copyright © 2007 by mosby, inc., an affiliate of elsevier inc. 1

Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 2

The normal function of the human body is compared to an organized machine

The machine malfunctions, disease occurs

Anatomy: study of form and structure Physiology: study of processes Pathophysiology: study of how disease

occurs and body’s response


Four basic properties of life:› Reception

The ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environment

› Metabolism The process of taking in and using nutrients to

produce energy and growth› Reproduction

The ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species

› Organization How the organism is divided into distinct parts to

perform these functions


Body structures are organized on five levels:› Cells

The smallest units of life

› Tissues Combinations of similar cells

› Organs Collections of tissues working together to perform a

function

› A body system Consists of organs that work together to provide a

major body function

› An organism Being that results when the body systems work

together to maintain life


Basic substance of life Made of ordinary elements (e.g.,

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen) Scientists can combine these elements,

but not create life


Major structures of a cell are called organelles› Nucleus

Controls activity of the cell Directs reproduction

› Cytoplasm Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell

› Mitochondria Produces the energy used for cellular processes

› Cell membrane Surrounds the cell Controls which substances enter and leave the

cell


› Lysosomes Helps break down, or digest, molecules

› Ribosomes Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum Work to produce protein for the cell

structures

› Golgi apparatus Makes glycoproteins, which help transport

proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell


Asexual reproduction process used by most cells

Different types of cells reproduce at different rates

Process of mitosis—see Figure 9-9 in text


Protoplasm is basic substance of life Protoplasm forms structural units

called cells Cells combine to form tissue Tissues combine to form organs Organs and other parts combine to

form systems Systems work together to create

miracle of human body


The tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balance› Generally refers to maintaining constancy

of the “internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells of the organisms Composition of the tissue fluid that makes

up internal environment is kept constant Molecules pass in and out of the cell to

maintain balance


Physiological components of homeostasis or state of balance:

Body temperatureGas exchangepH valuesWater and ion balanceVolume and pressure of fluidWaste removalNutrient intake


Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called ions› Ions can conduct electrical current in water

or in cytoplasm of cell Positive charge (cation) creates an acid Negative charge (anion) creates a base

Different electrolytes also have special functions


› pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is present Each tissue has a normal pH Cells do not function properly if normal pH is

not maintained for that area of the body


Four main groups of tissue:› Epithelial tissue

Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs

› Connective tissue Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue

such as fat and blood cells and hard tissues such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage


› Muscle tissue Made of protein fibers, has the unique

property of shortening to produce movement

› Nervous tissue Composed largely of specialized cells called

neurons


Physiology is the study of the functions of the body

Body system› Group of related organs

Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support life

There are 12 body systems


Integumentary system covers the body and protects other body systems

Cardiovascular system transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts and removes waste products

Circulatory system includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the body

Respiratory system exchanges gases between the air and blood


Muscular system allows the body to move and controls movements within the body

Skeletal system provides body support and protection

Digestive system processes food and eliminates food waste

Urinary system filters the blood and removes liquid wastes


Endocrine system coordinates body cavities through hormones

Nervous system regulates the environment and directs the activities of other body systems

Sensory system perceives the environment and sends messages to and from the brain

Reproductive system provides for human reproduction


Standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomy› Person is in an erect standing position

Mouth closed Eyes and head facing forward Feet slightly apart with toes facing forward Arms are close to the body and the palms

are facing forward with fingers extended


Directional orientation explains a particular view of a person.

• Medial refers to the middle of the body. • Lateral refers to the sides of the body. • Superior, or cephalic, refers to a location

near the head. • Inferior, or caudal, refers to a location

near the feet. • Anterior, or ventral, refers to the front of

the human body. • Posterior, or dorsal, refers to the back of

the human body.


Directional planes are views of imaginary lines sliced through a person.

• A sagittal section slices the body vertically into left and right sections.

• A midsagittal section slices the body into equal left and right halves.

• A frontal, or coronal, section slices the body vertically into anterior and posterior sections.

• A transverse section slices the body horizontally into inferior and superior sections.


Planes are used to describe the body› Three planes:

Coronal or frontal Separates the front and back of the body

Transverse Divides the upper and lower body

Sagittal Divides the body into right and left sides


› Location of organs is described in relation to these planes: Inferior (below) Superior (above) Medial (close to) Lateral (away from) Anterior or ventral (in front of) Posterior or dorsal (behind) Other terms used to a point where one organ

attaches to another Proximal (close to) Distal (away from)


Five body cavities:› Thoracic

Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels

› Abdominal Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas,

intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys

› Pelvic Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and

rectum› Cranial

Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands

› Spinal Houses the spinal cord and nerves


Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of regions› Nine regions:

Right hypochondriac Epigastric Left hypochondriac Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar Right inguinal Hypogastric Left inguinal


Four quadrants:› Right upper› Right lower› Left upper› Left lower


Cell reproduction› Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to

reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomes Each cell (except gametes) contains 46

chromosomes All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and

y) are paired and called homologous autosomes Heredity

› Heredity is the passing on of genetic information that determines the characteristics of an individual person


Meiosis› Cell divides into two parts with only one

half of the chromosomes› Part of the reproduction process› Results in the formation of sex cell

(gametes) Fertilization is the combination of two

gametes with chromosomes from different parents into one cell Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the

chromosome of either parent


Heredity› Heredity is the passing on of genetic

information that determines the characteristics of an individual person

› Genes contain the hereditary information in the cell Made up of protein chains in a molecule

called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)


Chromosomes› Threadlike strands of DNA› Contain between 50,000 and 100,000

genes Genotype

Configuration of genetic information in the chromosomes

Phenotype Trait or appearance that results from the genotype

Dominant gene Recessive gene


Homozygous Two genes alike on the chromosome pair

Heterozygous Two genes that are different on the chromosome

pair

› Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible for The development of all body cells Formation of tissues, organs, and body

systems


Genetic disorders› Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause

many disorders Cancer

› The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissue around them


Genetic engineering› 3,000+ disorders are known to result from

genetic abnormalities› Advanced techniques and procedures can

now identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus Chorionic villus sampling Preimplantation diagnosis Gene splicing


Cancer treatments › Immunotherapy

Involves using: Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected

with the cancer Killed suspensions of bacteria Biological substances that harm tumors:

Interferon Interleukin Tumor necrosis factors Growth factors


Cancer treatments › Lasers

Destroy cancerous cells Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic

technology)

› Hyperthermia (increase in temperature) Used in combination with radiation to treat

some tumors

copyright © 2007 by mosby, inc., an affiliate of elsevier inc. 1

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