copyright 2010 research institute for humanity and nature. all rights reserved. how can we conserve...

Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.

How can we conserve biodiversity? – Ecological methodologies

The Futurability of Biodiversity Chapter 8

Plan 1Keep off their home range

Plan 3 Artificially feed their chicks

Plan 2Keep off their nesting place

Let’s conserve golden eagles. Choosing Plan 2

and practicing it

Practicing a measure and monitoring it

Deciding the purpose

Forming measures

Monitoring

Population sizes of golden eagles, other animals…

Estimating the changes caused by the measures and reexamining measures

How can we conserve biodiversity?- Ecological methodologies -


In review

Biodiversity enriches our lives (food, regulation of environments, culture, economics, etc.).However, biodiversity is in a state of crisis now However, biodiversity is in a state of crisis now (biological extinction, influences of human (biological extinction, influences of human activities).activities).


Today’s Topics

1. Principles of ecosystem managements1. Principles of ecosystem managements

What should we be conscious of in ecosystem managements?What should we be conscious of in ecosystem managements?

2. 2. Precautionary and adaptive managements

How should we manage ecosystems for conservation of biodiversity?How should we manage ecosystems for conservation of biodiversity?


What should we be conscious of in ecosystem managements?

1) Importance of precautionary and

adaptive managements

2) Principles of adaptive management

1. Principles of ecosystem managements


1. What has happened once is sometimes irrecoverable.

Why are precautionary and adaptive managements essential?

2. We cannot predict every effect caused by changes that occur in an ecosystem.

1. Principles of ecosystem managements 1) Importance of precautionary and adaptive managements


Level of species(Example) Extinction

What has happened once is sometimes irrecoverable.Level of ecosystem(Example) Destruction of tropical rainforest

Japanese wolf, Canis lupus hodophilax, eradicated about 100 years ago

1. Principles of ecosystem managements1) Importance of precautionary and adaptive managements

A cutover area in Sarawak, Malaysia

Photo: (left) taken by Hidefumi Kuwabara, owned by Wakayama University


It is essential to take measures suited to the ecological changes.

Competition

(Paine 1966)

Predation Predation

Mussels Barnacles

1. Principles of ecosystem managements1) Importance of precautionary and adaptive managements

We cannot predict every effect caused by changes that occur in an ecosystem.


Plan 2 Keep off their nesting place

The process of adaptive managements

1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principles of precautionary and adaptive managements

Plan 1 Keep off their home range

Plan 3 Artificial feeding of their chicks

Choosing Plan 2 and practicing it

Practicing a measure and monitoring itLet’s conserve

golden eagles.

Deciding the purpose Forming measures

Monitoring

Population sizes of golden eagles, other animals…

Estimating the changes caused by the measure & reexamining measures


2. RegionalityWe should utilize species of the target area as much as possible, and avoid introducing a population from another area.

1. DiversityBiodiversity in a conserved area should be restored or recovered.

3. Genetic variationWe should attempt not to disturb the genetic composition of the population in the target area.

4. PrecautionWhen scientific evidence is insufficient, we should avoid taking action which may bring irreversible effects. 　　

(Ecological Society of Japan 2004)

Principles of ecosystem managements



Diversity — an example of reconstructing an ecosystem

Asaza (water fringe) project in 　 Kasumigaura, Japan


Flower of Asaza (Nymphoides peltata)

Photo & Illustration: Nonprofit Organization Asaza Fund


Regionality & Genetic variation — an example of recovering a symbolic species

Photo: Yasunori Maezono

1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principle of precautionary and adaptive managements

Firefly (Luciola cruciata)


Genetic variation in Luciola cruciata

Northeastern group

Kanto group

Central group

Southwestern Honshu group

Northern Kyushu group

Southern Kyushu group(Suzuki 2001)


Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Photo: Yasunori Maezono


Black bass (Micropterus salmoides)

Precaution — an example of irrecoverable results


Changes in ecosystems are often irreversible, and we

cannot predict every effect caused by such changes. It is

essential to take measures suited to the current situation.

