copyright julie landgraf johnson (1991)
TRANSCRIPT
VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS: IDENTIFICATION
AND SUCCESS
by
JULIE LANDGRAF JOHNSON, B.A.
A THESIS
IN
COMMUNICATION STUDIES
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
Accepted
May, 1991
Copyright Julie Landgraf Johnson (1991)
AC~WLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Dr. G. H. "Bud" Morris for his guidance in the
preparation of this thesis. As chair of my thesis committee, his efforts
toward the maintenance of quality and the pursuit of a more clear
understanding of the concepts in this paper consistently equalled my own
and encouraged me to strive to improve. To the other members of the
committee, Dr. H. Dan O'Hair and Dr. RobertS. litis, I also offer my thanks.
Additionally, thank you to the Phi Theta Kappa Society, their
administration, and especially to Mr. Rod Risley, Mr. Mike Watson, and
Ms. Kathy Harms Mercer. Your openness and support of this project made
its conception a reality.
The support of the professors, instructors, assistants, and staff of
the Department of Communication Studies also contributed much to the
completion of this document. To Melanie, "my pencil person," and to Lisa,
my comrade in the "thesis struggle," I give special recognition. Your
advice and support were invaluable.
Thanks also go to Troy: consultant, copier, carpooler, cheerleader,
cook, caretaker, and confidant. Your patience, support and love teach me
more than all of education.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Development of the Concept
Relationship Between Identification and Commitment
Possible Outcomes of Identification
Creating Identification in Organizations
Voluntary Organizations
Ill. METl-()[)
Pilot Study
Participants
Organization of the Questionnaire
Analysis of the Pilot Questionnaire
Present Study
Participants
Instruments
Questionnaire
Document analysis
Telephone interviews
IV. RESULTS
Questionnaire
Document Analys1s
Ill
ii
1
4
5
8
15
18
22
27
27
27
30
32
36
36
37
37
42
43
46
46
51
Interviews
Research Questions
Research Question One
Research Question Two
Research Question Three
Research Question Four
V. DISCUSSION
Implications
Limitations
Suggestions
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A. PILOT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE
B. PRESENT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE
C. PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
IV
54
58
58
62
65
68
70
70
82
84
88
94
94
98
106
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Many explanations have been given for the success of organizations.
Popular literature attributes success to such factors as qualities of
leadership and strong organizational cultures (Peters & Waterman, 1981;
Peters & Austin, 1985). Another avenue for explaining success is to
consider qualities of membership that can influence organizational
performance. In the literature on organizational communication, the
identification or commitment of organizational members toward the
goals and objectives of the organization has been considered a key (Burke,
1937; Simon, 1976; Cheney, 1983a; Cheney, 1983b; Thompkins & Cheney,
1983).
Members identify with or are commited to an organization when
they substitute organizational objectives for their own aims as value
indices which determine their decisions (Simon, 1976). It is as if
members develop a personal relationship with their organization. Overall,
identification influences the nature of the decisions organization
members make (Simon, 1976; Cheney, 1983a; Cheney 1983b; Thompkins &
Cheney, 1983), which may in turn affect the success of the organization.
It is often presumed that identification processes in organizations lead
to a host of beneficial organizational outcomes, including goal
commitment, goal achievement, quality of performance, and job
satisfaction. Thomas Rotondi, Jr., (1975b) refers to former IBM Chief
Executive Officer T.J. Watson, Jr., as stating that the single most
1
important factor in the success of an organization is the faithful
adherence of employees to the beliefs of the organization.
In organizations that must rely upon voluntary membership,
identification may be a particularly critical factor, since other
compelling reasons for members to contribute, such as salary, are ruled
out. Neither researchers of voluntary organizations (Schindler-Rainman &
Lippitt, 1975; O'Connel, 1976; Wilson, 1976; Allen, 1982; Smith, 1982)
nor those interested in organizational identification, however, have
focused upon this possibility. After extensive research regarding
voluntary organizations, Wortman (1981) suggests that the application of
organizational identification to voluntary organizations will prove to be
an intriguing one. In the absence of most extrinsic motivational cues,
such as monetary rewards and punishments which are often associated
with the workplace, what drives individuals to loyally participate in
voluntary organizations?
The purpose of this study is to explore how identification
manifests itself in members of voluntary organizations. Specifically, it
examines how identification is related to volunteer success and length of
time in affiliation with a particular voluntary organization, as well as
how identification is created by an organization.
To examine these relationships, respondents completed a
questionnaire using Mowday, Steers, and Porter's Organizational
Commitment Questionnaire (1979) coupled with original questions. In
addition, turning point analysis (Baxter & Bullis, 1986) was utilized to
interpret responses gathered in moderately scheduled interviews.
Finally, a detailed examination was conducted of formal communication
2
between a selected volunteer organization and particular volunteers.
Unifying symbol distribution, official written correspondence, records of
award winners, and the 1989-90 Year End Report compiled by the
international headquarters staff were studied in depth.
In the following chapters, a review of the important literature
concerning identification theory is presented. Next, research questions
are posed and an explanation of the methods and participants chosen is
offered. Finally, the results of this study are presented and discussed.
3
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Individuals who substitute organizational objectives for their own
aims when making decisions are seen as having achieved a level of
identification. A host of positive outcomes may result in organizations
which are able to achieve these high levels of identification. These
include increased trust (Johnson & Hall, 1990), improved efficiency in
decision making and consistency of decisions with organizational
objectives (Simon, 1976), a lessened chance of sabotage of new ideas
(Tompkins & Cheney, 1985), and enhanced organizational control (Sias &
Drummond, 1990). Clearly, high levels of identification are desirable to
organizations. The general theoretical issue presents itself then, as
being what accounts for identification?
Most research regarding identification has centered upon those
organizations that are characterized by nonvoluntary memberships,
specifically the workplace. In this setting, an examination of the value
indices which determine members' decisions has been used as a means to
measure the extent of organizational identification. If the member
substitutes organizational objectives for his own aims, that member is
seen as having achieved a level of identification. Several confounding
variables, however, could also account for this substitution in decision
making. Job stability, salary, evaluations, company benefits, and the like
might substitute for identification as incentives which encourage
members to adhere to organizational objectives.
4
If, apart from the above mentioned extrinsic influences, one can
isolate the factors which contribute to identification among members,
then researchers will be in a position to provide a more realistic view of
what causes identification and if and how identification can be created
and maintained. Attempts to create identification might then be properly
directed, and many positive outcomes might accrue.
To investigate identification within voluntary organizations seems
a logical way to control for the confounding factors. While these
organizations may require as much member dedication as many
workplaces require, the extrinsic influences which may bind workers to
jobs are absent. Thus, it is logical to conclude that the establishment and
maintenance of identification in this setting is the result of other forces.
As a means of exploring these other forces, the review of
literature which follows orients the reader to the development of the
concept of identification and distinguishes it from other closely related
terms. The nature and characteristics of voluntary organizations are then
examined. Finally, the paucity of research into incentives for
volunteerism is noted, and research questions for this study of
identification with voluntary organizations are outlined.
Development of the Concept
The literature regarding organizational identification is based upon
Kenneth Burke's writings on social order and persuasion, and Herbert A.
Simon's perspective on decision making. Both perspectives help to
illuminate the relationship between the individual and the organization
5
(Sass and Canary,1990). Burke puts forth an audience-centered
conceptualization of identification from his rhetorical orientation, and
maintains that identification is the symbolic process underlying basic
tendencies in social relations. Burke declares the importance of
identification by stating that one's participation in a collective, social
role cannot be obtained in any other way than by identification.
In A Rhetoric of Motives (1969), Burke maintains that
identification is necessary to compensate for the "mystery" or
estrangement in the division of labor and in other ordered domains of
human experience. This estrangement relates to the rhetorical situation
Burke labeled 'segregation.' He proceeds to suggest that identification is
the means by which humans are compensated for this division. In order to
move away from segregation and toward congregation, an individual acts
to identify with some target(s) (i.e., persons, groups, collectives, and so
on). An individual receives from these associations a sense of 'belonging'
and from this; he or she comes to have a variety of "corporate identities.''
Burke writes that these are vital to us because they grant us personal
meaning. These identities may bring to us prestige and status or, by the
same token, criticism. So by praising (and by implication, blaming) the
identifying unit, we praise or blame ourselves. In essence, the
identifying unit becomes a part of our own personality.
