copyright © allyn & bacon 2004. 1: an introduction to public speaking 2: the ethics of public...
TRANSCRIPT
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
1: An Introduction to Public
Speaking2: The Ethics of Public Speaking3: Speaking Confidently4: Responding to Speeches5: Analyzing your Audience6: Selecting your Topic
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7: Researching Your Topic 8: Supporting Your Speech 9: Organizing the Body of Your Speech 10: Introducing and Concluding Your Speech 11: Outlining Your Speech 12: Wording Your Speech
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13: Delivering Your Speech 14: Using Presentational Aids 15: Speaking to Inform 16: The Strategy of Persuasion 17: The Structure of Persuasion 18: Speaking on Special
Occasions 19: Speaking in and as a Group
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
Chapter 1An Introduction to Public
Speaking
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
Chapter 1An Introduction toPublic Speaking
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Studying Public Speaking. . .
. . . Helps you succeed in school / at work.
. . . Increases your knowledge.
. . . Helps build your confidence.
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We Remember. . .• 10 percent of what we read,• 20 percent of what we hear,• 30 percent of what we see, and• 70 percent of what we speak.
Cited in William E. Arnold and Lynne McClure, Communication Training and Development, 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1996) 38.
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Levels of Communication
• Intrapersonal• Interpersonal• Group• Public• Mass
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Communication Elements Model
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Critical Thinking Skills
enables you to. . .This skill. . .
Arrange informationOrganizing
Store and retrieve information
Remembering
Formulate questions, collect data
Information Gathering
Define problems, set goals,select information
Focusing
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Critical Thinking Skills cont.
enables you to. . .This skill. . .
Assess the quality of ideas
Evaluating
Combine, summarize, and restructure information
Integrating
Use prior knowledgeGenerating
Clarify existing information
Analyzing
Adapted from Robert J. Marzano, Ronald S. Brandt, Carolyn Sue Hughes, Beau Fly Jones, Barbara Z. Presseisen, Stuart C. Rankin, and Charles Suhor, Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1988) 66, 70-112. Copyright 1988 by ACSD. Reprinted with permission of the publishers.
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Chapter 2The Ethics of Public Speaking
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Principles of Ethics
• All parties have ethical responsibilities.
• Ethics pervade character and action.
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Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker
• Speak up about important issues.
• Promote positive ethical values.• Speak to benefit your listeners.• Use truthful support and valid
reasoning.• Consider the consequences.• Strive to improve your speaking.
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Responsibilitiesof an Ethical Listener
• Seek exposure to well-informed speakers.
• Listen openly.• Listen critically.• Listen carefully.
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“Fair Use” Guidelines• What is the character of the use I
plan?• What is the nature of the work I
plan to use?• How much of the work do I plan to
use?• If the use I plan were widespread,
what effect would it have on the market value of the original?
Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials, 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.
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Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing• Take clear and consistent
notes.• Record complete source
citations.• Be clear in source citations.• Paraphrase in your own
words, style, and structure.• When in doubt, cite the
source.
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
Chapter 2The Ethics of Public Speaking
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Principles of Ethics
• All parties have ethical responsibilities.
• Ethics pervade character and action.
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Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker
• Speak up about important issues.
• Promote positive ethical values.• Speak to benefit your listeners.• Use truthful support and valid
reasoning.• Consider the consequences.• Strive to improve your speaking.
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Responsibilitiesof an Ethical Listener
• Seek exposure to well-informed speakers.
• Listen openly.• Listen critically.• Listen carefully.
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“Fair Use” Guidelines• What is the character of the use I
plan?• What is the nature of the work I
plan to use?• How much of the work do I plan to
use?• If the use I plan were widespread,
what effect would it have on the market value of the original?
Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials, 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing• Take clear and consistent
notes.• Record complete source
citations.• Be clear in source citations.• Paraphrase in your own
words, style, and structure.• When in doubt, cite the
source.
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Chapter 4Responding to Speeches
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Listening
. . . is intermittent.
. . . is a learned skill.
. . . is active.
. . . implies using the message received.
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The Process of Listening
You get the
stimuli
You focus
on stimuli
You attach meanings to stimuli
You integrate the message
into your frame of reference
You judge the merits of the information
You decide what to do with the information
Receive Select Interpret Understand Evaluate Resolve
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Obstacles to Effective Listening
• Physical distractions• Physiological distractions• Psychological distractions• Factual distractions• Semantic distractions
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Promoting Better Listening
• Desire to listen.• Focus on the
message.• Listen for main ideas.• Understand the
speaker’s point of view.
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Promoting Better Listening cont.
• Withhold judgment.• Reinforce the message.• Provide feedback.• Listen with the body.• Listen critically.
