

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couldbeinvolvedindirectedturtletakeinbothAntsirananaandToliaraprovinces.Webelievethisfigureisfarhigherhowever,becausenot6%to7%but53%ofrespondentsinthepresentstudyindicatedthattheytargetedturtlesinthesixregionsinvestigated.Wesuggestalsothatthisislikelyanunderestimateofthetotalnumberoffishersinvolved,becausethisonlyconsidersdirectedtake–notingthechallengesingettingfisherstounderstandthedifferencebetweendirectedtakeandbycatch,butuntilmorethoroughandexhaustivestudiescanbecarriedout,wehavenowayofbeingmoreaccurate.Thepresentsurveyfoundthat,ofthe118fisherswhoindicatedtheytargetedturtles,anaverageof32turtles/fisherweretakeninayear.Thiswassimplyanaverageofthenumberseachfisherreportedintheinterviews,extrapolatedforaoneyearperiod;e.g.whenafishersaidhecaughtoneturtleperweek,thenthiswasextrapolatedto52turtlesinayear;orwhenafisherindicatedoneturtlepermonth,thiswasextrapolatedto12turtlesperyear.Ourfigureissomewhathigherbutcomparabletotheaveragecapturerateof20to25animalsperfisherreportedbyFrontier-Madagascar(2003).Giventhiswefeeltheresultsofourinterviewscapturedfairlyaccuratelytheindividualactivityofartisanalfisherswithregardstomarineturtlecaptures.Extrapolateddirectly(notwithstandingcaveatsmentionedabove),thismeansthatthedirectedtakeofmarineturtlesintheartisanalfisheryinMadagascar(restrictedtoAntsirananaandToliaraprovincesasidentifiedabove)hasthepotentialtotakecloseto100,000turtlesperyear.Whilewehavenowaytoascertaintheaccuracyofthisestimatebasedonthechallengesofextrapolatingacrossregionsthatwerenotsurveyed,wewishtodrawtheattentionofthereadertothemagnitudeofthetake,ratherthantheexactnumberperse.Turtlesarenotbeingtakenbyafewhundredorafewthousand,butbyanorderofmagnitudegreater,andthiswarrantsfurtherattention.

3.7InternationaltradeLittleisknownofinternationaltradeinmarineturtlesfromMadagascar,andoursurveyswereunabletounearthanyfreshleadsthatmighthavedocumentedinternationaltraderoutesandmagnitudes.Madagascar’snotorietyfortradeinreptilesisalmostexclusivelyduetodemandfortwotortoisespeciesendemictotheisland:theploughsharetortoiseandtheradiatedtortoise(CADS2018).Similarly,arecentreportbytheGlobalInitiativeAgainstTransnationalOrganizedCrimedidnotciteanyrecordsofonlinesaleofmarineturtlesfromMadagascar(Rumhovde2018),whileSung&Fong(2018)didnotrecordcasesofmarineturtlesbeingtransshippedviaHongKongfromMadagascar.WildAid’sreportonmarineturtletradesimilarlydoesnotreportonanyinternationaltradeoutofMadagascar(WildAid2018).ArecentnotebytheWorldConservationSocietyontheirwebsitesuggeststhatdemandforoilandmeatfromSoutheastAsiawasfuellingtheincreaseddemandforturtlesinMadagascar(WCS2016),butwehavefoundnoevidencethatpointstothisoccurring.Indeed,theirreportsimplyreportsontheturtlestheyfoundduringsurveys,notonanyinternationaltrade.TherehavebeencasesdocumentingtradeintortoisesfromMadagascartoChina(e.g.Kiesteretal.2013,Runhovde2018),andwesuggestitispossiblethesetraderoutesmayenablethetradeinasmallnumberofmarineturtles(althoughwehavenoevidencetosupportthis).Butthereisnoevidencethatthenumbersaresubstantialorthatitisanorganised,on-goingactivity.Wedidnotfindanyonlinesourcesforturtleproductsthroughsearchesonsocialmediasites(Facebook,Instagram),andneitherthroughthemainwebsitesearchengine(Google)andcontentbrowsers(Firefox,Chrome).Weacknowledgewewereinnopositiontosearchanydarkwebsources,nordidwehavetimetoconductexhaustiveimagerecognitionanalyses,e.g.DiMininetal.(2018).OneinformantwhowishedtoremainanonymousreportedontradefromthenorthofMadagascar,withmarineturtlesbeingshippedtoAntananarivo,andpossiblybeyondasexport.Howeverthiswasnoteverconfirmed.Wehadanotherinformantwhoreportedonacottonfarm

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nearAnanalavathatpurchasedandsupposedlyexportedawiderangeofexoticspeciesfromMadagascartoChina,withlocalvesselssailingoffshoretomeetupwithforeignvesselsbeyondthenationalboundary.Marineturtlehatchlingswerereportedlyinvolvedinthistrade,butthereisnoinformationifthereweresubstantialnumbersoflargerturtlesbeingexported.Keyinformantsatthemanagementlevelsuggestedthatinternationaltradewasunlikelytobesubstantialgiventhehighlocaldemandforturtlemeatandproducts.Intwoquestionsrelatedtotrade,noneoftheinformantsbelievedexportevenoccurred(Fig.23).Werecognisethatthenumberofinformantsislow,butcoupledwithabetterunderstandingofthedomesticdemand,traderoutesandmarkets,webelievethisfindingisratheraccurate.Giventhis,wefeelinternationaltradeinmarineturtlesisofsmallconsequencetomarineturtlesofMadagascar,andsuggestafocusondomestictradeandconsumptionisfarmoreofapriority.

Figure23:ResponsesfromkeyinformantsrelatedtouseofmarineturtlesinMadagascar(n=3).

4.0DiscussionOursurveyshighlighttheintensepressurefromartisanalfisheriesinMadagascar,andpointtoitsupportinglocaltradeandconsumptionratherthaninternationaltradeinmarineturtlesand/orturtleproducts.Hawksbillturtles(usuallyusedtocraftjewelleryfromcarapacescutes)wereextremelyrareinourmarketsurveys,inkeepingwiththefindingsbyHumberetal.(2011),andpointingtoalesserroleofhandicraftandcuriosintheturtletrade(only19of153or12%ofrespondentsindicatedshellproductsweretraded,and14oftheseindicatedthetradewasminimalordecreasing.Duringthepresentsurvey,onlygreenturtleswereencounteredasmeatforsale,butasmallnumberofshellhandicraftswerealsorecorded.Oursurveysrevealedthatover90%ofturtleswereeitherconsumedathome,ortradedtobeconsumedatotherhomesinMadagascar.Wedidnotdetectanynoteworthyinternationaltrade.However,themagnitudeoftheturtletakeis

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staggering:some3,500turtlesweretakenbythe153intervieweesinourstudy,whichcouldbeextrapolatedtosome100,000turtlestakenannuallyinthethreeprovincesweinvestigatedinthisstudy.Wecautionhowtheseextrapolationvaluesshouldbeinterpreted,astherearenumerousuncertaintiesrelatedtothedistributionofeffort,thenumberoffishersinvolvedinturtlecollection(accidentalortargeted),theseasonality(andthusrepresentativenessofourfindingsthroughthisrapidassessment),andthemarkeddifferencesbetweenorganisedgroupsthattargetmarineturtles(Fig.24left)andtheoccasionalhunterwhofeedshisfamily(Fig.24right).Giventhis,weurgethatthenumbersbeusedasawake-upcalltothevastpotentialforturtlemortalityinMadagascar,andtocatalyseasuiteofmanagementandconservationinitiatives.

Figure24:Organisedcollectionofmarineturtlesforcommercialtrade(left)andindividualturtlescaughtfor

householdconsumption(right).PhotoscourtesyofMichelStrongoffandJessWilliams.

4.1ArtisanalfishingimpactsThenumberofartisanalfishersinMadagascarhassteadilyincreasedoverthelasttwodecades(LeManachetal.2013)andwithitsohasthepressureonmarineturtles.ThetrajectoryoffishingpressureonturtlepopulationsinMalagasywaters,bothinmagnitudeandmethod,isconcerning(Humberetal.2011).Ourfindingssuggestthatthereislittleenforcementofnationallawsprotectingmarineturtles,andthatoftenthoseentrustedwithprotectionandmanagementwereinvolvedinthetrade.Oneofthecasestudiespointedouthowavillagechiefwasinvolvedwiththeorganisedgangswhichremovedturtlesbythehundreds,andourinterviewswiththetwokeyturtlebuyersinMahavatse,Tulearsuggestedthatlawenforcementofficersknewoftheiroperationsandwereregularcustomers.

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Wehavechosennottoseparatebycatchanddirectedtakebecausewefoundfishersrarelyconsideredthesedifferent.Iftheycaughtaturtle,itwasconsideredpartoftheday’scatch,ratherthansomeaccidentaltake.Thisisalsoreflectedinthelow‘Release’response(18%)tothequestionofwhatfisherswoulddoiftheycaughtaturtleaccidentally.OurextrapolationsdifferedsomewhatfromtheHumberetal.(2011)approach(numberoffishersvs.lengthofcoastline)becauseinthatinstancetheauthorschosetoextrapolateusinglineardistanceofcoastline,whereastherearelikelyfishersthatusethatcoastlineandbeinvolvedintheturtletrade.Webelievethatourapproachmakesamorerealisticappraisalofturtletakebyconsideringthenumberoffishersinvolvedinturtletrade,andpresentsamorerealisticviewofthenumbersofturtlespotentiallytakenoutbythefishery.Overalltherefore,takeofmarineturtlesacrossthenationcouldbeseveralordersofmagnitudehigherthanhaseverbeenreportedinthepast.Thisisbecausepastreportshaveonlyeverfocussedonsmalllocations,andhavenotattemptedtoextrapolatetoanationallevel.Weacknowledgethatthepotentialtotakesome100,000turtlesperyearmayseemunrealisticallyhigh,butwhenputintocontextconsideringthesheernumberoffishersinvolvedintheartisanaltradeacrossthevastexpanseofcoastline,webelievethisisverylikelythecase.