When we manage an ecosystem, we should consider

diversity, regionality and genetic variation in the

ecosystem, and avoid taking any action which may cause

irreversible effects.

Summary 1. Principles of ecosystem managements


How should we manage ecosystems to conserve their biodiversity?

1) Grasp the situations (monitoring)

2) Conserve individual speciesWithin habitats/outside of habitats

3) Conserve the ecosystemEstablish refuges, corridors and devices for

sustainable use

2. Precautionary and adaptive managements


2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 1) Grasp of the situations (monitoring)

What should be measured by monitoring?

Components and conditions of ecosystem: land use, etc.

Physical or biological indicators: nutrients in soils, number of species, etc.

Ecosystem functions: net production, etc.

(Example) Changes of land use during 34 years in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia

1963 1997 Primary forest (hilly land)

Swamp forest

Secondary forest

Rice field

Logging forest


1. Providing information about changes in important ecosystem processes

http://pdf.wri.org/ecosystems_human_wellbeing.pdf#search='ecosystems and human wellbeing'

Requirements of suitable indicators for monitoring

2. Reflecting important changes

3. Getting highly reliable data

4. Being easily understood by policymakers

2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 1) Grasp of the situations (monitoring)


Conservation of individual species

1. Evaluation of risks of extinction

4. Artificial breeding of animals and reintroduction

2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species

Within habitats

2. Indicator species

3. Unique species

Outside of habitats

5. Preservation of plants’ seeds


Conservation within habitats 1. Evaluation of risks of extinction


Critically Endangered (CR)

(See Chapter 3)

Endangered (EN)

Vulnerable (VU)

Near Threatened (NT)

Least Concern (LC)

Categories of endangered speciesRisks of extinction


The refuge for yellow-eyed penguin, Megadyptes antipodes, which is categorized as “Endangered” (New Zealand)



Umbrella speciesSpecies which needs a large habitat. Environment in which the species can survive is expected to have various species.



Owl (Strix uralensis)

Conservation within habitats 2. Indicator species, which can be used for judging conditions of ecosystems


Flagship speciesSpecies well-known by many people. When a certain habitat needs to be conserved, the flagship species is used as a symbol for conservation.

コアラKoala(Phascolarctos cinereus)


Column 1: Flagship species


Relict (living fossil)Species which retains characteristics of ancestors from several hundreds of thousands of years before


Tuatara(Sphenodon punctatus)

Conservation within habitats3. Unique species which is taxonomically and evolutionarily uncommon

Indigenous speciesNative species whose habitats are limited to a certain area

Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Photo: Toyooka city, Hyogo prefecture


Oriental stork(Ciconia boyciana)

Conservation outside of habitats 4. Artificial breeding of animals and reintroduction— species eradicated locally are bred and reintroduced


The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/conservation-climate-change/millennium-seed-bank/index.htm

Access date: 6, July 2010


Conservation outside of habitats5. Preservation of plants’ seeds


Conservation of an ecosystem

Establishment of refuges- Why are refuges needed?- Where is the most important refuge?- What is a desirable design for a refuge?- What should we do outside of refuges?

2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem

Establishment of corridors

Devices for sustainable use

1. Regular rotation of logging sites

2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)


In a refuge, human activities which degrade biodiversity (destruction of habitat, illegal exploitation of resources, introduction of alien species, etc.) are inhibited.

Primary forest (National Park)

Oil palm plantation


Establishment of refuges — Why are refuges needed?


Biodiversity hotspots


75% of endangered species of mammals, birds and amphibians inhabit biodiversity hotspots.

We can find 50% of vascular plant species and 42% of terrestrial vertebrate species in biodiversity hotspots.

Establishment of refuges — Where is the most important refuge?

Conservation International http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/resources/Pages/maps.aspx

Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.This area suffers edge effects


Establishment of refuges- What is a desirable design for a refuge (ecological aspects)?Large area is desirable.…Rate of extinction is lower in large area (see graph).When total area is the same, a round shape is desirable (see drawing).… The area that suffers edge effects is smaller in a round shape.