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A Model of Criticism
This model of criticism is adapted from Beverly Whitaker Long, “Evaluating Performed Literature,” Studies in Interpretation, vol.2, eds. Esther M. Doyle and Virginia Hastings Floyd (Amsterdam: Podopi, 1977) 267-81. See also her earlier article: Beverly Whitaker, “Critical Reasons and Literature in Performance,” The Speech Teacher 18 (November 1969): 191-93. Long attributes this three-part model of criticism to Arnold Isenberg, “Critical Communication,” The Philosophical Review (July 1949): 330-44.
Judgments:statements of approval or disapproval,
like or dislike
Reasons:Justifications offered
for judgments
Norms:Standards of relative worth
or goodness
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Guidelines forCritiquing Speeches
• Begin with a positive statement.• Target a few key areas for
improvement.• Organize your comments.• Be specific.• Be honest but tactful.
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Guidelines forCritiquing Speeches cont.
• Personalize your comments.
• Reinforce the positive.• Problem-solve the
negative.• Provide the speaker with
a plan of action.• End with a positive
statement.
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Guidelines forActing on Criticism
• Focus on what your critics say, not how they say it.
• Seek clear and specific feedback.• Evaluate the feedback you
receive.• Develop a plan of action.
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Chapter 5Analyzing Your Audience
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Audience Demographics
• Age• Gender• Ethnicity• Education• Religion• Economic Status• Group Membership
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Levels of Influence
Behavior
Attitudes
Beliefs
Values
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Random, 1970) 35-47.
Self-Actualization Needs
Esteem Needs
Belonging and Love Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
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VALS Typology
• Survivors• Makers• Strivers• Believers
Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.
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VALS Typology cont.
• Experiencers• Achievers• Thinkers• Innovators
Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.
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Specific Speaking Situations
• Types of audiences• Audience disposition• Size of audience• Occasion• Physical environment• Time
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Chapter 6Selecting Your Speech
Topic
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Choosing Your Speech Topic
You should. . .• First, generate a list:
– Self-generated– Audience-generated– Occasion-generated– Research-generated
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Choosing Your Speech Topic cont.
• Second, select a topic.– Am I interested?– Is the topic important?– Can I find supporting material?– Do I understand the topic?
• Third, focus the topic.
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Visual Brainstorming
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Choosing Your Speech Topic cont.
• Fourth, determine the general purpose.– To inform– To persuade– To entertain
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Choosing Your Speech Topic cont.
• Fifth, formulate your specific purpose.– General purpose– Intended audience– Goal of your speech
• Finally, word your thesis statement.• If necessary, develop your speech
title.
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Chapter 7Researching Your Topic
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Assess Your Personal Knowledge
• Article file• Quotation file• Speech file
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Develop Your Research Plan
• What information do I need?• Where am I most likely to find it?• How do I obtain this information?• What about time constraints?
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Collect Your Information
• Magazines and journals• Newspapers• Government documents• Books
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Collect Your Information cont.
• Reference works• Television and radio• World Wide Web• Interviews• Calling, writing, e-mailing for info
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Record Your Information
• What to record• How to record information
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Conclude Your Search
“If the last 10 percent of your planned research time has brought excellent results, you are doubtless on a productive new track and should extend the project. But if the last 25 percent of your scheduled time has brought greatly diminished results, this fact is a signal to wind up your research.”
Alden Todd, Finding Facts Fast, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: Ten Speed, 1979) 14.
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Chapter 8Supporting Your Speech
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Purposes of Supporting Materials
• Clarity• Vividness• Credibility
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Types of Supporting Materials
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Examples
• Brief• Extended• Actual• Hypothetical
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Definition
• Synonym• Etymology• Example• Operation
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Narration
• Personal• Third-person
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Comparison and Contrast
• Literal• Figurative
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Statistics
• Don’t rely exclusively on statistics.• Round off.• Use familiar measures.• Use presentational aids.• Stress their impact.
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Testimony
• Direct quotation• Paraphrase
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Tests of Evidence
• Is the evidence quoted in context?• Is the source of the evidence an expert?• Is the source of the evidence unbiased?• Is the evidence relevant to the point?• Is the evidence specific?• Is the evidence sufficient to prove the
point?• Is the evidence timely?
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Evaluating Electronic Information
• Purpose• Expertise• Objectivity• Accuracy• Timeliness
This checklist was adapted from Serena Fenton and Grace Reposa, “Evaluating the Goods,” Technology & Learning Sept. 1998: 28-32; Caroline L. Gilson, “Evaluating Information Resources,” 3 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 <http://lib.runet.edu/hguide/Evaluating.html>; Esther Grassian, “Thinking Critically About World Wide Web Resources,” 10 Oct. 1997, UCLA College Library, 10 March 1999 <http://www.accd.edu/SAC/LRC/gis/critical.htm>; Stephanie Michel, “Evaluating Information on the World Wide Web,” 9 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 <http://lib.runet.edu/libserv/handout/evaluation.html>; Keith Stranger, “Criteria for Evaluating Internet Resources,” 30 Nov. 1998, University Library, Eastern Michigan Univ., 4 March 1999 <http://online.emich.edu/~lib_stanger/ineteval.htm>.