As individuals "work out" their corporate identities, they are
inclined to communicate and cooperate with persons and groups who share
the same interests; they achieve a degree of what Burke terms
"consubstantiability.'' This represents an area of "overlap," which may be
either real or perceived, between two individuals or between an
6
individual and a group; it is a basis for common motives and for "acting
together." On one level, this idea is expressed in the everyday use of
"identification" to symbolize a state. For example, the statement by a
television viewer that he or she "identifies" with a character in a daytime
serial conveys the notion that the two are, to some extent,
"consubstantial." In more specific terms, such a comment might suggest
that the viewer sees himself or herself as having ideas, attitudes, or
intentions similar to those of the appealing character, or as acting in a
manner similar to the character.
Herbert A. Simon (1976) analogizes organizational identification to
acquiring an "organization personality." He states that the values and
objectives of organizations are usually imposed on an individual by the
exercise of authority over him; but to a large extent, these gradually
become "internalized." A loyalty or attachment to the organization
develops and these organizational values and objectives become a part of
the individual's values and objectives. He states that, "a person
identifies himself with a group when, in making decisions, he evaluates
the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the
specified group" (p. 221 ). More succinctly, he defines identification as
the "process, whereby the individual substitutes organizational
objectives for his own aims as the value indices which determine his
organizational decisions" (p. 221 ).
In Simon's view, there are two types of identification targets: (1)
identification with the organization objective, such as when one
identifies, in general, with organizations that provide higher education;
and, (2) identification with the conservation of the organization itself,
7
such as when one identifies with a specific institution of higher
education. In the first example, identification may occur because the
individual believes in the value of higher education. The target of
identification is more focused in the second case in that a particular
institution may be subjectively viewed as offering the best of this valued
commodity.
Cheney (1983a) describes identification as an active process by
which individuals link themselves to elements in a social scene. After a
series of revisions of Burke's writings, Tompkins and Cheney (1985)
defined organizational identification: "A decision maker identifies with
an organization when he or she desires to choose the alternative which
best promotes the perceived interest of the organization" (p. 194).
Relationship Between Identification and Commitment
Rotondi (1975a) refers to the statement that "identification" has
probably been used in more different ways than any other psychoanalytic
term (p. 96). Possibly due to its popularity, identification has been
viewed as being synonymous with several terms, such as loyalty,
role-playing, and commitment. The following section will discuss the
inaccurate application of some terms to the concept of identification and
will then draw a parallel between identification and the concept of
commitment.
In empirical studies of cosmopolitanism/localism (e.g., Lewis,
1967), loyalty has been measured by ascertaining the employees'
willingness to resist attractive outside offers of employment. One
obvious drawback of viewing organizational identification solely as a
8
function of loyalty is the inability of such a measure to adequately
discriminate between organizational identification and related behavioral
concepts, such as compliance or conformity. Additionally, other
empirical research has measured organizational identification by asking
respondents to rate their sense of personal identification with their
employing organization (e.g., Lee, 1969). This methodology presupposes
that respondents are able accurately to assess their degree of
organizational identification, which can in many cases be done when
assessing loyalty. Since identification responses have been considered to
be unconscious in nature (Rotondi, 1975b), such an assumption is likely to
be unrealistic. Hence, loyalty appears to be an inordinately simplistic
explanation of organizational identification behavior.
Identification is not synonymous with the idea of role-playing.
Williams and Williams (1987) labeled identification as a "legitimate
psychological phenomenon, as opposed to a directed and artificial
condition" (p. 484). The authors' line of study began as a search for an
understanding of whether or not it was possible to consistently promote
attitude change with simulation games. The outcome was the discovery
of the importance of identification for changing attitudes within the
boundaries of a controlled experiment. Even in this unique application,
however, it was stressed that the theory of identification proved to be
not just a pseudonym for role-playing. Williams and Williams state that
identification theory refers to a specific psychological set that, when
established, promotes attitude change in subjects involved in
simulations, while role-playing is a much more general technique
(p. 485). Role-playing connotes identifying, but the term in itself does
9
not specify how this is to be accomplished. Simply instructing a subject
to "play a role" is not enough to achieve identification (p. 486).
The relationship between identification and commitment in
organizations is not a clear one, but these terms have been developed in
the organizational literature as virtual synonyms. By citing an often
quoted definition of commitment, their relationship can be assessed.
According to Porter et al. (1974, p. 604; see also Buchanan, 1974),
commitment is
the strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization ... as characterized by: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values, (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (c) a definite desire to maintain organizational membership.
The characteristics in the above definition clearly resemble those
mentioned in the preceding definitions of identification. It is the opinion
of this researcher that many communication scholars have been studying
the concept of identification while utilizing the term commitment. The
following section will explore the relationship between the two terms in
an attempt to rectify this semantic confusion.
Organizational commitment and identification have been central
variables of interest to organizational communication researchers. For
example, commitment has been related to such communication activities
as network involvement (Eisenberg, Monge, & Miller, 1983), leadership
(Morris & Sherman, 1981 ), and the socialization strategies of new
employees (Buchanan, 1974). According to Larkey (1990, p.4),
commitment has been an important topic of study in management
1 0
literature for over three decades, and yet apparently remains an elusive
topic; important because of the perception that committed employees
will remain employed and carry out company goals, and elusive because
research has approached commitment from many different perspectives
but has yet to produce a coherent picture. Commitment has occupied many
researchers who have looked for ways to manage it, hoping to decrease
turnover and absenteeism, and to improve performance (Buchanan, 1974;
Cook & Wall, 1980; Krackardt & Porter, 1985). These areas have been
cited previously as the positive outcomes which may result from high
levels of member identification. Commitment is not only important to
understand because of the impact it has on these critical human resource
issues, but it must be recognized as a core issue because it lies at the
root of human capacity to be influenced (Salancik, 1978). This capacity
to be influenced may, in fact, be a contributor to identification as a
product of organizational socialization.
During the 1960's and 1970's, organizational scholars produced a
multitude of conceptualizations of identification and commitment. These
are generally based upon the writings of Simon (1976) and/or Becker
(1960). By the 1980's, "organizational identification" virtually
disappeared from use and one model of organizational commitment
(Mowday et al., 1979; 1982) emerged as predominant (Sass & Canary,
1990, p. 4).
As a further correlate between the terms identification and
commitment, an examination of the two distinct theoretical orientations
which have emerged in defining organizational commitment is in order.
The two orientations are labelled moral and calculative. Organizational
1 1
commitment from a moral orientation is measured along three attitudinal
factors: identification, involvement, and loyalty. The calculative
perspective, on the other hand, is based upon exchange theory and Becker's
(1960) notion of "side bets." This perspective assumes that individuals
negotiate and bargain with their organization to produce a positive
balance of rewards and costs that they incur in the organization. The
greater the positive relationship, the more personal commitment there
will be towards the organization. Becker (1960) extended this simple
idea to include both concepts of time and "side bets," or the investment
quality of organizational participation. As time and investment increase,
the individuals will be more committed to the organization, as they could
lose more by leaving the organization. These two orientations have
served as the theoretical bases for instruments designed to measure
organizational commitment (Barge & Schlueter, 1988).
Mowday et al. (1982) review ten different studies of organizational
commitment and the associated definitions. The definitions reviewed by
Mowday have three elements in common: (1) internal dispositions, such
as willingness or affective attachment; (2) actions, such as activities of
involvement or socially accepted behaviors; and (3) transactions, such as
investments or side-bets. All three of these elements are inherent in the
description of the phenomenon of identification discussed by Cheney
(1983b) in his review of the rhetoric of identification according to Burke.
The internal disposition is the tendency toward membership as an
antidote to the estrangement created in division of labor. As expressed
by Burke, "identification is affirmed with earnestness precisely because
there is division. Identification is compensatory to division" (Cheney,
1 2
1983b, p.145). In other words, the nature of organizing predisposes us
toward the tendency to reach out and to belong. This willingness to
identify is characterized by an individual's affective needs. Actions are
the behaviors motivated by this predisposition, whether it is behaving in
the ways that have been demonstrated to be socially acceptable, or in
ways that support and contribute to the identity, goals, and values of the
organization. Transactions are the interdependent links that grow over
time. As the actions of initial identity lead to investments over time, the
actor becomes entrenched in social exchanges, not just exchanges with
individuals, but exchanges with the organization as an entity. With each
action, the relationship is confirmed, building and renewing an outward
form of commitment/identification. These three components--internal
disposition, action, and transaction--work together to describe the
process of identification and develop a picture of commitment that is
based on interactive processes (Larkey, 1990, pp.12-13). All three
components must be present and must be acting together in order for
identification and or commitment to take place.