4.2CommercialfishingimpactsThetwokeycommercialfishingindustriesinMadagascarareshrimptrawlingandtunafishing.Theshrimpfishingfleetissmall(50vessels)andallvesselsarerequiredtouseTurtleExcluderDevices.OnestudyindicatedthatthechangetousingTEDsresultedinadropfrom120tojusttwoturtlesacrosstheentirefishery(Razafindrainibe2010).Itisbelievedthatduetolackofenforcementandmonitoring,manyoftheshrimpboatssewuptheTEDsshortlyaftertheirsingeannualinspection,withthepossibleexceptionofthe30%ofvesselsthatcarryon-boardobservers(perscomm.,J.Vahoavy,CSP).Irrespectiveofthis,theshrimpfisheryimpactonmarineturtles,whileofnote,appearsinsignificantincomparisontothedirecttakeandbycatchofturtlesintheartisanalfishery.Thereisnodataavailableontheimpactofthetunaindustryonmarineturtles,butasthefastestgrowingcommercialfishery,knowntoimpactmarineturtlesacrossotherpartsoftheworld,wesuggestthisisanareainneedofinvestigation.Madagascar’stunaindustryusesamixofseinevesselsandlonglinevessels,thelatterofthetwobeingknowntocatchturtlesaccidentally(e.g.Camiñasetal.2006)tolandsome52,000tonnesoftunaeachyear.Thereisrampantillegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishinginMalagasywatersbyforeignvessels(LeManachetal.2012)andalackofresourcestoaddresstheproblem.“MalagasyauthoritiesdonotpossesstheresourcestopatroltheirownEEZandthereforecannotaddresstheproblemofillegalfishingforsuchhigh-valuespecies”citedasJain(1995)&Cooke(1997)inLeManachetal.(2012).Thislackofcapacityandresourcestomonitorandenforcenationalfisherylawsarethesameonesthathinderthemonitoringoftheimpactsofthesefisheriesonmarineturtles.Wesuggestthatthisisapriorityareainneedoffurtherinvestigation.

4.3InternationaltradeimpactsMadagascarisknownasahubforillegalwildlifetrafficking(IWT).IWTinMadagascarcoversavastarrayofterrestrialandmarinefloraandfaunaspeciessuchaslemurs(Reuteretal.2016,Bailey&Tobiason2017),tortoises(Manjoazyetal.2017,Schwarzetal.2017),chameleons(Robinsonetal.2018),androsewood(Ke&Zhi2017).PloughshareandradiatedtortoisesareprizedtargetsforIWTinMadagascar,anditisthoughtthatover21,000tortoiseswereexportedinAsiabetween2009and2016(WWF2018).InApril201810,000tortoisesweredetectedinaraidonanabandonedbuilding

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inacoordinatedbustedbyledbyDREF(Actman2018,perscomm.S.Randrianjafizanka,NationalGeographic2018).Traffickingandillicitactivitiesoftenaggregate,sharingroutesandbuyernetworks(UNODC2016).ApromisingrecentdevelopmenttoaddressIWTinMadagascarcomesintheformofanewpartnershipbetweenWWF,TRAFFIC,andtheMinistryofJusticewithsupportfromtheUSFish&WildlifeService.Theaimofthepartnershipistooverseethetrainingoffiftymagistrates,policeofficers,gendarme,borderpolice,customofficers,andenvironmentalofficers,toprovideheightenedcapacitybuildingandawarenesstoensurethatthesystematiccondemnationoftraffickersatalllevels,assoonastheirguiltisproven(WWF2018).Detectingsmugglingactivitiesischallenging,astradersarewellinformedoftheflightroutesthatenablethemtoavoidluggagechecks(Schwarzetal.2017).OneflightrouteusedtosmuggleanimalstoBangkokisfromMahajanga,becausethisairportlacksbaggagescanners,toMayotteintheComorosIslands,thenontoReunionIsland,andfromtheretoBangkok(Kiesteretal.2013).FurtherinquiryintothehowturtleproductsleaveMadagascar(ifatall)shouldfocusondeterminingifsuchknownroutesareused.Itispossiblethatillegaltakeandtradeofmarineturtlesisconnected,orusesthesametradenetworkandroutesasotherIWT,butwehavenotfoundanyevidenceofthistodate,andsuggestthatitisoffarlesserconcernatpresentthanisthedomestictrade.

4.4IllustrativefeedbackfromkeyinformantsTwoparticularinterviewsresultedinanumberofinterestingfindingswhichhelpputtheresultsofourrapidassessment,andthedifficultiesinassessingoverallimpactofthevariedfisheries,intocontext.ThesearepresentedbelowinsupportofsomeoftheargumentsmadeinthisDiscussion.

4.4.1CSPMahajangaFeedbackOneofthekeypeoplewespoketoduringthesurveywastheDirectoroftheFisheriesSurveillabeCenter(CSP)inMahajanga,fromwhichseveralkeypointsarenotweworthy:Commercialfisheriesandturtlebycatch:CSPreportthattherearecurrently39Malagasyregisteredshrimptrawlersandthatall(supposedly)hadTEDsinstalled,andthatallboatsareinspectedattheopeningoftheseasoninMahajangaport.However,theDirectorreportedthatthesevesselswereknowntowiretheTEDdoorsshutfollowingtheseason’ssingleinspection.Thissuggeststhatturtlebycatchratesmaybesignificantlyhigherthanwhatisreportedintheliterature,suchas“Virtuallyallmortalityfromtrawlershasceased”inRazafindrainibe(2010).TheDirectorreportedthatCSPhaveanonboardobserverprogramfortheshrimpfisheryandcurrently30%oftheMalagasyfleethadobserversonboardeverydayoftheseason.Inadditiontothis,therearecurrently140othervesselsintheforeignfleetofwhichonly10%haveobserversonboard.Illegalturtletake:TheDirectorestimatedthataboutsixincidentsperyearoccurintheregion,andthatapproximately600kgofturtlemeatareconfiscatedfromvendorsinmarketsinAntsahaBigo,Cotemaandneartheport.HereportedthatrawturtlemeatistransportedintoandaroundMahajangacitybyboat.Thebiggestconstrainttoenforcementofillegalturtletakeiscatchingfishersintheactoffishingturtlestoensuretheycanbeprosecuted.

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In2016CSPMahajangainterceptedashipmentofdriedturtlemeatbeingsentfromAmbanjatoAntananarivo.Theyfoundsixfullbaskets(largebasketsapproximately1.5mtallx0.75mwidewithmorethan50kgeachbasket)ofdried,smoked/saltedturtlemeat.TheyinterceptedtheshipmentontheroadbetweenAmbanjaandAntsohihy,asthedriedturtlemeatwasbeingmovedbylocaltaxi-bus.Theybelievethatthetransporters/middlemenhadshippedproductslikethismanytimesbefore.Theoffenderswerereleasedandtheproductswereseized.Thisistheonlyrecordofdriedturtlemeat,withtheexceptionofplastronligamentproducts,thatwedetectedduringourfieldwork.Whenaskedaboutplastron/ligamentproductstheCSPwasnotawareandhadnotdetectedthistypeofproduct.Exportactivities:CSPwerenotawareofillegalturtletakeforthepurposeofexport.However,itfallswithinthejurisdictionoftheFishQualityAgency(AgenceSanitaireHalieutique,ASH)toinspectseacontainerswithmarineproductsforexport.CSPsuggestedthatitwouldbedifficulttolabelturtlemeatasseafoodproductsbeingexportedbyseacontainer,asthisiscloselycheckedbyASHandcustomsagencies.However,othershippingcontainerscontainingnon-seafoodproductsmighthaveanythinginsideduetocorruption.TheroleofDina:CSPwerepositiveoftheimpactandimportanceofhavingwelldesignedDinainlocalcommunities,especiallythosewithLocallyManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs).CSPassistlocalcommunitieswhentheyaredraftingtheDinatomakesurethattheproposedDinamirrorsandalignswithnationalpolicies.TheyreportthatareoccurringmanagementchallengeforlocalcommunitiesrelatestoenforcingtheirDinaandjustifyingthespatialareathattheDinaappliesto.TheygaveanexampleoffishersfromAmbalamangapoachingturtlesonboundarylinesorinneighbouringvillagestoescapethepenaltiesofbreakingtheirownvillageDina.Generally,itisthedutyofthecommunityassociationtohandletheissueofafisherbreakingaDina.Butifitcannotberesolvedlocally,thenthepoliceandotherauthoritiesneedtobeinvolved,inwhichcasetheDinarulesaresurpassedandthematterescalatestowhatisapplicableatthelevelofthenationallaws.Insomecircumstances,thelocalcommunitymaynotreporttolocalauthoritieswhenaDinaisbroken,notbecausethematterwasdealtwithbutbecausethewholecommunityisdisregardingtherules.“It'shighlylikelythewholecommunitypretendstoimplementDinaregardingFano(turtle)butactuallytheyareallfishingturtlesopenlyjustnotreportingordealingwithDinaissuestoCSPandPeche”,reportedtheDirector.TheDirectorconsideredthesinglebiggestmovetoimprovecompliancetoDinaandturtleprotectionlawswouldbetoeducatecommunitiestostophuntingandconsumingturtle,butthatCSPdidn'thavetimeorjurisdictionforsensitisation/awarenessbuilding.ThegovernmentreliesonNGO’stodothiswork.Thus,inareaswhereNGOsarenotactiveornotfocusedonmarineturtles,thereislikelytobeahugedeficitinawarenessprogrammes.