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Citing Your Sources
“Oral footnotes”. . .
• Enhance the credibility of what you say.
• Help listeners find sources.
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Chapter 9Organizing the Body of Your
Speech
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Organizational Patterns
• Topical• Chronological• Spatial• Causal• Pro-con• Mnemonic or gimmick• Problem-solution• Need-plan
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The “4 S” Strategy
• Signpost• State• Support• Summarize
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Connect the Key Ideas
• Complementary• Causal• Contrasting• Chronological
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Chapter 10Introducing and Concluding
Your Speech
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Organize the Introduction
• First, get your audience’s attention.– Question your audience.– Arouse curiosity.– Stimulate imagination.– Promise something beneficial.– Amuse your audience.– Energize your audience.– Acknowledge and compliment.
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Organize the Introduction cont.
• Second, state your topic.• Third, establish the importance of
your topic.• Fourth, establish your credibility.• Finally, preview your key ideas.
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Organize the Conclusion
• Summarize your key ideas.• Activate audience response to your
speech.• Provide closure.
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Chapter 11Outlining Your Speech
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An Outline. . .
• Tests the scope of content.• Tests the logical relations of the
speech.• Tests the relevance of supporting
ideas.• Checks the balance of the speech.• Serves as notes during delivery.
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Principles of Outlining
• Singularity• Consistency• Adequacy• Uniformity• Parallelism
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Stages of Outlining
• Working Outline• Formal Outline• Speaking Outline
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Chapter 12Wording Your Speech
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Functions of Language
• Communicate ideas.• Send messages about the user.• Strengthen social bonds.• Serve as instrument of play.• Check language use.
Based on Roman Jakobson, “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetic,” in Style in Language, ed. Thomas A. Sebok (Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1964) 350-74.
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Use Language Correctly
“Stronger English comes from making stronger choices, and exact wording, when it becomes a habit, can become fun as well as fascinating.”
--Jeffrey McQuain
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Use Language Clearly
• Use specific language.• Use familiar language.
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Use Language Vividly
• Use active language.• Appeal to listeners’ senses.• Use figures of speech.• Use structures of speech.
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Use Language Appropriately
• Use oral style.• Use inclusive language.
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Chapter 13Delivering Your Speech
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Principles of Nonverbal Communication
• Some communication is deliberate, while some is unintentional.
• Few nonverbal signals have universal meaning.
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Principles of Nonverbal Communication cont.
• When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, we trust the nonverbal message.
• The audience’s perception can take precedence over your intent.
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Methods of Delivery
• Impromptu• From memory• From a manuscript• Extemporaneous
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Effective Delivery. . .
• Helps everyone.• Looks and feels natural,
comfortable, and spontaneous.
• Is best when the audience is not aware of it.
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Elements of Vocal Delivery
• Rate and pause• Volume• Pitch and inflection• Voice quality• Articulation and pronunciation
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Elements of Physical Delivery
• Appearance• Posture• Facial expression• Eye contact• Movement• Gestures
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Chapter 14Using Presentational Aids
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Presentational Aids• Increase message clarity.• Reinforce message impact.• Increase speaker dynamism.• Enhance speaker confidence.
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Types of Presentational Aids
• Objects• Graphics
– Picture– Diagram– Line Graph– Bar Graph– Pie Graph– Chart– Map
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Types of Presentational Aids cont.
• Projections– Still– Moving
• Electronic aids• Handouts• Audio and other aids
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Designing Presentational Aids
• Focus• Layout• Highlighting• Fonts• Color and art
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Using Presentational Aids
• Before the speech. . .– Determine information to be
presented.– Select the best type of aid.– Ensure easy viewing by audience.– Make sure information is clear.– Construct professional-looking
aid.
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Using Presentational Aids cont.
• Before the speech cont. . . – Practice with aid.– Arrange for safe transportation.– Carry back-up supplies.– Properly position aid.– Test presentational aid.
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Using Presentational Aids cont.
• During the Speech. . .– Conceal, then reveal.– Talk to audience—not aid.– Refer to aid.– Keep aid in view.– Conceal aid after you have
used it.– Use handouts with caution.
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Chapter 14Using Presentational Aids
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Presentational Aids• Increase message clarity.• Reinforce message impact.• Increase speaker dynamism.• Enhance speaker confidence.