Rate of extinction of mammals inhabiting national parks in US (Newmark 1995)


inside outsideForest edgehumid dry

appropriate light severe lightslight wind strong wind

Edge effectsIn a forest edge, environmental conditions are different from those inside the forest. Some species cannot inhabit the forest edge.

Column 2: Edge effects

In a forest edge, predators or competitors easily invade, and living organisms go outside.


Refuges are divided into three areas according to the intensity of human utilization.

Buffer area

Transition area(Human activities are permitted to some extent.)


Establishment of refuges- What is a desirable design for a refuge (influences by human activities)?

Core area(No human activities are permitted.)

Outside the refuge

(UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program, See Chapter 9)


(Example) Giant honeybee　- Primary pollinator in tropical rainforest in Southeast Asia- Migratory honeybee

Swidden and secondary forest

　 Hilly forest

Swamp forest

Giant honeybees usually inhabit swamp forest, and move to hilly forest at the beginning of general flowering.- Biodiversity is high.

- Protected as national park.- Many plant species are pollinated by giant honeybees.

For the protection of tropical rainforest, managements that include refuges’ surroundings are essential.

(Samejima et al. unpublished data)


Photo: (upper) Tamiji Inoue

Establishment of refuges- What should we do outside of refuges?

- Biodiversity is low.


- Connecting fragmental habitats by corridors, which enable wild animals to move between these habitats.

1. Wild animals can easily move between isolated habitats.

Expected effectiveness

2. Exchanges of genes between isolated habitats are promoted, conserving genetic variation.

(Pullin 2002Pullin 2002)


Establishment of corridors

Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.Photos: Obihiro University of Agriculture & Veterinary Medicine - Hisashi Yanagawa

Devices for Russian flying squirrel (Pteromys valans orii) - pole for gliding and log as pathway

Column 3: Devices which eliminate barriers to movement for organisms

Pole for gliding constructed along Obihiro-Hiroo Expressway


The area of a large forest has been divided into several sections. Since logging and planting are done one section at a time, the whole area contains various ages of forest. Thus, biodiversity in the large area is conserved.

Photo: Keitaro Fukushima

Young forestYoung forestOld forest Old forest


Devices for sustainable use 1. Regular rotation of logging site


Trees are logged according to a detailed plan, and carefully carried away so as not to damage the forest.


Devices for sustainable use 2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)

RILUsual method


Comparison: number of species according to logging methods

Diversity of tree species is higher with RIL.(Seino et al., unpublished data)


0

20

40

60

80

100

Usual method

3 years after RIL

8 years after RIL

Primary forest

Devices for sustainable use 2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)N

um

be

r of

sp

eci

es

per

0.2

ha


Number of mammal species examined by automatic infrared camera

Num

ber

of s

peci

es

Diversity of mammal species is also higher with RIL.(Matsubayashi, unpublished data)


Devices for sustainable use 2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)


Monitoring investigates the situations of indicator species and ecosystem functions for the purpose of (re)considering the measures used in managements.

Individual species are conserved both within and outside of habitats based on evaluation of their risks of extinction. In some cases, conservation of a certain species means conservation of the whole ecosystem.

For conservation of ecosystems, establishment of refuges is effective. In areas surrounding refuges, devices for sustainable use are needed.

Summary 2. Precautionary and adaptive managements


Summary of Today’s Topics

1. Changes in an ecosystem are sometimes irreversible, and 1. Changes in an ecosystem are sometimes irreversible, and

their effects are difficult to predict completely. Therefore, their effects are difficult to predict completely. Therefore,

precautionary and adaptive managements are desirable.precautionary and adaptive managements are desirable.

2.2. When we manage an ecosystem, we should consider the When we manage an ecosystem, we should consider the

area’s biodiversity, regionality and genetic variation.area’s biodiversity, regionality and genetic variation.

3. When we practice precautionary and adaptive 3. When we practice precautionary and adaptive

managements, we should use the most effective managements, we should use the most effective

methods for conserving the target species, guided by methods for conserving the target species, guided by

careful monitoring.careful monitoring.