4.4.2FeedbackfromanartisanalmaritimetransporterNotesfromanartisanalmaritimetransporterandex-fisherrevealedthefollowinginformation:MarinetransportroutestravelsouthwardfromSoalala,Maintirano,Besalampy,andittakes4-7daystosailfromMaintiranotoMahajanga.ThevesselsfromAnalalava,NosyBe,andAntsohihywhichtypicallyrequire6-7daystoreturnbacktoMahajanga.Thevesselstypicallytransportbuildingsuppliestothesevillagesontheoutwardjourney,andonthereturnpassagetoMahajangathewoodenshipisfilledwithdriedfish,semi-preciousstonessuchasjasperandagate,ordomesticbelongings.Thevesselsalsooftentransportsharkfinandseacucumbers.Thesmallvillagesalongthecoastusuallygivetheirsuppliestothelargeshippingdhowstosellontomiddlemen/buyersinAmborovy,Mahajanga.Thevillagersputturtlemeatiniceboxesandselltotransporterswhothen

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sellitinMahajanga.Chinesebuyerspurchasetortoises,crabs,shrimps,seacucumberandsharkfin,andhethoughtitwasplausibletheywouldbuymarineturtle,butthiswasspeculative.Thevessels(seeFig.25foranexample)sailclosetothecoastandtheyoftenpassChinesetrawlerswithMalagasycrewsalongtheway.Whilstsailingalongthesouth-routes,therespondentindicatedhehadneverseenapatrolboatbetweenMahajangaandMaintirano.TherespondentindicatedthattargetedhuntingofturtleswasabundantusingjarifanetsinSoalala,butsuggestedthiswasforjustforlocalconsumption.HeconfirmedthatinMahajangacityturtlemeatcouldbepurchasedatBazaarMahabibo.Healsorelayedastoryfrom2016whenfishersfromAmbatomanompawerehuntingnestingturtlesandtheireggs.Theywouldtaketheturtles,slaughterandchopthemintoportionsandputtheseiniceboxesandsailbacktoMahajanga.Healsoheardrumoursofamiddlemanthatwasbuyingturtlemeatusingcarorboattobringitbacktothecity.Therespondentindicatedthatonthe15thofeachmonththereisashippingcontainervesselthatcomestoMahajangaandisloadedupandheadsbacktoChina,filledwithjustaboutanything.ThereareapparentlytwomainshippingboatsfromMahajanga;thosethatgotoComoresandthosethatgottoChina.Theyreportedlyoffer4X4vehiclesandtricycles,ortuk-tuks,asbribesinexchangeforassistanceintheirexportbusinesses.

Figure25:Artisanaltransportvessels.

4.5Managementchallenges

4.5.1ApplicationandenforcementofthelawOverall,thereseemstobealargeabsenceofrespectfornationallaws,andawarenessandcapacityworkisneededwithafocusonofficialsandcommunityleaderssotheycanspearheadeffortsand

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leadbyexample.Thelawisoftendismissedbysomelocalauthoritiesundertheunderstanding/notionthatmarineturtleshavealwaysbeenpartofVezofood(Lilette2002).Publicisingwidelyanyarrestsandbustsofturtletrafficking,illegaltakeandillnessfromconsumptionofturtlemeatwouldbenefitcommunityperceptionoftheseriousnessandattitudetowardsrespectingnationallegislation.NewsoftherecentarrestsofthegroupoffishersinAmbohibolahadspreadacrossmuchofthesouthcoastandfishersciteditasanexampleofhowturtlefishingwasnottoleratedbythegovernment.AsnotedbyGardneretal.(2018)thedifficultiesexperiencedinenforcingthelawinMadagascararefurtherhinderedasneithertheMadagascarNationalParks(MNP)northenewProtectedAreapromotershaveauthoritytoapplythelaw.Instead,seriousinfractionsrequiremanagerstoorganiseandfundfieldmissionsbya‘mixedbrigade’,comprisingmembersofthegendarmerie,Ministèredel'Environnement,del'EcologieetdesForêts(MEEF)agents,localandmunicipalauthoritiesandmembersoftheprotectedareamanagementcommittee.(Gardneretal.2018).

4.5.2TraffickingturtleplastronItisunclearfromourcurrentsurveyswheretheenddestination(s)forturtleplastronproductsareandwhethertheseproductsareexportedoutofMadagascar.Furtherworkwouldalsobebeneficialtodocumenttheuseofsuchproduct,inordertounderstandthedemandandmotivesofbuyersandthetrade.Tothebestofourknowledge,thisplastron/ligamenttradehasnotbeenwidelydocumentedandappearsexclusivetoMadagascar.Asisrequiredforanywildlifecrime,multisectorcollaborationbetweenenvironmentaldepartments,import/exportsectorandjudicialsystemwillbecriticaltomitigatingsuchactivities.ThisislikelytobeanongoingchallengeforMadagascar.

Inordertoaddressthisdevelopingtradeofturtleplastron,anincreasedlevelofinformationsharingbetweenallsectorsinvolvedisstronglysuggested.Limitedcapacityfordetectionisexpectedifauthorities,customsagentsarenotgivenspecialisttrainingandmotivatedtodetectsuchproducts.Alleffortstoenhancetheforensiccapacityofcustomsagentsandlawenforcementarecentraltodetectingwildlifecrimes(UNODC2016).Wesuggestthatinformationandimagesofturtleplastronproductsandknowntransitroutesbewidelydisseminatedtofacilitateauthoritiesinmonitoringthistrade.

4.5.3CorruptionIthasbeenthoroughlydocumentedthatwidespreadcorruptionwithinMadagascarfacilitateswildlifecrime(Humber&Hykle2011,Jones2012,LeManachetal.2012,Runhovde2018).Twoexamplesofcorruptionwererecordedduringthestudy,withoneinvolvingafisheriesauthoritywithtransitpermitsforshippingmarineproducts,andtheotherananecdotalaccountimplicatingcomplacency/acceptingbribesinlargeinternationalNGOstonotconductthoroughorrepeatinspectionsatfacilitiesknowntostockpileseacucumber,turtleplastronandsharkfin.BothturtlemeatvendorsinMahavatse,Toliaraconfirmedpoliceandorotherauthoritieshadmadesiteinspectionsbutnoactionstowardsissuingfinesorstrongerformsofenforcementhadbeenissued.Bothvendorsconfirmedthatofficialshadacceptedturtlemeatasabribe,withonevendorsayingsomeofficialswerepartofherregularclientele.ComplacencyofofficialstoactoninspectionsandenforcingthelawwithregardtoturtlemeatvendorsinMahavatse,Toliaraislikelytopermitsomewherebetween400-700turtlesperyeartobesoldasbushmeatgiventhateachofthetwovendorsquestionedduringthissurveydescribedsellinguptooneturtleperday.AsnotedbyLilette(2006),thewidespreadtradeofthegreenturtlesisanoutcomeofalaxenforcementofregulationsduetoindifference,corruption,andthedesireofthelawenforcement

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agentstoeattheprohibitedgame(Lilette2006).Effortstoaddresstheseattitudes/longstandingissuesarescarceorhaveproventobeineffectivetodate.

4.5.4Culturalsensitivity/bushmeatdemandBalancingthedisharmonybetweentheculturalsignificanceofturtleforVezo/migrantfishersandthenationallawswhichprohibitsturtlefishinghasbeenalong-citedongoingproblem(Walker&Roberts2005,Jones2012,Humberetal.2015).Attemptstoreconcilethisissuehavebeenlimitedandthereisasignificantneedforincreasedmarineturtleconservationeffortstosensitisefishingcommunities(Humberetal.2015).Ourresultsdemonstrateahighdemandforturtleasmarinebushmeat.Parallelingtheterrestrialbushmeatcase,Rueteretal.(2016)documentedatrendtowardssmallerbushmeatspeciesthatreflectscarcityoflargeranimals,afindingwhichwasmirroredbyourresultswithmarineturtles.Onepotentialmanagementsolutionpostulatedtoreducedemandforbushmeatisbyusingtaboostoincreasecommunitycompliance(Westerman&Gardner2013).Thiscouldbeacompellingstrategyforreducingtradeinturtles,giventhe(occasionallyeffective)fadyagainstturtlemeatsales.Emphasismustbeplacedonestablishingconsistentlongtermcollaborativepartnershipstoguidecommunitybasedmanagement,particularlyinremoteareas.InsouthofMadagascarwewitnessedharmfulrelationships(miscommunication,distrust,lackofcapacity)betweenauthorities/NGOsandlocalcommunities.Itappearsthatproblemsstemmedwithconservationpractitionerspushingnationallegislationwithoutprovidingamplesupportandsensitisationtothecommunity.Forexample,thevillagechiefofAntsikorokesaidtheynolongerwelcomecollaborationfromWWForMadagascarNationalParks(MNP),makingeffectivefollow-upactionsextremelychallengingandopeningupanopportunityforwildlifetraffickingtobecomeanappealingeconomicalternative.Specificattentionshouldbefocusedtothedrafting,andimplementingofDinaregardingconservationmatters,asmanyexistingDinaseemtocontradictorconflictwithnationallegislation(Humberetal.2015).ThecurrentongoingcaseofthegroupofturtlefishersfromAmbohibolaisagoodexampleofthisissue.TheAmbohibolavillagersandfishingassociationexpressedconfusionandfrustrationastowhytheconvictedturtlefisherswerenotgiventheopportunitytopaytheturtlefishingfineof300,000MGAasagreeduponintheDina,althoughtheyintendedtoselleachturtleatupto450,000MGA.Effectivemanagementisnotlikelytooccurwithoutcommunityapproval(Humberetal.2011)andthussignificanteffortwillneedtobemadetobuild/restorerelationshipsbetweencommunityandtheconservationsector,aswellasgeneralenvironmentalawarenessprogrammes.