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Types of Presentational Aids
• Objects• Graphics
– Picture– Diagram– Line Graph– Bar Graph– Pie Graph– Chart– Map
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Types of Presentational Aids cont.
• Projections– Still– Moving
• Electronic aids• Handouts• Audio and other aids
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Designing Presentational Aids
• Focus• Layout• Highlighting• Fonts• Color and art
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Using Presentational Aids
• Before the speech. . .– Determine information to be
presented.– Select the best type of aid.– Ensure easy viewing by audience.– Make sure information is clear.– Construct professional-looking
aid.
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Using Presentational Aids cont.
• Before the speech cont. . . – Practice with aid.– Arrange for safe transportation.– Carry back-up supplies.– Properly position aid.– Test presentational aid.
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Using Presentational Aids cont.
• During the Speech. . .– Conceal, then reveal.– Talk to audience—not aid.– Refer to aid.– Keep aid in view.– Conceal aid after you have
used it.– Use handouts with caution.
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Designing Presentational Aids
• Focus• Layout• Highlighting• Fonts• Color and art
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Chapter 15Speaking to Inform
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Purposes of Informative Speeches
• Impart knowledge• Enhance understanding• Permit application
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Topic Categoriesfor Informative Speeches
• People• Objects• Places• Events
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Topic Categoriesfor Informative Speeches cont.
• Processes• Concepts• Conditions• Issues
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Speaking to Inform
• Stress informative purpose.
• Be specific.• Be clear.• Be accurate.• Limit ideas and
supporting materials.
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Speaking to Inform cont.
• Be relevant.• Be objective.• Use appropriate organization.• Use appropriate forms of support.• Use effective delivery.
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Chapter 16The Strategy of Persuasion
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Persuasion is. . .
the process of influencing another person’s values, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
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Types of Influence
Oppose Neutral FavorStrongly Moderately Slightly Slightly Moderately Strongly
--- -- - + ++ +++0
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The Pyramid of Persuasion
Behavior
Attitudes
Beliefs
Values
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Types of Persuasive Speeches
• Speeches to Convince• Speeches to Actuate• Speeches to Inspire
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Three Modes of Persuasion
• Ethos: Speaker credibility• Logos: Logical appeal• Pathos: Emotional appeal
The Rhetoric of Aristotle, trans. Lane Cooper (New York: Appleton, 1960) 8.
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Persuasive Speaking Strategies. . .
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Persuasive Strategies
1. Establish your credibility.– Convey competence.– Convey trustworthiness.– Convey dynamism.
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Persuasive Strategies cont.
2. Focus your goals.– Limit your goals.– Argue incrementally.
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Persuasive Strategies cont.
3. Connect with your listeners.– Assess listeners’ knowledge of topic.– Assess importance to audience.– Motivate your listeners.– Relate message to listeners’ values.
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Persuasive Strategies cont.
4. Organize your arguments.– Primacy theory.– Recency theory.
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Persuasive Strategies cont.
5. Support your ideas.6. Enhance your emotional appeals.
– Tap audience values.– Use vivid examples.– Use emotive language.– Use effective delivery.
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Chapter 17The Structure of Persuasion
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Steps of an Argument
• You make a claim.• You offer evidence.• You show how the evidence
proves the claim.
For a more elaborate discussion of the structure of an argument, see Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (New York: Cambridge UP, 1974).
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Refuting an Argument
• State the position you are refuting.
• State your position.• Support your position.• Show how your position
undermines the opposing argument.
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Types of Argument
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Argument by Example
• Are the examples true?• Are the examples relevant?• Are the examples sufficient?• Are the examples representative?
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Argument by Analogy
• Are the similarities between cases relevant?
• Are any of the differences relevant?
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Argument by Cause
• Does a causal relationship exist?• Could the presumed cause
produce the effect?• Could the effect result from other
causes?
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Argument by Deduction
• Do the premises relate to each other?
• Is the major premise true?• Is the minor premise true?
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Argument by Authority
• Is the source an expert?• Is the source unbiased?
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Fallacies of Argument
• Hasty generalization• False analogy• Post hoc ergo propter hoc• Slippery slope• Red herring
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Fallacies of Argument cont.
• Appeal to tradition• False dilemma• False authority• Bandwagon• Ad hominem
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Requirements of Propositions
Propositions. . .
• Express a judgment.• Are debatable.• Require proof.
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Types of Propositions
• Propositions of Fact• Propositions of Value• Propositions of Policy
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Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
• Attention• Need• Satisfaction• Visualization• Action
Raymie E. Mckerrow, Bruce E. Gronbeck, Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech Communication, 14th ed. (New York: Addison-Longman, 2000) 153-161. See also: Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech (Chicago: Scott, 1935).
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