Cheney and Tompkins see identification and commitment as
different but " ... related as the substance and form of social action ... "
(p. 9). In other words, these researchers see the terms as being similar,
but different in their modes of operationalization. In contrast, Sass and
Canary (1990) contend that organizational identification and
organizational commitment are operationally equivalent (p. 16). In a
study which sought to operationalize the most widely accepted
conceptualizations of commitment and identification, the authors suggest
it is valid to infer the product form of identification IS indistinct from
1 3
attitudinal commitment. While the study revealed variances in similar
sign and degree with job satisfaction, career commitment, length of
employment, time in career, age, and education, identification and
commitment did prove to be collinear; they showed equal mean values
within (but not as similarly between) genders. Further, the correlation
between commitment and identification proved to be slightly stronger
than the reported correlation between two measurement scales, the
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday, Steers, &
Porter, 1979) and the Affective Commitment Scale (Meyer & Allen, 1974).
Because there has been proven an even stronger correlation between the
OCQ and the unedited Organizational Identification Questionnaire, these
findings indicate that the commitment-identification distinction needs
rethinking.
The authors suggest that to further clarify the relationship, a
return to their respective terminological anchors is needed.
Behaviorial commitment is clearly the operationalization of Becker's (1960) side-bet theory of commitment. Attitudinal organizational commitment as developed by Mowday et al. (1982) is both a conceptual and operational descendent of Simon's (1976) concept of organizational identification ... we encourage communicologists to study identification rather than commitment (p. 14).
This sentiment is echoed by Barge and Schlueter's (1988) suggestion that
a useful theoretical departure from current research would be to
reconceptualize commitment as a process versus a state. In their
opinion, such a departure would force researchers to examine the
identification strategies and tactics in organizational messages.
1 4
So, while the terms loyalty and role-playing produce some similar
feelings as identification, neither term encompasses enough depth
concerning attitude change to be synonymous with the concept of
identification. However, while commitment and identification may be
utilized in very different ways, their common characteristics are
numerous. For the purposes of this study, behavioral commitment and
identification are considered operationally equivalent, so that when an
individual achieves one, the other is assumed to be present.
The concept of identification as it is used in this study is a blend
of the ideas of many theorists. Burke's thoughts on social order and
persuasion coupled with Simon's organizational perspective create the
groundwork upon which Cheney and Tompkins build the most accepted
definition. In addition to providing one with a set of "corporate
identities" which in turn lead to consubstantiability, the concept may
also afford insight to the impact of organizational policies and outcomes.
In other words, an individual-to-organization perspective may be taken
for study as well as one focusing on the organization-to-individual.
Possible Outcomes of Identification
Identification serves several important and pragmatic
functions. Identification is instrumental as individuals attempt to make
sense ofexperiences, to organize thoughts, to achieve decisions, to anchor
the self, and to persuade and be persuaded (Cheney, 1983b). Consequently,
the concept of identification may afford insight into a variety of work
attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes. Additionally, Gheney suggests that
1 5
the impact of many organizational policies and activities may be studied
by focusing on their relationship to individuals' organizational
identification. Perhaps most important is the relationship between
identification and decision making.
Cheney (1983b) views identification as a critical communication
process that not only influences how employees view the organization,
but their on-the-job decision making as well (Barge & Schlueter, 1988).
Decision making is a vital concern for organizations as well as an
integral part of identification. Because " ... all behavior involves conscious
or unconscious selection of particular actions out of all those which are
physically possible to the actor and to those over whom he exercises
influence and authority ... " (Simon, 1976}, studying decision making is an
important aspect of organizational communication. Although much
research has been conducted, few conclusive results have been collected
concerning the criteria used in making decisions. Because " ... the task of
'deciding' pervades the entire administrative organization quite as much
as does the task of 'doing'-- indeed, it is integrally tied up with the
latter" (Simon, 1976, p. 5), it merits attention.
Tompkins and Cheney (1983) enumerate four reasons why
organizational communicators should study decision making. First, the
authors maintain that decision making is essential to organizational
functioning. Second, that communication and decision making are
inseparable. Third, because the examination of the decision making
process provides a means of tapping the mutual influences of people and
1 6
organizations. And finally, the decision provides a finite unit for
analysis.
It is interesting to see the ramifications of decision making "in
line" with the organization. According to Johnson and Hall (1990), if one
is highly identified with the organization, one is trusted by one's
contacts. Tompkins and Cheney's (1985) definition of identification as
support for the organization's interests in decision making indicates that
highly identified employees may be less likely to sabotage a new idea or
resist plans for innovation. They may be seen as more trustworthy in this
respect (p.15). Viewed in this sense, organizational identification
reduces the range of decision: the decision maker's choice is largely
confined to the alternative(s) associated with his or her personal targets
of identification. From an organizational (or managerial) perspective,
member identification is beneficial in that it "guarantees" that decisions
will be consistent with organizational objectives, even in the absence of
external stimuli (Simon, 1976).
Identification has also been related to the establishment of
organizational control (Sias & Drummond, 1990). This approach
encompasses an interpretive perspective on unobtrusive control methods.
The process of identification "focuses the attention of the decision maker
on particular values and facts ... the organization member considers that
with which he or she identifies" when making a decision (p.125). In using
identification as an instrument of unobtrusive control, the organization
seeks to have the individual members "buy into" the organization's values
and beliefs. Once this is accomplished, the organization can be relatively
assured that an individual member will behave in accordance with the
1 7
organization's overall values, beliefs, and goals. Thus, rather than relying
on obtrusive control methods such as salary, discipline, and authority, the
organization relies upon the fact that individual members will consider
the organization's values in making organizational decisions (Sias &
Drummond, 1990).
Since the two are integrally related, the inescapable act of
decision making must be a part of the discussion of identification.
Decision making is not only a vital area of concern for ensuring effective
organizational communication, but identification is also a proven
instrument for establishing unobtrusive organizational control.
Creating Identification in Organizations
Since identification is credited with so many positive
organizational outcomes, it is understandable that researchers have
sought to investigate how identification can be created. The following
section explores the two orientations which have been adopted toward
this issue.
Identification has generally been viewed in one of two forms: as a
product or as a process. Individuals who view organizational
identification as a product work from the assumption that organizational
messages and practices create identifications. The focus, according to
Bullis and Bach (1989), is placed on organizational strategies and not on
the individual's experiences. Akin to this viewpoint is the notion that
organizational identification is simply the product of organizational
socialization (Kreps, 1983; Stohl, 1986; Falcione & Wilson, 1988).
1 8
As a product, identification is assessed by examining three
components, construed by Patchen (1970) and referred to by Rotondi
(1975a): similarity, membership, and loyalty. In order for identification
to result from organizational socialization efforts, first, a similarity
component must be present. The individual must possess shared interests
or goals with other organizational members or perceive these shared
characteristics to exist. Second, a membership component, which
consists of a feeling of solidarity with the organization in which an
individual experiences a feeling of belongingness must be present.
Finally, a loyalty component is necessary. This is characterized by a
feeling of support for the organization in which an individual not only
supports, but also defends organizational goals and policies.
Through reference to Aristotle, Burke (1972) illustrates an
elementary case of identification being used in its product form: "When
you are with Athenians, it's easy to praise Athenians, but not when you
are with Lacedaemonians" (p. 55). He offers the example as perhaps the
simplest case of persuasion via identification. Seen in this context,
identification is the way in which a rhetor explicitly states to another, "I
am like you" or "I have the same interests as you."
While an important perspective, identification as a product is only
part of a much larger picture which includes not only the aforementioned
overt strategies by organizations to achieve the product of identification,
but also those strategies designed to be more covert. In his Dramatism
and Development, Burke (1972) advances three interpretations of the
product of identification as a rhetorical strategy:
1 9
The first is quite dull. It flowers in such usages as that of a politician who, though rich, tells humble constituents of his humble origins. The second kind of identification involves the workings of antithesis, as when allies who would otherwise dispute among themselves join forces against a common enemy. This application also can serve to deflect criticism, as a politician can call any criticism of his policies 'unpatriotic,' on the grounds that it reinforces claims of the nation's enemies. But the major power of identification derives from situations in which it goes unnoticed. My prime example is the word 'we,' as when the statement that 'we' are at war includes under the same head soldiers who are getting killed and speculators who hope to make a killing in war stocks (p. 28).
When one conceptualizes identification as a process, the individual
is seen as the key and most necessary participant. While viewing
identification and socialization as related, identification in this form is
not seen as the product, but instead as a fundamental process of
individual relational development. An advantage of conceiving of
identification as a process is its allowance for change. As an individual's
perceptions and feelings may be expected to change over time, so too may
one's organizational identification.