6.0ConclusionsItisevidentthatthereismuchfollow-upworkrequiredtoexpandonourresultspresentedinthisreport.Ofparticularimportancetofutureeffortswillbetheneedtoundertakeampleundercoverinvestigatoryworkinthelargercitiesthatarelikelytoactastradehubsandexportpointsformarineturtleproducts.WesuggestthatTulear,Mahajanga,DiegoSuarezandAntananarivorequireadditionalworktodeterminefinerscopedetailsontheresaleandexportoftheturtleplastronproducts,includinghowsuchproductspassthroughtheports.

Oursurveysacross153fishersorfisheryrelatedworkersandfourmanagementpractitionershaveprovidedawealthofinformationontheturtlefisheryandthepotentialimpactsofboththecommercialandartisanalfisheriesonturtles.

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Weestimateover3,500marineturtleswereextractedbytheintervieweesinoursurveyduringthepast12monthsalone,andextrapolationssuggeststhatnationallevelextractioncouldbeofamagnitudeofhundredsofthousands.Wedonotbelievethecommercialshrimpindustryishavingamajorimpactonmarineturtles,butfurtherworkinthisareaiswarrantedgiventheimpactofshrimptrawlersonmarineturtleselsewhere,andtheproximitytoshoreinwhichtheyfishinMadagascar.SimilarlywedonotbelievethatinternationaltradeinmarineturtlesinMadagascarisofalargescaleandorganised.Webelieveitislikelymoreanopportunisticissue,withdomestictradetakingprecedenceoverinternationalsales.Thisismadeallthemoresobythedearthofhawksbillsinthecatches,whichwouldotherwisebefavouredashighvaluehandicraft,withscutesmoreeasilytransportedthanwholeanimals.TherearenobeacheswithinMadagascarthatwouldsupporttheproductionofsufficienthatchlingstosupportthenumberofjuveniles,subadultsandadultsthataretakeninthefisheries,andthuswebelievethatthesearebeingseededfromnearbyrookeriesinthewesternIndianOcean.Itisunclearwhetherthisisasustainablelevelofextraction,givenastheserookeriesarealsoseedingbeachesinMozambique,wheresimilarlylargenumbersofturtlesareextractedeachyear.Notwithstandingthecurrentlegislativestatusofmarineturtles,thelowincomelevelsinMadagascarandtherequirementforproteinforsustenancemeanthatmarineturtlesare(andlikelywillcontinuetobe)afavouredandextremelycommoncommodity.Indeed,itislikelythatmarineturtleshavebeensustaininglocalcommunitiesformanyyearsHowever,whatisunknowniswhetherthecurrentexpansiontoacommercialenterpriseandtransportnetworkstoallofthemajorcitieswiththeirconcomitantresourcedemandswillbesustainable.ItisalsoimportanttonotethereremainsalackofclarityonwhereMadagascarturtlescomingfrom–whatarethenestingbeachesthatformthesourceofalltheturtlesfoundinMalagasywaters?Thesetwokeybiologicalquestionsareparticularlyrelevant,asanswerstothesemightinformmanagementagenciesandassistinthedesignofconservationoptions,addressedinthefollowingsection.

7.0 RecommendationsRecommendationsmadehereinarebrokendownintomanagementandconservationrelatedactionsandbiology/sustainabilityrelatedissues.

7.1Conservation&Management1. StrengthenlocaltraditionalmanagementapproachessuchasDinaandfady,andprovidean

opportunityforlocalcommunitiestoassumeresponsibilityforenforcingtraditionalbansthatsupportnationallegislation;

2. Conductwide-rangingawarenesscampaignsonthelegalstatusandconservation/managementneedsofmarineturtlesinMadagascaramongcoastalcommunities;

3. Increaseexposureofincidencesofpoachercapturesandturtlereleasesamongstcoastalcommunitiestoheightenawarenessoftheillegalityoftheactivities;

4. ConducttrainingofportandMinistryofficialswhoareinvolvedinthepermittingandinspectionprocessofoutgoingshipments(bothfishandnon-fish-related)tobetterassessandcontroltheexportofillegalmarineturtleproducts;

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5. BuildcapacityamongkeyauthoritiesontheimportanceandprotocolsrequiredforsystematicgatheringofinformationandreportingofillegaltakeandtraffickingincidentsintoacentraldigitaldatabaseinordertocompleteCITESAnnualIllegalTradeReports;

6. DevelopacomprehensiveFisheriesAct/tailoredlegislationthataddressesbothcommercialandartisanalfishingandiscompliantwithCITESandCMS(includingIOSEATurtleMOURequirements);

7. Digitisepermittingsystemsfortransportoffisheriesproductstominimiseduplicationorfakepapers,possiblythroughabarcodingsystemorQRcodeinsteadofcarbonpaper;

8. Investmoreheavilyinmarineenforcementfacilitiesandinstaffandstationkeyresourcesatkeyfisheryareaswheremarineturtles,sharksandotherprotectedspeciesaretargeted;

9. Intensifyenforcementofcurrentexistingnationallegislation;

10. Supportundercoverinvestigationswhichmayprovidegreaterinsightintoanyillegalmarineturtleexportactivities;

11. Developprogrammestoeliminatecorruptionamongstenforcementofficialstoenhanceimplementationandenforcementofcurrentexistingnationallegislation;

12. ConductstudiestounderstandimpactsandscaleofIUUintheMozambiquechannelandMadagascar’sEEZ.ThereisanurgentneedtocollectabaselineinformationonIUUbeforeanincreaseinforeignfishingvesselsMadagascarEEZoccurs;

13. InvestigatetheopportunitiesforregionalcollaborationamongstcountrieswhosharethemarineturtlestocksonwhichMalagasyfishersdepend,forexample,utilizingtheexpertiseandresourcesoftheWesternIndianOceanMarineTurtleTaskForceoftheIOSEAMarineTurtlesMOU;

14. Explorethepotentialforalternativelivelihoodsasameanstoreducepressuresonmarineturtlestocks,forexample,community-basedecotourism;

15. Explorethepotentialformicro-financeschemestocatalyseconservationactionandenablecommunitiestoimprovethestandardoflivingandbecomelessreliantonmarineturtleconsumptionforsustenance;

16. EstablishanemergencyfundforgovernmentagenciestoactonIWTrelatedtomarineturtlesandothermarineproducts;

17. SeeksupportfromNGOsanddonoragenciestostrengthencurrentconservationapproaches,expandawareness-andcapacity-buildingactivities,andtodesignDinathatareeffectiveinprotectingmarineturtlestocks.

7.2Biology&Sustainability1. DeterminetheprovenanceofmarineturtlesbeingtakenoutofMadagascar’swaters

(throughgeneticstudies)anddeterminetheoverallproductivityofthesesourcerookeries,andotherregionalimpactareas(e.g.Mozambique).

2. ExpandthecurrentrapidsurveytoagreatergeographicalareainordertorefinetheestimatesoftotalannualturtletakeinMadagascar(seealsoSection7.3,below).

3. Conductathoroughandnational-levelassessmentofnestingmarineturtlesinMadagascartounderstandtheircontributiontomarineturtlestocksinMadagascar’scoastalforaginggrounds.

4. ConductstudiesinMadagascarturtleforaginggroundstounderstandpopulationsizeandstructure;

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5. Compile(andpublicise)recordsofillness/deathrelatedtoconsumptionofmarineturtlemeat;

6. Conductdetailedstudiesonspeciespreferenceandselectionbylocalfisherstounderstandimpactsataspecies-specificlevel;

7. Developaholisticregionalsurvivalprobabilitymodelofmarineturtlepopulationdynamicswhichtakesintoaccountthethreatsfrommultiplecountries(howmanyturtlesofwhatageclassesarebeingtakenoutofthepopulation),limitationsofsourcebeaches(howmanymarineturtlesarebeingproducedeachyear),naturalsurvivalprobabilities,andmarineturtlebiologytodeterminethesustainabilityofthecurrentharvests;

8. Conductstudiesonthebycatchandsurvivalprospectsofmarineturtlesintheshrimpfishingfleets,andontheeffectivenessoftheTurtleExcluderDeviceprogramme;

9. Conductstudiesonthebycatchandsurvivalprospectsofmarineturtlesinthetunalonglinefishingfleets;

10. Understandingfishermigrationsinresponsetoincreasingclimatepressureordwindlingfishstocksandtheresultant(increased)pressuresonmarineturtles;

11. Conductexperimentaltrialsonbycatchmitigationinthelonglineindustry,suchasviacirclehooksorbaitchoices.

7.3AdditionalprioritysurveyareasOursurveyswere,bytheirverynature,rapidandlimitedinscope.GiventheexpanseoftheMalagasycoastline,thereissignificantscopeforadditionalbaselinesurveysinartisanalfishingvillagesandfollow-upinvestigationsonillegaltradenetworks.TableXsummariseskeyareasthatcouldbeaddressedbyfutureefforts.

