copyright © allyn & bacon (2007) research is a process of inquiry graziano and raulin research...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2007)Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2007)

Research is aResearch is aProcess of InquiryProcess of Inquiry

Graziano and RaulinGraziano and RaulinResearch Methods: Chapter 2Research Methods: Chapter 2This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.


Basic Assumptions of Basic Assumptions of ScienceScience Assumptions are accepted without Assumptions are accepted without

proofproof Assumptions of scienceAssumptions of science

– True, physical universe existsTrue, physical universe exists– Universe is essentially orderlyUniverse is essentially orderly– The principles that define the functioning The principles that define the functioning

of the universe can be discoveredof the universe can be discovered– All ideas are tentative, potentially changed All ideas are tentative, potentially changed

by new informationby new information Form the basis of all scientific thinkingForm the basis of all scientific thinking


Observation and Observation and InferenceInference FactsFacts: Events that can be observed: Events that can be observed

– Most “facts” of psychology are behaviorsMost “facts” of psychology are behaviors ConstructsConstructs: Inferred from : Inferred from

observationsobservations– Constructed to explain the observationsConstructed to explain the observations– Examples: memory; emotion; personalityExamples: memory; emotion; personality– Used “as if” they really existedUsed “as if” they really existed– Reification of a constructReification of a construct: incorrectly : incorrectly

believing it is a factbelieving it is a fact


Inductive & Deductive Inductive & Deductive ThinkingThinking Inductive thinkingInductive thinking: from the specific : from the specific

instance to the general theoryinstance to the general theory Deductive thinkingDeductive thinking: from the : from the

general theory to predict specific general theory to predict specific instancesinstances

Science Science – Develops theories through inductive logic Develops theories through inductive logic – Tests theories by generating predictions Tests theories by generating predictions

through deductive logic and empirically through deductive logic and empirically verifying those predictionsverifying those predictions


Theories in ScienceTheories in Science

Simplified framework for Simplified framework for explaining complex phenomenaexplaining complex phenomena

A scientific theory must be both A scientific theory must be both – TestableTestable– FalsifiableFalsifiable

Theories organize data and help Theories organize data and help predict new datapredict new data


Evaluating TheoriesEvaluating Theories

ValidityValidity: Accuracy of the theory : Accuracy of the theory in predicting outcomesin predicting outcomes

ParsimonyParsimony: Simple theories are : Simple theories are preferredpreferred

UsefulnessUsefulness: The value of the : The value of the theory for practical problem theory for practical problem solvingsolving


Types of TheoriesTypes of Theories

Inductive theoriesInductive theories: built on strong : built on strong data base and tend to stay close to the data base and tend to stay close to the datadata

Deductive theoriesDeductive theories: logically derived : logically derived rather than derived from the datarather than derived from the data

Functional theoriesFunctional theories: about equal : about equal emphasis on inductive and deductive emphasis on inductive and deductive processes processes

ModelsModels: an analogical representation : an analogical representation of realityof reality


Models in ScienceModels in Science

ModelModel: A simplified : A simplified representation of the real thingrepresentation of the real thing

Used to conceptualize Used to conceptualize phenomena that are too complex phenomena that are too complex to understand in their entiretyto understand in their entirety

The closer a model is to reality, The closer a model is to reality, the more likely that it will be the more likely that it will be usefuluseful


Modeling ResearchModeling Research

Psychological research methodsPsychological research methods– Complex set of approaches Complex set of approaches – Used to answer questions about Used to answer questions about

behaviorbehavior A two-dimensional model of researchA two-dimensional model of research

– Phases of researchPhases of research: the successive, : the successive, overlapping steps of a research projectoverlapping steps of a research project

– Levels of constraintLevels of constraint: the degree of : the degree of specificity, control, and precisionspecificity, control, and precision


Phases of ResearchPhases of Research

Idea-generating phaseIdea-generating phase Problem-definition phaseProblem-definition phase Procedures-design phaseProcedures-design phase Observation phaseObservation phase Data-analysis phaseData-analysis phase Interpretation phaseInterpretation phase Communication phaseCommunication phase


Idea-Generating PhaseIdea-Generating Phase

Ideas come from many placesIdeas come from many places– The researcher’s own interestsThe researcher’s own interests– The research and theories of othersThe research and theories of others

Nurture and develop ideasNurture and develop ideas– Be curiousBe curious– Read what others think and what Read what others think and what

they have donethey have done


Problem-Definition Problem-Definition PhasePhase Ideas are formalized into testable Ideas are formalized into testable

research questionsresearch questions Need to be more critical in this Need to be more critical in this

phasephase– How does your idea compare to How does your idea compare to

existing theory and research?existing theory and research?– Is your idea logical?Is your idea logical?– What does your idea predict?What does your idea predict?