Most applications of identification in the literature give
disproportionate attention to the view of identification as a form of
inducement (i.e., a product of an organization). Bullis and Bach (1989)
report that research surrounding identification has historically over
emphasized the organization's perspective and under emphasized the
individual's perspective. Tompkins and Cheney (1983) state that as a
process "the 'substance' and 'form' of an individual-organizational
relationship" is an ongoing "dramatic narrative" within which
identifications point individuals to specific commitments. This in turn
20
modifies identification. As a product, identification is reflected in a
person's assessments of their attachment to the organization (p. 9). It is
the opinion of this writer that neither view taken singularly is sufficient
for explaining and understanding this complex concept. Echoing Tompkins
and Cheney, for the most complete understanding of the theory of
identification it must be considered both a product and a process.
Whether viewed as a product or as a process, identification clearly
affects the way in which an individual relates to an organization. In part,
it is this relationship and the outcomes which result that lead
organizational communication scholars to study identification. Many
positive outcomes may occur, such as decision making which is in line
with organizational goals and which results in an effective means for an
organization to exert unobtrusive control.
As the concept of identification has evolved from Burke's and
Simon's original conceptions, it has retained a distinction apart from
other seemingly synonymous terms, such as loyalty and role-playing,
while bearing a striking resemblance to the concept of commitment.
Identification is construed as both a product of organizational
communication as well as a process of individual relational development
through which an organization may receive not only high member
identification, but also may exercise control over those members in an
unobtrusive manner. This unobtrusive control may be achieved through
the individual's desire to choose the alternative which best promotes the
perceived interests of the organization. Through this decision making
which is in accord with organizational goals and objectives, a level of
unobtrusive control may be exercised by the organization. In short, a
21
level of dedication results from organizational identification which has
not been accounted for by any other theory.
These positive outcomes can be carried over to the voluntary sector
as well. An increasingly important economic and social force, voluntary
organizations do not possess the obvious reasons for identification, such
as job security and salary. So they represent an opportunity to
investigate identification in a way that is relatively free of confounding
variables.
Voluntary Organizations
Voluntary organizations permeate American society. These
organizations have proven to be important not only philanthropically and
socially for the specific purposes they serve, but also as an important
economic force in industry. In the renaissance of volunteerism of the
1970s, studies revealed that the so-called "voluntary sector" had become
quite extensive. For example, during that decade voluntary associations
accounted for more than 80 billion dollars of our annual economy (Filer
Commission, 1974); 84 percent of the adult population donated to
voluntary organizations (Gallup, 1979); there may have been at that time
as many as six or seven million voluntary groups in the United States
(Nielsen, 1980); and one voluntary group (the YMCA) would be ranked as
the eighth largest hotel chain in the nation (Sakal, 1979). Since the
1970s, dozens of new national organizations have been formed to foster
volunteerism, the United States government has shown unprecedented
22
interest in this type of organization, and literature and training programs
about volunteerism have flourished.
The matter of defining "volunteer organization," "voluntary
organization," and related terms used to refer to voluntary and non-profit
groups of various kinds has received much attention, but without real
consensus. An acceptable definition is any formal group which is
non-governmental and not-for-profit in its legal status and basic
purposes. Within this broad category may be found two main
sub-categories: the volunteer organization and the paid-staff non-profit
organization. These should not be viewed as forming a dichotomy, but
rather as showing significantly different modes of operation along the
voluntary continuum (Smith, 1982). According to Wortman (1981 ), there
are several pertinent characteristics of voluntary organizations: (1)
service is intangible and hard to measure, (2) strong employee
(volunteer) commitment to a cause may undermine their allegiance to the
organization, and (3) restraints exist on the use of rewards and
punishments.
The typology offered by Manser and Cass (1976) is helpful in the
classification of individuals who compose voluntary organizations.
According to these authors, there are five general types of volunteers:
(1) Service volunteers. Traditional "people-helping-people" volunteers who attempt to help others directly and whose main concern is their client (p. 51). (2) Public issue/advocacy volunteers. Includes volunteers "whose concern is with the social, economic, and political roots of problems for large groups of people" (p. 51). (3) Consummatory /self-exe're~sive vnluntoo,r~ "Generally appeal not to altruistic motivaticn but to some self-
23
interest, usually emphasizing fellowship, fun, and enjoyment" (p. 52). (4) Occupational/economic self-interest volunteers. Self-oriented like the consummatory volunteer, but they "seek to protect and enhance their occupational and/or economic interests, while they may at the same time engage in programs beneficial to the community as a whole" (p. 52). (5) Fund-raising volunteers. "primarily involved in the process of raising funds" (p. 52).
Wortman (1981) observes that selection for employment and
promotion based on technical competence does not always occur in
voluntary organizations. Indeed, the question of competence is not
always primary in selection (p. 65). But as Naylor (1985) states, it is the
"appreciation of individual uniqueness which characterizes the
difference" between voluntary and for-profit organizations (p. 27).
It is not clear what may be the most effective incentives for
volunteerism. Smith (1982) maintains that altruism is not the all
encompassing answer, but instead he cites Clark and Wilson (1961) and
suggests three principal types of incentives: tangible rewards, solidarity
incentives, and purposive incentives. Tangible rewards include foods,
services, money, and equivalents. Solidarity incentives are interpersonal
rewards of various kinds, including fellowship, friendship, prestige, and
similar positive outcomes from personal relationships. Purposive
incentives are various kinds of intrinsic, intangible satisfactions that
result from feeling one is contributing to some purpose, helping to
achieve some valued goal, and/or being a means to some valued end
(p. 37). The voluntary sector is an important one; large in its scope and
impressive in its economic contributions. By utilizing the accepted
24
definitions and typologies offered in scholarly research, it is possible to
define voluntary organizations and to classify them. In addition,
classification of the individuals who compose the organizations is also
possible. However while defining some possibilities, research has failed
to posit the most effective incentives for volunteerism, nor even to
consider identification of members with voluntary organizations.
The study conducted in this research addresses the issue of
identification in voluntary organizations. Specifically, four research
questions are explored:
RQ1: How does socialization within a particular voluntary
organization produce organizational identification?
RQ2: How, other than through organizational socialization,
do individuals achieve organizational identification in a
voluntary organization?
RQ3: How is individual success in an organization
associated with the member's identification?
RQ4.: How is tenure in the organization associated with
identification?
The answers to these research questions were expected to yield
information in several areas. First, research question one was aimed at
measuring organizational identification as a product. Specifically, an
understanding of the nature, extent, and effectiveness of the
organization's efforts to produce identification was targeted. Regarding
the second research question, previously cited studies have argued that
there is an imbalance in the research on organizational identification
viewed as a product rather than as a process. Information pertaining to
25
the second research question was meant to examine other possible
influences on the individual, such as altruistic motives as outlined in
Manser & Cass' typology of volunteers (1976). Research question three
was meant to reveal if the corporate identities described by Burke (1969)
are strengthened by perceived successes and/or weakened by perceived
failures. Finally, research question four was posed in order to discover if
organizational identification is a viable explanation for loyal
volunteerism over a long period of time.
In the following chapter, the methods for ascertaining the
relationships between levels of identification with a particular voluntary
organization, length of time in affiliation and success in the organization
are described. These methods include formal document analysis, the
administration of a questionnaire and moderately scheduled telephone
interviews.
26
CHAPTER Ill
METHOD
In order to measure organizational identification, to explore how
identification is created and to ascertain the relationships between
levels of identification with a particular voluntary organization, tenure
in the voluntary organization, as well as success in the organization,
several methods of data collection and analysis were employed. This
chapter discusses these methods. The following section discusses the
pilot study and the present study in regards to their participants, means
of data collection, and analyses.
Pilot Study
Pilot work of one of the instruments was conducted to test it and
to provide preliminary information about the relationships between the
variables identified in the research questions. Additionally, this
preliminary information provided guidance in the formulation of the two
other measurement instruments.
Participants
The questionnaire was designed to capture the opinions of a group
of participants in one voluntary oganization. Respondents were chapter
advisors of the Phi Theta Kappa Society. To fully understand the
magnitude of their role in this voluntary organization, a brief background
of the Society and of the advisors' role in it will be provided.
27
Phi Theta Kappa was established by the presidents of Missouri
two-year colleges for women in 1918. It is the only nationally acclaimed
honor society serving American institutions which offer associate degree
programs. Two-year college presidents and administrators of associate
degree programs in four-year schools have continually recognized
membership in Phi Theta Kappa as an honor and privilege. Membership is
given added significance by the fact that the Society is recognized by the
American Association of Community and Junior Colleges as the official
honor Society for two-year colleges.