TableX:Areasinneedofadditionalsurveysand/orpreliminarybaselinedata.

Area Knownsituation/Dataavailable Effortrequired

Fanambosa,AtsimoAndrefana

Mentionedduringinterviewsintheareaasabasefortargetedturtlefishers.

Baselinesurveys

Maintirano,Melakey VillagersreportedfishingturtleandsellingtotransporterwhosailinlargesailboatstoMahajanga.

Baselinesurveys.UndercoverinvestigationaboutproductstransportedtoMahajangaforexports

MahajangaPort,Boeny

KnowntobeahubofcorruptionforIWTexportforotherspecies,andresources.

Undercoverinvestigationaboutproductstransportedandtraffickingroutes

MonrondavaAtsimoAndrefana

IllegaltakeofLeatherbackinNov2016forlocalconsumptionreported(Williams2017).ManyfisherslikelytotargetturtlestocksaroundBarrenIslandsandJuanDeNova.

Baselinesurveys

Andavadoaka,AtsimoAndrefana

IllegaltakeofLeatherbackinNov2016forlocalconsumptionreported(Williams2017).Reportofhousestoringturtleplastronligamentsdetectedinlate2016.

Baselinesurveyswithfishers

St.MarieIsland Nodataavailable BaselinesurveysTamatave,Toamasina

Nodataonturtlesavailable.Largestport,knownforcorruptionandotherproductsbeingsmuggledoutthroughTamatave,closesttoChina.

BaselinesurveysUndercoverinvestigationaboutportexports

RadamaIslands,Sofia 2016reportsofturtlepoachingfromWCS. Baselinesurveystodetectturtle

47

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region ReportsoftemporaryturtlefishingcampsthroughRadamaIslands.

fishingcamps

Analalava,Sofiaregion

Intensiveturtlefishingbygroupof30fishers. BaselinesurveysUndercoverinvestigationtoidentifytraffickingrouteandpartners

BarrenIslands Popularturtlefishingareaformigrantfishers. Baselinesurveystodetectturtlefishingcamps

Androka-Lavanono,AtsimoAndrefana

ThisisaremotestretchofthecoastthatwassuggestedthatmigrantfishersfromAmbohiholagotofishturtles.

Baselinesurveys

StAugustin,AtsimoAndrefana

TransitstoponwaytoTulearfromvillagesalongthesouthcoast.

Baselinesurveys

Soalala,Boeny NosurveydataavailablebutthissitewasmentionedaswhereturtlefisherssourcedtheturtlestheyselltoCotema,Mahajanga.

Baselinesurveys

DiegoSuarez,Antsirasana,Dianaregion

Baselinedataavailable-thisstudyandthesis(Rahantanirina2018).EiscutesboughtinNosyBe/NosyKombabybuyerswhoselloninDiego.

Follow-upsurveystoelucidatetraffickingnetwork

MainlandNWcoast(AmbanjatoDiego),Dianaregion

Remoteheavilymangroveareareferencedininterviewsconductedinthisstudywhousebeachseineorjarifatotargetturtles.

Baselinesurveys

Ambanja,Dianaregion

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Atapera,Anosy Baselinesurveysneeded.Jarifafishingabundant.ReferencedassiteoftargetedfishinganddomesticuseduringsurveysintheAnosyregioninterviews.

Baselinesurveys

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RaberinaryaD&SBenbowa,2012.ThereproductivecycleofOctopuscyaneainsouthwestMadagascarandimplicationsforfisheriesmanagement.FisheriesResearch125–126:190–197.

RakotonirinaB&ACooke,1994.SeaturtlesofMadagascar-theirstatus,exploitationandconservation.Oryx28:51-61.

RakotondrazafyAMA&RMAdrianasolo,2012.PreliminaryassessmentoftheseaturtlesectorinMorambaBay,MarovasaBeandAnjajavyareas.Cétamada2012.

RakotosonLR&KTanner,2006.Community-basedgovernanceofcoastalzoneandmarineresourcesinMadagascar.Ocean&CoastalManagement49(11):855-872.

RasolofonirinaR&CConand,1998.L’exploitationdesholothuriesdanslesud-ouestdeMadagascar,re´giondeToliara.Labêche-de-mer,bulletindelaCPS10:10–3.

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RazafindrainibeH,2010.BaselinestudyoftheshrimptrawlfisheryinMadagascarandstrategiesforbycatchmanagement,ProjectTCP/MAG/3201-REBYC2.Rome(Italy):UnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization.

Repoblikan'iMadagasikara,2013a.Arrêtérégionalno.2013-009/REG/ATSIMOANDREFANAportantpréservationdestortuesmenacéesd'extinctiondanslaRégion[RegionalDecreeno.2013-009/REG/ATSIMOANDREFANArelatingtothepreservationofendangeredturtlesintheregion.]MinisteredelaDecentralisation.AtsimoAndrefana,Madagascar.16thOctober2013.

Repoblikan'iMadagasikara,2013b.Réuniontechniquesur«lesprisesdemesuresfaceautraficdetortuemarineàMadagascar».Notedepresse.Mercredi04Décembre2013.Antananarivo:ComiteNationaldeGestionIntegreedelaZoneCotiereetmarine(CN-GIZC);2013.

ReuterKE,HGilles,ARWills&BJSewall,2016.LivecaptureandownershipoflemursinMadagascar:Extentandconservationimplications.Oryx50:344–354

RiskasKA,RTobin,MPBFuentesMPB&MHamann,2018.Evaluatingthethreatofillegal,unreportedandunregulated(IUU)fishingtoseaturtlesintheIndianOceanandSoutheastAsiausingexpertelicitation.BiologicalConservation217:232-239.

RobinsonJE,RAGriffiths,IMFraser,JRaharimalala,DLRoberts&FAVSt.John,2018.Supplyingthewildlifetradeasalivelihoodstrategyinabiodiversityhotspot.EcologyandSociety23(1):13.https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09821-230113

RunhovdeSR,2018.IllegalonlinetradeinreptilesfromMadagascar.TheGlobalInitiativeAgainstTransnationalOrgnisedCrime.Geneva,Switzerland19pp.

SabatiniG,ASalley&JBRamanamanjato,2008.AreviewofthespinylobsterfisheryintheTolagnaro(Fort-Dauphin)region.Tolagnaro(Madagascar):Biodiversity,ecologyandconservationoflittoralecosystemsinsoutheasternMadagascar,Tolagnaro;2008.

SchwarzD,DNewton&CRatzimbazafy,2017.AssessmentoftheinternationalillicitwildlifetradeinthecriticallyendangeredMalagsytortoisespeciesAstrochelysyniphoraandAstrochelysradiata.Salamandra53(1):163–166.

SocioeconomicDataandApplicationsCentre,2000.PopulationDensity:Madagascar2000.http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/maps/gallery/search/5?facets=region:africa&facets=theme:population

SungYH&JJFong,2018.AssessingconsumertrendsandillegalactivitybymonitoringtheonlineTwildlifetrade.BiologicalConservation227:219–225.

UNODC,2016.WorldWildlifeCrimeReport:Traffickinginprotectedspecies.UnitedNations,Vienna.101pp.

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WildAid,2018.Seaturtles:Anunncertainfuture.WildAid,SanFrancisco,USA.29pp.

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AnnexI:FieldworkitineraryDate Region Activitytype Itinerary Team

1/9/18 Antananarivo Transit/Arrival ProjectteamarriveinTanaforkickoffmeeting.

1

2/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit AntananrivotoTulear 13/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Interviewsandlocalapprovals,

meetingwithMRHP,DREF+ReefDoctor

Mahatavse,Tulear 1

4/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit+interviews+ TuleartoAnakao 15/9/18-6/9/18

AtsimoAndrefana interviews Anakaovillage 1

7/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit+interviews AnakaotoItampolo,viaBehelokyandAmbola

1

8/9/18-9/9/18

AtsimoAndrefana Interviews+managementmeetingwithMNP

Itampolo 1

10/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit+interviews ItampolotoAndroka,viaAntsikorokeandAmbohibola

1

11/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Interviews Ambohibola 112/9/18 AtsimoAndrefana Transit AmbohibolatoLavanono 113/9/18-14/9/18

AtsimoAndrefana-Androy

Interviews Lavanono 1

15/9/18 Androy Transit+interviews LavanonotoFauxCap 116/9/18 AndroytoAnosy Transit FauxCaptoFortDauphin 117/9/18 Anosy Interviewsandlocalapprovalswith

MRHP,MIHARInetworkFortDauphin 1

18/9/18 Anosy Transit+interviews AmbinanyBe,FortDauphin 119/9/18 Anosy Transit+interviews AnalapsyII+Arabaraba 120/9/18 Anosy Transit+interviews Lokaro 121/9/18-22/9/18

Anosy Dataentry+Logistics FortDauphin 1

23/9/18 Anosy-Antananarivo

Transit FortDauphin-Antananarivo 1

24/9/18 AntananarivotoBoeny

Transit Antananarivo-Mahajanga 1

25/9/18 Boeny Interviews AntsaBigo,MahajangaPort 126/9/18 Boeny Interviews+Managementinterview

withCSPPetitePlage+CSP 1

27/9/18 BoenytoDiana Transit MahajangatoNosyKomba 128/9/18 Diana Interviews Antitoro+Antamotamo,Nosy

Komba1

29/9/18 Diana Interviews AndriaBe,NosyKomba 130/9/18 Diana Anonymousinformants NosyBe 11/10/18-2/10/18

Diana DataEntry NosyBe 1

3/10/18-5/10/18

MadagascartoMozambique

Transit ReturntoMozambiqueviaSouthAfrica.