How can we conserve biodiversity?- Ecological methodologies -


Exercises

1. In Australia, an increase in camels (Camelus

dromedarius), which were introduced in the 19th

century, has brought desertification. How can we

decrease the number of camels? Think up a plan and

how to monitor your progress.

Let’s do the exercises below:


Exercises

2. Think up plans for conserving the orangutan under the

following hypothetical situations:

a) Number of mature individuals is about 1000 (VU level).

b) Number of mature individuals is about 250 (EN level).

c) Number of mature individuals is about 50 (CR level).

Let’s do the exercises below:


Glossary

Method which evaluates the risk of extinction by the rate of decrease in population size, the area of habitats, etc. The results are reported in the form of the ‘IUCN RedList of Threatened Species”. (IUCN: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)

Evaluation of risks of extinctionEvaluation of risks of extinction

The amount of organic matter which is found by the following formula:(the total amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis for a certain period in a forest) – (the amount of organic matter which has been consumed by respiration of the forest)

Net productionNet production


References

Newmark, W.D. (1995)Newmark, W.D. (1995) Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Conservation Biology Conservation Biology 9: 512-5269: 512-526

Paine, R. T. (1966) Paine, R. T. (1966) Food web complexity and species diversity. Food web complexity and species diversity. American NaturalistAmerican Naturalist 100:65-75 100:65-75

Suzuki, H. (2001)Suzuki, H. (2001)Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. International Journal of Industrial International Journal of Industrial EntomologyEntomology 2:91-105 2:91-105

Ecological Society of Japan (ed.) (2004)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)

Pullin, A.S. (2002)Pullin, A.S. (2002)Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.

Newmark, W.D. (1995)Newmark, W.D. (1995) Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Conservation Biology Conservation Biology 9: 512-5269: 512-526

Paine, R. T. (1966) Paine, R. T. (1966) Food web complexity and species diversity. Food web complexity and species diversity. American NaturalistAmerican Naturalist 100:65-75 100:65-75

Suzuki, H. (2001)Suzuki, H. (2001)Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. International Journal of Industrial International Journal of Industrial EntomologyEntomology 2:91-105 2:91-105

Ecological Society of Japan (ed.) (2004)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)

Pullin, A.S. (2002)Pullin, A.S. (2002)Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.


Cited Websites


Millennium Ecosystem Assessmenthttp://pdf.wri.org/ecosystems_human_wellbeing.pdf#search='ecosystems and human wellbeing'

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kewhttp://www.kew.org/science-conservation/conservation-climate-change/millennium-seed-bank/index.htm


Millennium Ecosystem Assessmenthttp://pdf.wri.org/ecosystems_human_wellbeing.pdf#search='ecosystems and human wellbeing'

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kewhttp://www.kew.org/science-conservation/conservation-climate-change/millennium-seed-bank/index.htm


Authors & Credits

Authors

The Futurability of Biodiversity Chapter 8How can we conserve biodiversity? - Ecological methodologies -

Hidefumi KuwabaraKanehiro Kitayama Nonprofit organization Asaza FundTamiji Inoue 　Yasunori Maezono

Satoshi YamashitaNaoki AgetsumaYayoi TakeuchiKentaro KanazawaStewart Wachs

Application softwareCutPRO3 Real tough. Animal and Insect version （ Design Office Kyowa)Microsoft PowerPoint®

Illustration & design Be4°TECHKoubou Yecoruka

Photos

Data providers Hiromitsu SamejimaMasaaki Takyu 　

　　Shin-ichiro Aiba 　　　　　　　　

　　　　　　　　　　　　

Biodiversity PhotosHiromitsu SamejimaKentaro FukushimaSatoshi YamashitaToyooka city, Hyogo prefectureWakayama University

Chiharu NiiyamaHisashi YanagawaMichiko NakagawaShoko Sakai

Kanehiro KitayamaNaoshi MatsubayashiTatsuyuki Seino

Hiromitsu SamejimaMitsue ShibataMasaaki Takyu

Aya HatadaMartin Piddington

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