The purpose of Phi Theta Kappa is to recognize and encourage
scholarship among college students enrolled in associate degree
programs. To achieve this purpose, Phi Theta Kappa provides opportunity
for the development of leadership and service, for lively fellowship of
scholars, and for stimulation of interest in continuing academic
excellence.
Phi Theta Kappa, furthermore, serves to nurture its members and
associates by sponsoring meetings which educate, stimulate, and enrich;
by according national recognition to students of distinguished
achievement; and by providing a vehicle which reflects the academic
integrity of associate degree programs.
Today, some 40,000 students are inducted annually by the 850
member chapters located in all 50 states, U.S. territorial possessions,
and university extensions abroad.
Each member chapter is headed by at least one advisor. A chapter
advisor is required to be a member of faculty or administration at the
28
sponsoring institution, but length of employment and/or familiarity with
the Society are generally not prerequisites for the role. This accords
with Wortman's (1981) observations of selection for employment and
promotion within voluntary organizations being isolated from
competence, as was referred to previously. Each year many new advisors
are added to the Society, but by the same token, many of the
organization's advisors have held that role for more than 20 years.
The chapter many elect to choose a co-advisor in addition. The
co-advisor's role may be virtually the same as the advisor's or a division
of labor may be created internally, but in any case the advisor is the final
responsible party. The most general description of the advisor's role in
the Society is that he or she serves as a guide and an overseer. Seen also
as a facilitator, a model, a catalyst, and/or a source of inspiration, the
advisor may take on all these titles, but as per the instruction of the
Society's Headquarters, the advisor is not the chapter workhorse. Among
those duties that are prescribed to the advisor though, are reporting new
members to Headquarters, making sure the induction ceremony is
conducted according to the Society's guidelines, and preparing the Annual
Report for Headquarters. Additionally, attendance at all local, regional,
and international conferences whenever possible is stressed.
Advisors are privy to many opportunities within the Society as
well, such as serving as members of committees such as the
Coordinator's Advisory Committee and the Honors Committee or as
officers in the National Advisors Association. Further opportunities
include the possibility of being recognized as a Giles Distinguished
29
Advisor which makes the recipient eligible for the Mosal Scholar
Program, which offers $2,000 stipends to advisors for study.
The 1990 Regional Phi Theta Kappa Conference in Austin, Texas was
the setting in which the pilot questionnaire was administered.
Twenty-five respondents representing every area of Texas were asked to
complete the questionnaire and return it by the next afternoon. Twenty
completed forms were returned.
Organization of the Questionnaire
Nineteen questions relating to the respondents' perceived influence,
personal and organizational priorities for decision making, reasons for
accepting their role, and perceived success in the organization were
explored. Comprising the format of the pilot questionnaire were
closed-ended questions, questions utilizing a Likert scale, rank orderings,
as well as open-ended questions (Appendix A).
Closed-ended questions, for example, "During your time as the
advisor, has your chapter membership increased, decreased, or stayed
about the same?" provided insight to perceived success. Demographic
information, such as name of the chapter for which the respondent serves
as advisor, length of time in association with the organization, and what
other positions that individual holds within the voluntary organization
were also included.
Two Likert scale items measured perceived influence within the
organization by proposing statements such as "My input has a significant
30
impact on the success of Phi Theta Kappa" (1 =very strongly agree, 7=
very strongly disagree).
Rank orderings were utilized to ascertain "priorites," which are a
recognized measure of level of identification (Cheney, 1983a; Tompkins &
Cheney, 1985). Questions such as "In which order do you consider the
following when making decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa?" were
responded to by ranking a provided list of possibilities.
The open-ended questions were meant to provide a forum in which
respondents could address specific topics of their own choosing. Some
direction was provided in the phrasing of the items, but open,
narrative-style responses were encouraged by the inclusion of ample
response space. These questions were designed to directly examine
decisional premises. Open-ended questions included items such as "As a
Phi Theta Kappa advisor, please list your goals in descending order of
importance." and "Why did you assume the role of Phi Theta Kappa
advisor?" In addition, respondents were asked to read several short
scenarios dealing with decision making, assume the role of the main
actor, and report their responses in a narrative style. For example,
"Despite your best efforts, you have had your vacation planned for many months when you realize that the Phi Theta Kappa regional conference will be taking place while you are vacationing in another state. Given the opportunity to choose one or the other, which do you choose to attend and why?"
31
Analysis of the Pilot Questionnaire
Data collected from the pilot questionnaire were subjected to many
analyses. Data from the twenty completed questionnaires were analyzed.
First, the data from closed-ended questions were tabulated. Respondents
reported the number of memberships held in other organizations ranging
from 0 to over 25, with an average of 2.3 (n=18). Concerning their
membership in the Phi Theta Kappa Society, respondents' longevity as
advisors varied from one month to over twenty years, with an average of
6.70 years of service. During this time, 42.1 °/o of the respondents
reported an increase in chapter membership, 57.9°/o reported a chapter
membership which has stayed about the same, and 0°/o reported a decrease
(n=19), indicating that most respondents consider their chapter
membership to have been historically stable. The data regarding how
advisors perceive the chapter to be viewed by the International
Headquarters revealed that 16.7°/o of the respondents reported being
considered excellent, 38.9% reported they are seen as above average,
33.3°/o responded as average, 5.6°/o say the chapter is viewed as below
average, and 5.6°/o answered that they are seen as poor (n=18).
Advisors hold other positions in the Phi Theta Kappa Society. These
include state leadership positions (2°/o), membership in the National
Alumni Association (15°/o), National leadership roles (.05°/o), and honorary
membership in the Society (.05°/o). Sixty-five percent of the respondents
reported no other roles taken. Because some of the respondents hold
32
multiple roles while others hold none, the above percentages are not
additive.
Second, the 7-point Likert scale items were analyzed to reveal the
extent to which the instrument differentiated between individuals with
high and low levels of identification. Respondents' data revealed a strong
belief (2.167, n=18) that they contribute to the success of Phi Theta
Kappa and that their input has a significant impact on the success of the
Society (2.316, n=19).
Third, questions responded to by rank ordering items revealed that
local chapter officers are most influential in decisions made which shape
and guide the Society (36; n=18) with the International Headquarters
staff coming in second (38; n=19). Local chapter members and local
chapter advisors tied for third place ranking (40, n=19; 40, n=17). The
community was ranked as having the least amount of influence (71, n=17).
The order in which respondents consider entities when making
decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa includes the local chapter
organization as first (35). The sponsoring institution was ranked a
distant second (61, n=19) and on the opposite end of the continuum, the
community was ranked last (94, n=18).
The individual goals listed by the advisors were categorized
according to frequency of mention with "benefit to students" or some
derivative ranked as first (14). Leadership training and the promotion of
scholarship were tied and ranked second as an important goal for many
respondents (6). Five goals tied as third in ranking, including support for
33
the sponsoring institution, community service, student recognition and
chapter guidance.
Regarding the final rank order item, 80°/o of respondents ranked Phi
Theta Kappa as first in importance in their personally generated list of
organizations in which they have a role. Those organizations ranked as
being more important and/or tied with Phi Theta Kappa for the first place
position include local church and choir, positions such as division chair
and assistant to the college president, as well as various committee
memberships such as faculty assembly and curriculum and catalog
committee.
Finally, answers to open-ended questions were categorized
according to their frequency. Most advisors assumed their Phi Theta
Kappa role because of the "meaningful student interaction" it affords
them (40°/o), while "personal enjoyment" ranked a close second (30°/o).
Those least frequent answers to why the role was assumed include the
pay received (So/o) and that the individual was simply asked to assume the
role (5°/o).
When presented with a scenario in which a dichotomous forced
choice was the alternative, 30°/o of respondents chose the alternative
which reflected a lower degree of identification, specifically to go on
their family's planned vacation, but they did not respond unconditionally.
Qualifications such as "I would go on vacation if the money paid for it
was absolutely unrefundable ... " or "We have many PTK advisors; someone
else could go to convention in my place ... " were abundant. Forty percent of
respondents chose attendance at the Phi Theta Kappa Regional convention
in the scenario despite their planned vacation. Responses such as "My
34
obligations to PTK takes precedence over my personal needs ... " and "PTK is
my first love; it has my total commitment..." reveal the intense level of
identification held by some respondents. An interesting phenomenon
among 25°/o of the respondents manifested itself in their avoidance of the
dichotomous choices when responses such as "This cannot happen I" were
written on some occasions.