1

8/9/18- Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews NosySuarez+Androvohonko 2

53

9/9/1815/9/18-16/9/18

Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews Ambodivahibe 2

22/9/18-23/9/18

Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews Ambolobozokely 2

27/9/18–28/9/18

Sofia,Antsiranana Interviews BayofDiegoSuarez 2

*Fieldteam1:JessWilliams,MichelStrongoffFieldteam2:AmelieLandySoambola,MoiseAndriantsolyAmadaRegisNelsonandAhmedMoustoifa.

AnnexII:Interviewquestionsforfishingcommunities

CHARACTERISINGTHELEGALANDILLEGALTRADEOFMARINETURTLESINMADAGASCAR

Interviewername:______________________________Translator______________________Location(village,town,region):___________________________________________________Date:___________________________________Language_____________________________Surveynumber:_______________________________________________________________Latitude: Longitude:WaypointNumber:

A.BACKGROUNDINFORMATIONi.Yourage:ii.Occupation:fisherman□boatowner□fishseller□other(pleasespecify:_______

iiiLengthofexperienceincurrentrole:_____years_____months.Startedinyear:____

iv.Numberoffishersinvillage

v.Villagepopulationsize:

vi.Targetcatch:

vii.Whereisthefishsold?

viii.Whereisyourusualfishingarea?

B.MARINETURTLESINMADAGASCAR1.Haveyouseenmarineturtlesinyourcommunityandsurroundingareas?(Y/N)

2.IfY,where?□onthebeach;□coralreefs;□coastalwaters(<3nmfromshore);□oceanicwaters(>3nm

fromshore);□other(pleasespecify:_______________)

3.a.CanyouIDturtlespecies(Y/N)ifY;

b.Pleaseindicatehowfrequentlyyouhaveseeneachspeciesofmarineturtle

Everyday Everyweek Everymonth Everyyear Notseen Can’tquantify

Green Loggerhead Hawksbill

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4.a)Pleaseindicatehowyoursightingsofmarineturtleshavechanged:Trend A) Inpast5years B)Overfishingcareer/lifetimeIncreasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Don’tknow Comments: 5.Whydoyoubelievethisisso?__________________________________________6a.Haveyouseenanystrandedsickordeadcarcasses?Y/N6b.Whathappenedtothecarcasses/turtles:6c.Whatstateweretheyin:freshlydead/decomposed/bonesorshellonly7.Haveyouheardofpeopleinyourvillagethathaveeatenturtlesthattheyfoundwashedupdead?C.INCIDENTALCAPTUREOFMARINETURTLESINSMALLSCALEFISHERIES8a.Haveyoueverbeenfishingandwhenyoupulledupthenet/line/trapaturtlewasthere?(Y/N)

b.doyouknowifthishashappenedtoothersinyourfishingarea/village?(Y/N)

b.inwhichgeartype:

9a.howmanytimeshasthishappened?_____________________

b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly.(Specifynumberorrange):___________

c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion____________________________

d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?__________________________________________

e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear_________

10.Whathappenstotheturtlescaughtincidentally?

Fateofturtle Personally Byothersincommunity

Releasedalive

Keptandusedforfood

Soldlocallyforfood

Soldtoabuyer/middleman/foreigner

Usedtraditionallyforcraftormedicine

Shippedoverseas:listcountries

Other:

D.USEANDTRADEOFMARINETURTLESINTHECOMMUNITY11a.Haveyouevereatenturtlesortheireggs(Y/N)

b.orheardofotherswhodo?(Y/N)

c.ifyes,hereinthisvillage(Y/N)oranotherarea:__________________________________

12b.Haveyoueverseen(Y/N)orheardof(Y/N)marineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsbeingsoldortradedin

yourcommunityandsurroundingareas?

13.Inyourlocalwaters,areturtlestargetedintentionallybymembersofthecommunity?(Y/N)

14a.howmanytimeshasthishappened?_____________________

Leatherback OliveRidley Notdifferentiated

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14b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly.(Specifynumberorrange):___________

14c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion____________________________

14d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?__________________________________________

14e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear_________

15.Whatdoyoubelievehappenstotheturtlescaughtintentionallybymembersofthecommunity?

a.usedforfood

b.soldlocally

c.usedfortraditionalmedicineand/orcrafts

d.shippedoverseas(listcountries:______________________________)

e.other(pleasespecify):_______________________________________

16.Pleaseindicatehowfrequentlymarineturtlemeat,wholeturtle,eggsorproductsaresold/tradedforeach

ofthefollowinglocationsinyourcommunity:(specifyquantityorrange)

Never daily weekly monthly yearly Inaseason(specifymonths)

Aboardfishingboats

Ataport Fishmarkets Othermarket Inhomesinthecommunity

Otherlocation: 17.Ifthereisanyturtletradeinyourcommunityandsurroundingareas,pleaserankthemarineturtlespeciesinorderfrom1(mostcommonlytraded)to5(leastcommonlytraded):a.green_______b.hawksbill____c.loggerhead____d.leatherback____e.oliveridley____f.NOTRADE______18.Pleaseindicatehowthefollowingmarineturtleitemsareusuallyexchanged(selectallthatapply): Purchased/sold Price

(perkgor

item)

Exchanged/traded Don’t

know

Supplier

A/B/C/D/E/F

Meat

Eggs

Carapaces/turtle

shellproducts

Liveturtles

Otherturtle

prodcuts

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KEYFORTABLEA)localfishersfromthecommunityB)localnon-fishersfromthecommunity(pleaselistlikelyoccupation:___________)C)MozambicanfishersfromoutsideofthecommunityD)Mozambicannon-fishersfromoutsideofthecommunity(likelyoccupation:___________)E)Foreignfishers(pleasespecifywhichcountries:______________________)F)Other(pleasespecify)19.Dothemarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductsfromyourcommunitygetsenttootherpartsofMadagascar?(Y/N)pleaselistdestinations:______________________________________________20.PleaselistthetypesofitemssenttootherpartsofMadagascar(e.g.meat,eggs,carapaces,wholeturtles,etc):___________________________________________________________________________________21.Whydoyoubelievepeoplewouldchoosetotradelocallyinmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproducts?22.Pleaseindicatehowthetradeofmarineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsinyourcommunityandsurroundingareashaschangedinpast5years(specifyareasonsoineachbox) Increasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Don’tknow Notfound

hereMeat

Eggs Carapaces/shellproducts

Liveturtles Otherproducts:

Sameoverlifetime?(Y/N)

Comments:

23a.Doyoubelievethatthelocaltradeofmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductswillcausethemarineturtlepopulationstoDECREASEwithinthenext10years?(Y/N)23b.Whydoyoubelievethatthisisso?________________________________________D.USEANDTRADEBYFOREIGNERS24a.Haveyouseenforeignfishers(Y/N)?

• Where:___________________

• When:____________________

• Fishingfor:_________________

• Usingwhichfishinggear:_____________________

b.Haveyouseenforeignvessels((Y/N)?

• Where:___________________

• When:____________________

• Fishingfor:_________________

• Usingwhichfishinggear:_____________________

25a.Arethereforeignbuyers(offishormarinespecies)inyourarea?(Y/N)

b.Howmany(peopleorcompanies)?

c.Whatproductsdotheybuy(pleaselist):

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d.Doyouknowthepriceperkilo/item:

e.Dotheybuyturtlesorturtleproducts?(Y/N)describe:

f.whatsizeturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)

OTHERDETAILS?

26a)Inyourlocalwatersarethereforeignfishers(Y/N),dotheytargetturtles(Y/N)

b)Wheredothesepeoplecomefrom?