Procedures-Design Procedures-Design PhasePhase Translate your ideas into testable Translate your ideas into testable

hypotheseshypotheses The variables must be defined The variables must be defined

and procedures selectedand procedures selected Each step should be plannedEach step should be planned Ethical issues must be consideredEthical issues must be considered


Observation PhaseObservation Phase

““Doing the research”Doing the research” The central activity of researchThe central activity of research

– Earlier phases were the planningEarlier phases were the planning– Later phases will evaluate and Later phases will evaluate and

interpret the findingsinterpret the findings The data gathered here will The data gathered here will

answer the question(s) you raised answer the question(s) you raised earlierearlier


Data-Analysis PhaseData-Analysis Phase

Evaluating the data, usually using Evaluating the data, usually using statistical proceduresstatistical procedures

Statistical procedures are selected in Statistical procedures are selected in the procedures-design phasethe procedures-design phase

Many types of statistics are availableMany types of statistics are available– Depends on the question askedDepends on the question asked– Depends on the nature of the dataDepends on the nature of the data


Interpretation PhaseInterpretation Phase

Making sense out of the results Making sense out of the results Involves several stepsInvolves several steps

– Interpreting the statistical findingsInterpreting the statistical findings– How do the findings relate to the How do the findings relate to the

research question asked?research question asked?– Are there alternative interpretations Are there alternative interpretations

of the data?of the data?


Communication PhaseCommunication Phase

Publication allows others toPublication allows others to– Judge your workJudge your work– Build on your workBuild on your work– Challenge your workChallenge your work

Many ways to make research Many ways to make research publicpublic– Conference presentationsConference presentations– Publishing in journals or booksPublishing in journals or books


Phases of ResearchPhases of Research


Levels of ConstraintLevels of Constraint

Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation Case-study methodCase-study method Correlational researchCorrelational research Differential researchDifferential research Experimental researchExperimental research


Naturalistic Naturalistic ObservationObservation Involves observing the natural flow Involves observing the natural flow

of behavior in a natural settingof behavior in a natural setting– No effort to control the behaviorNo effort to control the behavior– Often no strong hypotheses going into Often no strong hypotheses going into

the studythe study A flexible strategyA flexible strategy

– Allows the researcher to shift attention Allows the researcher to shift attention to behaviors that seem interestingto behaviors that seem interesting


Case-Study ResearchCase-Study Research

Slightly higher constraint Slightly higher constraint Some intervention by the Some intervention by the

researcher to structure the researcher to structure the setting and observations setting and observations – Asking questionsAsking questions– Setting up situations or tasksSetting up situations or tasks

Typically studying a single Typically studying a single individualindividual


Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research

Measuring the direction and Measuring the direction and strength of a relationship between strength of a relationship between variablesvariables– Must be at least two variablesMust be at least two variables– Variables must be measured Variables must be measured

consistently (that is, measurement is consistently (that is, measurement is constrained)constrained)

Established relationships can be Established relationships can be used to predict future eventsused to predict future events


Differential ResearchDifferential Research

Concerned with evaluating Concerned with evaluating differences between existing groupsdifferences between existing groups– Groups defined by preexisting variablesGroups defined by preexisting variables– Group composition is outside of Group composition is outside of

researcher’s controlresearcher’s control Interpreting group differences takes Interpreting group differences takes

skill, knowledge, and caution skill, knowledge, and caution


Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

Comparing two or more Comparing two or more conditionsconditions– Participants are assigned randomly Participants are assigned randomly

to the conditionsto the conditions– Therefore, group differences are due Therefore, group differences are due

to the impact of the conditions to the impact of the conditions The highest level of constraintThe highest level of constraint


SummarySummary

Science rests on a few basic assumptionsScience rests on a few basic assumptions Observations are the “facts” of scienceObservations are the “facts” of science Inference is designed to make sense of Inference is designed to make sense of

the observed factsthe observed facts Theory is critical to the scientific Theory is critical to the scientific

enterpriseenterprise We can model the domain of We can model the domain of

psychological research using two factors psychological research using two factors (phases of research and levels of (phases of research and levels of constraint)constraint)

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