The same type of dichotomous choice was set up in another
question which gave respondents the choice of attendance at an
international Society convention or attendance at a professional
organizational meeting, such as a Speech Communication Association
convention. Ten percent responded by choosing their professional meeting
while 80°/o chose the Phi Theta Kappa conference. Reasons for choosing
the professional meeting included the need to make contacts and the need
for training. Reasons for attending the Phi Theta Kappa conference were
"I'm brainwashed!," "It's my top priority" and "I have a responsibility to
the students at the year-end PTK culmination."
A final open-ended question gave respondents the choice between
seeing only one of two students having problems; a Phi Theta Kappa
member or a student in a class they teach. Twenty percent chose to
counsel the Phi Theta Kappa member with rationale such as
"PTKers ... they're my babies." Thirty-five percent chose the student in
their class for reasons such as "teaching is my first commitment." A
surprising 45°/o chose to ignore the forced choice options by responding
that they would "make time for both students."
In sum, the pilot questionnaire revealed that the most valuable
question types are those which allow for open responses. These provide
35
opportunity for respondents to describe what they feel is most important
to them and which may form their organizational decision premises. This
question type was included in the present study and prompted the
inclusion of an additional method of data analysis, interviews, which will
be described in the next section. The pilot questionnaire proved to be a
useful instrument, especially in its format. Some weaknesses were also
discovered. These aided in the design of the present study. This is
discussed in the following section.
Present Study
Participants
As in the pilot study, the group members who serve the voluntary
organization in the role of advisor are the target participants for this
study. The pool of respondents was increased and the method of
administration was changed to allow for a larger survey area.
Respondents were chosen using a random computer search of the Society
Headquarter's existing files. Of the 800-plus local chapter advisors, 100
were selected. A wide geographic range was attained, with respondents
residing in 39 different states. Questionnaires were mailed directly to
the respondents at their business address. Included with the
questionnaire was a cover letter and a pre-addressed, stamped return
envelope. A copy of this packet is included in Appendix B.
A 33°/o response rate was achieved, with respondents representing
21 states. No questionnaires were discarded, for all yielded pertinent
information. Respondents ranged greatly concerning the demographic
aspects in question, such as length of ume in affiliation with the
36
organization (from one month to over forty years) and in other roles held.
Additionally, many used the questionnaire as a means to communicate
with the Society Headquarters by including extraneous comments and
questions.
Instruments
Questionnaire. Analyses of the pilot questionnaire revealed the
need to couple the instrument with a recognized and validated
measurement tool. In addition, to compensate for the added length
incurred, some open-ended questions were omitted and representative
questions were formulated and used instead. Generally, the questionnaire
procedure appeared to be useful for the purposes of this study. Revisions
of the instrument produced original questions coupled with Mowday,
Steers, and Porter's Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ).
Although originally developed to test commitment, the nature of
the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire's specific questions best
reflected the aims of this project when compared to other established
instruments, such as Cheney's Organizational Identification
Questionnaire. One reason for this accurate reflection in testing is the
close relationship drawn between commitment and identification, which
was described in this study in a previous section. In addition to being the
most frequently used instrument reflecting a moral perspective, the
Mowday, Steers, and Porter's Organizational Commitment Questionnaire is
the most tested and developed (of measuring items in use) according to
Barge and Schlueter (1988). These researchers go on to suggest that
given its increased use and developed reliability and validity, the
37
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) would be the preferred
choice for most researchers. The OCQ is characterized by three factors:
"(1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and
values, (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the
organization, and (3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the
organization" (Mowday et al., 1979, p. 226).
A 15-item instrument, the OCQ utilizes a 7-point Likert-type scale.
Representative items from the questionnaire include: (1) "I find that my
values and the organization's values are very similar" (acceptance of
organizational values), (2) "I am willing to put in a great deal of effort
beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization be
successful" (willingness to exert effort), and (3) "I could just as well be
working for a different organization as long as the type of work was
similar" (desire to remain a member). To establish the reliability and
validity of the instrument, Mowday et al. (1979) administered the OCQ to
2,363 employees working in a wide range of jobs in nine different
organizations. Internal reliability coefficients are consistently high,
ranging from .82 to .93, with a median of .90 (Cronbach's alpha). Item
analysis also confirmed the homogenity of the measuring instrument as
the average correlations between each item of the commitment scale and
the total score less the item, ranged form .36 to .72, with a median
correlation of .64. Finally, the homogeneity of the OCQ items were tested
by performing factor analyses on the data from six samples. A single
factor solution emerged for four of the six samples. Furthermore, in
those samples revealing two factors, the second factor did not possess an
eigenvalue greater than one and only explained 2.4 to 15.5°/o of the common
38
variance. Test-retest reliability ranged from .53 to .75, with a median
reliability of .63 (Barge & Schlueter, 1988).
Convergent validity for the OCQ was measured in a variety of ways.
First, the OCQ was related to other instruments designed to measure
similar affective responses (Mowday et al., 1979, p. 234). When the OCQ
was correlated with the Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian's (1974)
Organizational Attachment Questionnaire, the convergent validities
across six samples ranged from .63 to .74, with a median of .70.
Discriminant validity was tested by correlating the OCQ with Lodahl and
Kejner's (1965) job involvement scale, Steers and Braunstein's (1976)
career satisfaction measure, and the Job Description Index. In these
studies, the common variance shared by organizational commitment and
the other measures did not exceed 50°/o and was typically less than 25°/o
(Mowday et al., 1979, p. 237). These moderate correlations provide
indications that the measures are related, but they reflect distinct and
unique concepts.
Finally, the predictive validity of the OCQ was measured in five
studies. The theory of commitment suggests that committed employees
should be less likely to leave the organization plus be better performers
than their less committed counterparts. The OCQ is negatively related to
turnover as measured by correlations ranging from -.02 to -.43, with a
median of -.37. Similarly, in two studies, the OCQ was positively
correlated with tenure (.23 and .26). In two of three studies examining
the relationship between the OCQ and absenteeism, a significant weak
relationship emerged (-.13 and -.28). Finally in regard to performance,
studies for two samples of hospital employees (Mowday, Porter, & Dubin,
39
197 4) indicated a low relationship between the OCQ and productivity ( .11
and .1 0). This entire group of studies does suggest evidence of predictive
validity, although the strength of the relationships is somewhat low
(Barge & Schlueter, 1988).
Pilot instrument questions were retained if they met at least one
of four criteria: garnering relevant organization-specific information,
soliciting information which could account for reasons for loyalty other
than identification, providing information regarding research questions
three and four, and/or asking for information of potential direct benefit
to the voluntary organization.
First, if relevant information not garnered by the established
instrument could be obtained from original questions, they were included.
For example, original items soliciting organization-specific information
were retained, such as "The national headquarters sees my chapter as one
that is ... excellent; above average; average; below average; poor." This is
a potential measure of perceived success which relates directly to the
voluntary organization under study.
Second, original items which were thought to provide information
to account for reasons other than identification for member loyalty were
included. An example of this is the question based on Manser and Cass'
(1976) typology of volunteers: "With how many other organizations are
you involved (campus, church, community, professional, etc.)?" This
question was retained due to its potential to provide information
regarding individuals who join and are loyal to organizations as part of
their desire to fulfill some altruistic motivation.
40
A third rationale for including original pilot questions is that some
sought information directly related to research questions three and four.
Mowday, Steers' and Porter's questionnaire does not isolate the specific
influences of success in the organization or longevity as individual
contributors to identification. This study deems those factors as
relevant and thus included original pilot questions such as, "How long
have you been an advisor of Phi Theta Kappa?" and "As a Phi Theta Kappa
advisor, please list your goals in descending order of importance. n
Finally, because the research was partially funded by the Phi Theta
Kappa Society, some questions were included that, in addition to
providing useful research information, could prove to be of direct benefit
to the voluntary organization. An example of this type of question is "In
which area of your Phi Theta Kappa involvement would you most like to
see improvement...?" Questions such as this provide helpful information
to the organization as well as providing a research benefit.
Those original pilot questions which were duplicative of the
established instrument were discarded as were some scenarios which
solicited open-ended responses. Because the OCQ provides ample
duplication of topics which ensures validity, it was assumed that further
repetitiveness was unnecessary. Some open-ended response scenarios
were excluded for two reasons. First, the length of the present study's
instrument needed to be controlled; and second, representative scenarios
were able to be selected which provided adequate information in specific
areas.