27a.howmanytimeshaveforeignfisherscaughtturtlesinyourarea?_____________________

27b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly-Specifynumberorrange):___________

27c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion?____________________________ortotal(specifynumberovertime-

frame)________________________________________________________________________

27d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?_________________________________________

27e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereaseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear(Specify

months)____________________________________________________________________________

28.Whatdoyoubelievehappenstotheturtlescaughtonpurposebyforeignfishers?a.usedforfoodb.soldlocallyc.usedfortraditionalmedicineand/orcraftsd.shippedoverseas(listcountries:______________________________)e.other(pleasespecify):_______________________________________29.Inyourlocalwaters,aremarineturtlescaughtincidentallybyforeignfishers?(Y/N)andwithwhichfishinggear?30a.howmanytimeshaveforeignfishersincidentallycaughtturtlesinyourarea?_____________________

30b.Howoftendoesthishappen?(Daily,weekly,monthly,yearly-Specifynumberorrange):___________

30c.Howmanyturtlesperoccasion?____________________________

Ortotal(specifynumberovertimeframe)______________________________________________________

30d.whatsizearetheseturtles?(XS,S,M,L,XL)?_________________________________________

30e.Isthiscontinuousorsporadic?(circleone),isthereseason,orcertainmonthsoftheyear(Specify

months)____________________________________________________________________________

31.Whathappenstotheturtlescaughtbymistakebyforeignfishers?a.releasedaliveb.usedforfoodc.soldlocallyd.usedfortraditionalmedicineand/orcraftse.shippedoverseas(listcountries:______________________________)f.other(pleasespecify):_______________________________________32.Whatmakesyouthinkthis?E.MARINETURTLEEXPORT33.Doesthemarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductsfromyourcommunitygetsenttoothercountriesoutsideofMadagascar?(Y/N)pleaselistdestinations:__________________________________________________________________________________________34.Pleaselistthetypesofitemssenttoothercountries(e.g.meat,eggs,carapaces,wholeturtles,etc):

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__________________________________________________________________________________________35.Pleaseestimatehowmanyturtles(oreggs)(orkgsormeat)areexported(e.g.daily,weeklymonthly,etc):____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________36.Howoftendoesthishappen?E.g.daily,weekly,monthly,etc:__________________37.Howdopeopleexporttheturtles/turtleparts?38.Pleaseindicatehowthetradeofmarineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsforEXPORThaschangedinpast5years(specifyareasonsoineachbox) Increasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Don’tknow Notfound

hereMeat Eggs Carapaces/shellproducts

Liveturtles Otherproducts:

Sameoverlifetime?(Y/N)

Comments:

39.Whydoyoubelievepeoplewouldchoosetoexportmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproducts?40.Doyoubelievethattheexportofmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductswillcausethemarineturtlepopulationstochangewithinthenext10years?(Y/N)41.Whydoyoubelievethatthisisso?_________________________________________________________

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AnnexIII:Interviewquestionsformanagementexecutives Illegaltake,tradeandexportofmarineturtlesinMadagascar.ActingonCITESDecision17.222and17.223thisworkisbeingundertakenthroughoutAugust2018-October2018.Thespecificobjectivesofthestudyare(a)toprovideaglobaloverviewofthestatus,scopeandtrendsoftheinternationaltradeinthesevenextant,CITES-listedspeciesofmarineturtles;(b)toachieveabetterunderstandingofthecurrentandpotentialconservationimpactsassociatedtocurrenttradelevels;(c)toidentifymanagementoptions;(d)toidentifyareaswhereimmediatemitigationeffortsmaybeneeded;and(e)toencouragecommunicationamongCITESanditskeypartners,optimizingresourcesandenhancingsynergies.

Theinformationyouprovideinthisquestionnairewillcontributetowardsthenationalcountry-leveloverviewforMadagascar,andaparallelstudyisoccurringinMozambique.Ifyoudonothaveananswer,pleasedescribeabriefresponsee.g.Idon'tknowornotrelevantinmyarea.

Emailaddress:*

A. Whatisthenameofyourorganisation?*B. Whatisyourcurrentpositionhere?*C. Howlonghaveyoubeeninyourcurrentposition?(years)*.D. Geographicscopeofyourwork?Pleasespecifyregionsortowns,MPAsorother.E. E.Yourexpertisecomesfromwhichofthefollowingsectors?*

1.Haveyoueverseenorheardofmarineturtlemeat,eggsorproductsbeingexportedtoothercountriesoutsideMadagascar?

2a.HaveyoueverseenorheardofOTHERmarineproductsbeingexportedtoothercountriesoutsideMadagascar?

60

2b.IfYes,pleaselisttypesofmarineproducts(i.e.sharkn,seahorse....)

3.IsmarineturtlemeatorotherturtleproductssoldwithinMadagascar?Isittransportedinternally?

4.Inyouropinion,whichismoreabundantintermsofnumbersofturtlesinvolved(tickallthatapply)

5a.Doyoubelieveorhaveevidencethatsuggestsmarineturtletradeofproducts,turtlepartsorwholealiveturtlesislinkedwithotherIllegalWildlifeTrafficking(IWT)?

5b.Ifyes,whatmakesyouthinkso?6a.Pleaseindicatehowthefollowingmarineturtleitemsareusuallyexchangedorused(selectallthatapply)

Bought/sold

Traded/exchangedforothergoods?

Bothexchangedandsold

Don’tknow

Personalconsumption

Notapplicable

Traditionalmedicine

Traditionalbeliefs

Turtlemeat

Turtleeggs

Carapaces/turtleshellproducts

Wholealiveturtles

Otherproducts?

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6b.Ifyoufilledinaresponseabovefor'otherproduct'pleasedescribewhattypeofproductyouarereferringto?7.Doyouknowthepriceperitem,orkilothatturtleproductssellfor?Pleasespecifyapriceorpricerangefor:turtlemeat,eggs,carapaceproducts,liveturtles,otherturtleproducts.Ispricebasedonsizeclassesi.e.small,mediumorlarge?Ifyes,pleasespecify:

8.DoyouknowwhoaretheMAINsuppliersofmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproductsthatareexported

9.Wheredoliveturtles,theirmeat,eggsorproductsgetsentwithinMadagascar?Pleasedescribedomesticroutesthatyouknoworthinkcouldbeinvolvedinturtletrade.Ornamespecificlocations/towns

10.Pleasetickthetypesofitemssenttoothercountries

11.Towhichcountriesdotheseproductsgetsentto?12.Doyouknowhowtheturtlesorproductsaretransportedtothesecountries?Pleasedescribeallthemeansoftransportationinvolvedinthistraderoute.13.Howaresuchproductspackagedfortransitorshipping?Pleasedescribepackagingmaterials,orprocessingtechniquesusedtotransportsuchproducts.e.g.meatiscutintoportions,smokedandpackagedintoasacktobeshippedtoamiddleman,oreggsaredisguisedasduckeggsandareexportedunderalicenseforduckeggs.14.Whydoyoubelievepeoplewouldchoosetoexportmarineturtlemeat,eggsandproducts?Pleaseconsiderthefollowingfactorsinyourresponse;Monetaryvalue,delicacy,tradition,religion,foreigndemand,lackofalternativelivelihoods,opportunisticuseofbycatch.15a.Pleaseindicatehowtheexportofmarineturtleproductshaschangedinthelastfiveyears,ifatall: Increasing Decreasing Stayedthesame Idon’tknowTurtlemeat Turtleeggs Carapaces/turtle

62

shellproductsWholealiveturtles Otherproducts? 15b.Ifyouansweredthequestionabovefor'OTHERTURTLEPRODUCTS'pleasedescribetheparticularproductyouarereferringto:15c.Fortheitem(s)whereyoubelieveexporthasINCREASED,pleasesuggestareasonastowhythismightbehappening:15d.Fortheitem(s)whereyoubelieveexporthasSTAYEDTHESAME,pleasesuggestareasonastowhythismightbehappening:15e.Fortheitem(s)whereyoubelieveexporthasDECREASED,pleasesuggestareasonastowhythismightbehappening:Enforcementandmanagementpriorities16.IsitillegaltointentionallykillseaturtlesinMadagascar?

17.Isitillegaltoaccidentallykillaseaturtle?e.g.caughtbymistakeinanetbuttheanimalisfounddead.

18.Arefishersrequiredtoreportanaccidentalturtlemortalitytotheauthorities?

19a.Areanyareasroutinely/periodicallypatrolled?

19b.Ifyes,arepenaltieseverimposed?(Frequently,Infrequently,Never,Don’tknow)?

63

20.Doyouhaveanyrelevantcommentsaboutpatrolling,enforcementorapplicationofpenalties?21a.Doesyouragencyhavespecificprogramsinplacetodeter,mitigateand/ormanageseaturtlecaptureandtrade?

21b.IfyouansweredYEStothepreviousquestion,pleaseselecttheprogramsthatareinplacetodeter,mitigateand/ormanageseaturtlecaptureandtrade.ChooseALLthatapply:

22a.Inyouropinion,howeffectivehavetheseprogramsbeeninreducingthenumberofincidentsofseaturtlecapturesandtradeinMadagascar?Chooseoneonly:a.Completelyineffective,b.Somewhatineffective,c.Somewhateffective,d.Veryeffective,e.Don’tknow

22b.Pleaseprovideanexplanationastowhyyouthinkthisisso:23.Whatadditionalprogramsormeasuresdoyouthinkareneededtoreduceseaturtlecaptureandtrade?24.Iffundingwasavailableandunlimited,whichthree(3)actionswouldyourecommendbetakenbyyouragencytoreduceseaturtlecaptureandtrade?Pleaselist3actions:

64

25.PleaseestimatehowmanyincidentsofseaturtlecaptureandtradeoccuryearlyintheAREASYOUWORKwithinMadagascar. Never 1per

yearLessthan10

11to50 51to100 Morethan101

Idon’tknow

Captureofturtles(intentional/targeted)

Captureofturtles(accidental/bycatch)

Tradeofturtle(domesticmarket/localuse)

Tradeofturtle(exportforinternationalmarket)

26a.PleaseestimatehowmanyincidentsofseaturtlecaptureandtradeoccuryearlyforMadagascaronaNATIONALSCALE.