Two OCO instrument questions were omitted from the present
study. The items which read, "For me, this is the best of all possible
41
organizations for which to work" and "Deciding to work for this
organization was a definite mistake on my part" were not included in the
present questionnaire as they were deemed duplicative to the extent that
they could provide no new information. The length of the instrument also
influenced the decision to leave out these two items.
In sum, the OCQ measures a combination of employee attitudes and
behavioral intentions reflective of the moral involvement of the employee
with the organization. In terms of methodological issues, the OCQ has
achieved acceptable levels of internal reliability. Furthermore, the face
validity of this instrument appears high as it is true to its theoretical
orientation. The convergent and predictive validity of the instrument is
not in question. Also, sufficient normative data exists for this
instrument. Finally, the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire best
reflects the personality of the voluntary organization under study.
Document analysis. A detailed examination of the organization's
formal communication to advisors was conducted. This communication
includes unifying symbol distribution, official written correspendence,
records of award winners, and the like. These were studied at the
Society's Headquarters in Jackson, Mississippi. The purpose of this
analysis was to verify the self reports obtained in the questionnaire as
well as to obtain additional related information. For example, the
1989-1990 annual report revealed that of 705 advisors surveyed, 58
receive time compensation and 647 receive no time compensation from
their two year college for their role in the Phi Theta Kappa Society.
Additionally, 68 advisors receive salary compensation while 632 receive
none (n=700). Both of these findings could have .rnpllcat1ons for the
42
perceived level of identification measured. Records of national and
international award winners were examined for the years 1990-1980 in
order to check the reported measures of success. Access to
organizational computer records afforded information regarding length of
time in affiliation with the organization and the status of other roles
which the advisors may hold.
Telephone interviews. To discover multiple identifications, it is
helpful to explore language, behavior, and symbolic meanings. Multiple
identifications occur when an individual identifies with more than a
single individual or organization, such as identifying with not only the
goals of a particular voluntary organization, but also identifying with its
methods of goal implementation. Multiple identifications can be found
through on-line examination of interaction or through analysis of written
or reported information that reflects these enduring symbols (Cheney,
1983b). To facilitate this process, a type of account analysis called
turning point analysis (Baxter & Bullis, 1986) was employed. Account
analysis is a technique involving coding written and/or spoken messages
of organizational members for the decision premises and identification
targets pertinent to organizational decisions. A turning point analysis
concentrates upon any event or occurrence that is associated with change
in a relationship (p. 470). The turning point is used as the unit of analysis
upon which to base a descriptive profile of change in the processes of
relational development. Turning point analysis is useful because it: (1)
does not assume that the socialization process follows a clear pattern of
growth as do phase models and identification research. (2) allows a
detailed examination of change potnt: identi1ted t;y parircipants rather
43
than relying on researcher-generated definitions, (3) collects self
reports in such a way that participants need not rely on their memories of
events which occurred in the distant past, and (4) relies entirely on the
reports of individuals who are actively involved in socialization
processes to report their experiences rather than relying on the
organization's perspective.
Moderately scheduled interviews were conducted over the telephone
with certain advisors as a means of data collection (Appendix C).
Selected subjectively by the Society's Executive Director, ten advisors
viewed as having rather low involvement/identification were selected
from the international pool as were ten highly involved/identified
advisors. Twenty- to thirty-minute interviews were conducted and
recorded over the telephone. Questions such as, "Can you identify a time
or an event which caused you to first become comfortable in your role as
Phi Theta Kappa chapter advisor?" to isolate the turning point of settling
in, and "Are you known on your campus or in your community as
'Mr./Ms./Dr. Phi Theta Kappa?"' to pinpoint representing the organization
as a turning point. A moderately scheduled interview was conducted with
each advisor. Interviewees were encouraged to speak at length and with
candor and were reassured that their anonymity would be maintained.
Overall, data for this study were collected by these means: a
questionnaire, an analysis of organizational documents, and moderately
scheduled telephone interviews. Each method of data collection brought
in slightly different bits of information, while working together to
provide answers to the four research questions. Data were subjected to a
variety of analyses in answer to the research questions. These include
44
simple correlation analyses and measures of frequency, averages and
ranges. In addition, Organizational Commitment Scores (OCQ) scores were
calculated for each respondent and subsequent correlations were
determined between the analyses and the research questions. These
analyses are discussed in detail in the next chapter.
45
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
In this chapter, two layers of analysis are reported. This section
will begin with discussion of the questionnaire instrument followed by
the analyses of the organizational documents and the interviews. The
second layer of analysis in the section following this will synthesize the
analyses to each of the research questions.
Questionnaire
In order to analyze the questionnaire, each respondent was first
given an Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) score which was
computed by summing the answer scores for each question. The scale
from which the score was taken consisted of a highest possible
identification score of 91 to a potential low score of 13. Respondents'
scores ranged from 42 to 87, with an average of 67.27.
Two ways of differentiating high from low identification were
considered. A median split at 66 for respondent scores was considered
along with a cluster analysis. The median split would have categorized
very close scores into high and low identification categories. More useful
than the median split, cluster analysis revealed a large gap between
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire scores of 69 to 73.
Seventy-one was then chosen as the dividing line between high and low
identification.
Thirty-nine percent of the respondents scored a high level of
commitment or identification (score ""/3-d7), whiie ·.)1 °/o scored low on the
46
scale (42-68). A majority of the respondents fell within the low
category, and 80°/o of those respondents (16 of 20) within this range
scored toward the high identification end of the low identification
category with scores between 57 and 68. Additionally, a cluster existed
within the low category between scores of 57 to 61. This cluster
represented 33°/o of the total respondents and 50°/o of the low category
respondents.
Analyses of the questionnaire items used in addition to the OCQ
instrument were also conducted. Concerning closed-ended questions,
60. 7o/o of the respondents reported perceiving that the Society's
Headquarters views their chapter as "average" (n=28). The next most
frequent answer was "above average," with 21.4o/o of respondents choosing
it. The next most chosen answer was "below average" (1 0.7°/o) with
"excellent" and "poor" receiving the same number of responses (3.6o/o).
A second closed-ended question related to local chapter
membership and whether it had changed during the respondents' time as
advisor. Fifty-three percent reported an increase in membership, while
44°/o reported the membership remaining about the same. Only 3°/o reported
a decrease in chapter membership (n=32).
The advisors ranged in tenure with the Society from 6 months to 25
years, with an average of 6.3 years. The number of other organizations in
which respondents are involved ranged from 2 to over 7 (the largest
number choice provided) with an average of 4.1 .
Questions utilizing rank ordering revealed various information,
such as the order respondents consider other entities when making
decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa. The most frequent answer was
47
the local chapter organization (2.4 on a one to seven scale, n=31 ),
followed by the sponsoring institution (3.1 ). A distant third was assigned
to the respondent's family (4.1, n=30), then the community (4.3, n=31 ), the
regional organization (4.7, n=30), and finally the advisor him- or herself
and the international organization each scored an average of 5.0. Nine
choices were ranked in addition to the ones provided. Of those nine, four
respondents indicated that the students were very important, giving an
average of score of 1 .3. That the entity closest to the individual is a
primary consideration when making decisions relating to the organization
suggests that action begins locally.
Respondents were also asked to rank on a scale of one to nine those
entities they believe to influence the decisions made which shape and
guide the Society. The highest influence, 1 .9 average rank, was given to
the choice, "Headquarters staff" (n=20). The second, third, and fourth
most influential average ranks were assigned to regional chapter advisors
(2.8), local chapter advisors (2.9), and local chapter officers (3.0). Next
in level of influence were the elected student national officers (3.3).
Clustered closely together were local chapter members (3.6), elected
regional officers (3.7), and the sponsoring institution (3.9). Clearly, the
least influence was credited to the community (4.8). These findings may
point our understanding of identification targets to a more global focus.
While the larger entity may be identified with primarily, the
consideration of the local organization remains an important one as the
source of initial action.
Some open-ended questions were asked as well. Responses to these
revealed that 80°/o of the advisors responding hold no other positions in
48
the Phi Theta Kappa Society while the remaining 20°/o reported holding at
least one other position, such as Regional Advisory Board member and
alumni chapter member.
Respondents were also asked to list their goals as advisors in
descending order of importance. The most frequently listed goal was "to
increase involvement in Phi Theta Kappa," which may be an interpretation
of the organization's stated goal of promoting fellowship. The second
most frequently reported goal related to providing a service, such as
providing a means for student recognition or to serve the community and
the college. This response seems to correlate with the organization's
goal of promoting service.