27.Towhatextentdoyoubelievethatillegalfishingrepresentsathreattothehealthofmarineturtlepopulationsinyourcountry?ChooseONEonly:1.Nothreattoturtles,2.Minimalthreattoturtles,3.Moderatethreattoturtles,4.Highthreattoturtles,5.Veryhighthreattoturtles

28.Howimportantisittoyouragencytoaddresstheseaturtlecaptureandtradeproblem?ChooseONEonly:1.Notapriority,2.Lowpriority,3.Moderatepriority,4.Highpriority,5.Veryhighpriority

29.TowhatextentdoyoubelievethatreducingseaturtlecaptureandtradeisagovernmentpriorityinMadagascar?1.Notapriority,2.Lowpriority,3.Moderatepriority,4.Highpriority,5.Veryhighpriority

30.Inyouropinion,whenpeoplearecaughtdoingseaturtlecaptureandtrade,howoftenaretheyformallypunished?ChooseONEonly:1.Never,2.Rarely,3.Sometimes,4.Frequently,5.Veryfrequently

31.Whatdoyoubelieveisthemostimportantactionthatneedstobetakentoreduceseaturtlecaptureandtradeinyourcountry?

65

Legislationeffectivenessandapplication31a.AretherelawsrelatedtoDOMESTICtradeinseaturtlesand/ortheirproducts?

31b.Ifso,whoisinchargeofimplementing/enforcingtheselaws?32a.Arethereanychallengestoimplementingtheseregulations?

32b.Ifyes,whatarethese?33a.AretherelawsrelatedtoINTERNATIONALtradeinseaturtlesand/ortheirproducts?

33b.Ifso,whoisinchargeofimplementing/enforcingtheselaws?34.Arethereanychallengestoimplementingtheseregulations?

FinalComments35.IsthereanythingrelatedtoillegaltakeortradeofseaturtlesinMadagascarthatyouwouldliketoshare,thathasn'tbeencoveredinthequestionsabove?

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AnnexIV:SurveyConstraintsThissectiondescribesprocesslimitationstothepresentsurvey,andindicateswheretheselimitationsmayinfluencethetypesofdatacollectedandconclusionswehavedrawn.Fisherscouldhaveomittedincriminatinginformationinourpresence,whichwouldleadtounderestimatesofbycatch,consumptionortrade(domesticorinternational).Thisisacommonissuewhenconductinginterviewsofasensitivenatureoronclandestinetopicsandthereforethedatashouldbeconsideredaconservativeestimationonthetopic.Inadditiontothis,rapidassessmentsarenotthemostsuitablemethodtounderstandsuchasensitivetopicastypicallytheresearcherwouldbe‘embedded’withinthecommunityforalengthyperiodbeforegainingthefulltrustofrespondents.Thelimitedtimeframeandfundingallocatedtoconductthisworksignificantlyimpededourabilitytoconductarapidassessmentoveralargergeographicarea,andmanyexistingdatagapsareevident.Withregardstologistics,whilstinthefieldoursurveyeffortswerelimitedbypoorqualityaccessroadsandroadconditions,andbyitnotbeingsafetotravelatnight.OurattemptstosurveythejarifafishingvillageofAtaperainAnosyregion(wherewebelieveturtletakeandtradealsooccur)wereunsuccessfulduetotheremotenatureandbadaccessroutes(nosuitablebridgetocrossawaterway).Unfortunately,wewerealsolimitedinouropportunitytosurveyoffshoreislands,whicharelikelytobeahubforfishingactivitieswhetherclandestineornot.ItisbelievedthatMadagascar’soffshoreislandshostthemajorityofnestingturtleactivity(Humberetal.2016),andfutureeffortsshouldprioritisecomprehensivesurveysofoffshoreislandsespeciallygiventhelimitedcapacityofauthoritiestopatrolorenforceintheseareas.Manyfishersarehighlymigratoryandareatseaforweeksatatime.ThisaddedadditionalchallengestousinNosyKombaandMahajangawhereallthefishermenofsomevillageswereawayandonlywomenandchildrencouldbefound.Qualitativesurveymethodologydoesnotalwaysrenderwelltoproducingquantitativeestimatesthatcanbeextrapolatedtoregionalandnationalscales,especiallywheninterviewingparticipantswithlowliteracylevels.Forexample,fishersstruggledtoquantifyhowoftentheysawturtlesatsea.Thereweresomedifficultiesfindingsuitablewaystophrasequestionstoensurethatfishersunderstoodthequestion.OftenquestionsneededtobephrasedinseveralsimilarorrepetitivewaysinbothMalagsyandchangetermsintothelocaldialectstofacilitatecomprehensionofthequestion.Wemustalsoconsideranyissuedtoourinterpretationofthedatabroughtaboutthroughtranslationbiasanderrors.Whilstunavoidable,cautionshouldbemadewhenreinterpretingtranslateddata.OneparticularissueofmisinterpretationwasidentifiedhalfwaythroughsurveyinginSouthernMadagascar.Webecameawarethatfisherswerehavingdifficultyunderstandingtheconceptoftargetedvs.non-targetedhunting.Fishersdidnotclassifythemselvesastargetingturtlesbutwhentheydescribedthewayturtleswerecaptureditsuggestedintentionaltargeti.e.usingalinewithalargehookandlassoingturtlesrestingatthesurface.Giventhelimitedtimeavailablewechosetofocusoursurveystoparticularregionswhereturtletradehotspotshadalreadybeenidentified(seeSection3.6).ItwasnotpossibletosurveytheeasterncoastofMadagascarduringthisstudy.Wewereabletocollectverylimiteddataforthesoutheastcoastfromfocalpoints,andthuslimitedoursurveytimeinthisregion.Expansionofsurveysinthisregionshouldbestronglyconsideredinfollowupwork.Unfortunately,ourmanagementsurveysyieldedlimitedresponses.However,webelievethereistheliteraturewehavenotedandcitedaboveprovidesuitableinsightintothehindrancestowardseffectiveconservationmanagementinMadagascar.

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AnnexV:Acknowledgements Name Organization Position Location SupportProvidedAnthonyBracke Opti'PousseHaie Director Analalava InformationBemitera Opti'PousseHaie Unknown Analalava InformationGaetanTovondrainy WWF SOUTHWEST

coordinatorSOUTHWESTMadagascar

Jaonerav MadagascarNationalParks

Unknown Androka Information

TaylorVeriza MadagascarNationalParks

Unknown Androka Information

Prof.BerthinRakotonirina

AntananarivoUniversity

Professor Antananarivo

AnjaraSaloma Cétamada Scientificleader Antananarivo InformationPatriciaDavis Community

CenteredConservation(C3)

Director Antananarivo,DiegoSuarez

Information

Lala'LalarisoaRakotoarimino

C3 Projectcoordinator Antananarivo,DiegoSuarez

Information

AmelieLandySoambola

UniversityofAntsirasana

ResponsableduParcoursSciencesMarines/FacultédesSciences.

Antsiranana Fieldteamcoordinator-Antsiranana

MoiseAndriantsolyAmadaRegisNelson

UniversityofAntsirasana

Student Antsiranana Datacollection

AhmedMoustoifa UniversityofAntsirasana

Student Antsiranana Datacollection

GioRamora MinistryofHalieuticResourcesandFisheries(MRHP)

RegionalDirector-AnosyRegion

FortDauphin Localapprovals

JustinRetenanyVahoavy

CentredeSurveillancedesPechesMahajanga(CSP)

ChefdeservicelogistiqueetArmement

Mahajanga Interviewed

AlHarris BlueVentures Director Maintirano,Toliara,Ambanja

Information

ChrisScarffe ChrisScarffeFilmmaker

Founder NosyKomba Information,logistics,photos

MichelStrongoff ChrisScarffeFilmmaker

Assistantphotography,filmmakingandfixer

NosyKomba Fieldsupport,logistics,information,photos

AnjaraSalomavola Cétamada St.Marie InformationVatosoaRakotondrazafy

MIHARI President SOUTHWESTcoast Information,communitycontacts

Pascal MIHARI VicePresident Tolagnaro/FortDauphin

FocalPoint

EmmaGibbons ReefDoctor Director Tulear Information,communitycontacts

DrSoaryRandrianjafizanaka

RegionalDirectoratefortheMinistryofEnvironment,Ecology,seaandForests(DREEF)

SOUTHWESTregionaldirector

Tulear Information,interviewed,workapprovals

JamalMahafina InstituteHalieutiqueetdesSciencesMarines(IHSM)

Director Tulear information

Dr.Gildas ISHM,University SeniorLecturer Tulear Information,contacts

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Todinanahary ofToliaraDr.MamyRakotoarijaona

MadagascarNationalParts

AtsimoAndrefanaregion

Contacts,siteapprovals

JeanBarnabeRavelomanankavamd

MinistryofHalieuticResourcesandFisheries(MRHP)

ChiefTulear,Zones1+2

TulearProvince Interviewed,information

FranHumber BlueVentures UK/Madagascar InformationJeremyKiszka

MarineSciencesProgram,FloridaInternationalUniversity

USA/Madagascar Information

FifouMayer Cétamada Scientificadministrator InformationProf.MaharavoJean CNRO-National

CentreforOceanography,SOUTHWESTMadagascar

NosyBe