Another open-ended question asked why the respondents assumed
the role of chapter advisor. The most frequently reported answer was
that the individual was asked to assume the role either by the
institution's administrators, the previous chapter advisor(s), and/or the
student members. Other responses which may underlie the most
frequently mentioned ones include the desire to work with "top notch"
students and the realization that Phi Theta Kappa was needed at a
particular institution.
An additional open-ended question asked for a response to a
scenario in which two troubled students, one a member of Phi Theta Kappa
and one a member of a class taught by the respondent, need to be
counselled. The respondent is instructed that time permits counseling
only one student and is then asked which student he or she would choose
and why. A vast majority, 82.6°/o, reported that the student from the class
should be a priority (n=23). Remarks offered the rationale for this
49
decision, with comments such as "students and classes always come
first" and "academic excellence is what PTK is all about" being mentioned
most frequently. These responses may indicate the identification of
respondents with the organizational goal of the promotion of scholarship.
Although not a single respondent indicated that the Phi Theta Kappa
student would be the student to get counselled, 17o/o of the respondents
insisted that they would somehow make time to counsel both students.
A final open-ended question asked respondents why they think most
advisors remain working in the Society. Over one-half of the respondents
stated that the personal satisfaction of seeing student successes is the
predominant reason (69.7°/o, n=33). Additional responses in descending
order of frequency of mention include a belief in the stated goals of the
Phi Theta Kappa Society, the benefits to the community college and its
students, a desire to contribute to society in general, and that being an
advisor is professionally valuable. The implication for the existence of
extrinsic influences in voluntary organizations can be made from some of
these responses. Many of these rationales may correlate to the
organization's goals of promoting scholarship, leadership, fellowship and
service but this is a difficult implication to draw, due to the vague nature
of the organization's stated goals. What can be inferred, however, is that
of the four goals, that of promoting leadership has been referred to the
least.
A more direct measure of organizational identification was included in
a Likert-scale item. An average answer of 2.97 was calculated for the
question which read, "My input has a significant impact on the success of
Phi Theta Kappa." This direct question revealed that individual advisors
50
tend to agree, although neither very strongly nor strongly, that they
matter in the organization.
A final question was designed to measure identification in a
different manner, by determining the respondents' willingness to continue
in participation with the research at hand. It was stated on the
questionnaire that 20 to 30 minute telephone interviews would be
conducted to augment the questionnaire. Respondents were asked to
provide their name, telephone number, and the name of the college at
which they are a Phi Theta Kappa advisor if they would like to participate.
This item was thought to have the potential to reveal information about
their level of identification because not only would the respondent be
agreeing to invest additional time regarding the organization, but also he
or she would have removed the anonymity associated with the previous
questionnaire resposes. Of the respondents, 54.5o/o volunteered for the
additional participation, while 45.5°/o omitted the answer.
Document Analysis
Analyses of the compiled Phi Theta Kappa Society Year-End Report
(1990) provided information in four areas. These areas are the number of
respondents who had received time and/or salary compensation, tenure
with the Phi Theta Kappa Society, international awards won during the
past ten years, and the reasons given for serving as an advisor in the
Society.
According to the Society's report (1989), while 0.9°/o did not
respond, 8.2°/o of chapter advisors report receiving some form of time
compensation, while 90.9°/o receive nmhing 1 n= /'12). In the present study,
51
examination and correlation of the international records system revealed
that 3.2°/o of the respondents receive some form of time compensation, but
87.1 °/o do not and 9.7o/o did not respond (n=31 ). Concerning salary
compensation, the International report shows that 9.6°/o of respondents
receive some salary compensation, while 89o/o receive none (n= 71 0). Of
the respondents involved in the present study, 6.5°/o receive some salary
compensation, while 87.1 °/o receive none and 6.4°/o did not respond (n=31 ).
It is important to mention findings such as these because the
nature of voluntary organizations would seem to preclude the inclusion of
these extrinsic influences. In the case of certain voluntary organizations
which are at least associated with nonvoluntary settings, such as the
workplace, the other influences which may skew the tabulated levels of
identification may be found. This is the case in the Phi Theta Kappa
Society where advisors are chosen from the pool of college-employed
individuals. The close link to the workplace is thus established.
Those advisors who reported previous membership (honorary or
active) in the Society on the Year-End Report (1990) account for 25.1 °/o of
the respondents. Of the respondents, seventy-four point nine percent
reported no previous membership (n=71 0). In the present study, 25.8°/o of
the respondents are former members and 58.1 °/o are not, while 16.1 °/o did
not respond (n=31 ). This is of interest because of its plausible link to the
tenure factor as an influence on levels of identification.
Success in the organization is posited in a research question as a
possible contributing factor for a high level of identification. A
comparison of the Year-End Report (1990) with the randomly chosen
respondents revealed that those respondents with consistent recognition
52
in regard to the national/international awards system have high levels of
identification as measured by the Organizational Commitment
Questionnaire. Three of the four most frequently mentioned award
winners from 1980 to 1990 in the Society have an OCQ score well within
the highest identification range.
Respondents were also asked on the questionnaire which of the
organizational publications they use once a week or more and how they go
about using it/them. This item was designed to reveal the importance and
effectiveness of organizational information dissemination, specifically
uniform symbol distribution and in-house publications. Approximately
89°/o of the respondents report using the provided Advisor's Manual once a
week or more as a policybook for local chapter procedures and business.
The next most frequently used organizational publication was the
toll-free telephone number to the Society's Headquarters which received
a weekly usage rate of 27 .8°/o. Although selected by relatively few of the
respondents (11.1 °/o), the Phi Theta Kappa insignia was reported to be
displayed and/or worn by these advisors nearly every day. From this, the
strength of unifying symbol distribution, its quality in addition to its
quantity of use becomes evident. From this also can be determined the
need to differentiate between the use of organizational publications in
general and the use of unifying symbols. Further analyses, which will be
discussed in detail later, reveal that those advisors who utilize unifying
symbols in a consistent manner tend to have higher levels of
identification. The low percentage obtained from the questionnaire item
regarding the use of the Society insignia supports the finding that a
53
relatively low number of respondents, a select few, have achieved
inordinately high levels of identification.
Finally, document analysis revealed the reasons respondents give
as to why they serve as advisors. The most frequent responses were
compared to those given in the present study. Both research instruments
reveal that the overriding rationale is one of personal enjoyment,
specifically witnessing and encouraging student successes (78.5°/o,
n=71 0). Other responses were also recorded in the Year-End Report
(1990), such as being appointed (48.5°/o), because of the programs Phi
Theta Kappa offers (22. 7°/o), and because no one else would assume the
role (19.9°/o). Each of these same responses was mentioned in the
questionnaire utilized in the present study.
Interviews
Analyses of moderately scheduled telephone interviews utilized the
15 inductively constructed turning point categories suggested by Bullis
and Bach (1989) as well as the Phi Theta Kappa Society's designations as
to high and low involvement advisors. The fifteen types of turning points
identified by Bullis and Bach (1989) are as follows: moving in, settling
in, socializing, sense of community, receiving informal recognition,
gaining formal recognition, jumping informal hurdle, approaching formal
hurdle, representing the organization, disappointment, protecting one's
"self," doubting one's "self," getting away, alienation, and miscellaneous.
While not all of the 15 suggested turning points proved to be of use in
this study, eight applied directly to the present study and were thus
included. These eight turning pomts ,,,, -:jre usao a;; gUides and were of
54
particular use in the construction of the interview schedule, although
more specific turning points presented themselves during analysis as
being unique to this voluntary organization. The following is a list of the
eight chosen turning points, each followed by the specific responses
which emerged from them in the present study. They are listed in the
order they appeared in the interview schedule. Each item was responded
to by 20 advisors.
The turning point labeled "settling in" was characterized in the
present study by various events; however, the most frequent response
(30o/o) was that the individual had "always" felt comfortable in the role of
chapter advisor. Next in frequency was the response that becoming
comfortable is a slow process that is, in many cases, still going on (25°/o).
Some specific events did surface as contributing to this particular
turning point, notably attendance at a regional or international conference
(15o/o).
The means by which an individual may compensate for feeling
personally "lost" in a role may provide insight to the next suggested
turning point called "protecting oneself." Seventy percent of the
respondents in the present study told of either some reason why they felt
the need to protect themselves (" ... there is so much to know." and " ... there
is always too much to do.") or they revealed the strategies through which
this protection is achieved. Particular strategies were mentioned
frequently, such as establishing other identities ("Phi Theta Kappa is not
my full time job." and "I've established myself as an instructor and an
administrator.") and clarifying the nature of the assigned role ("I don't
55
think the advisor should do it all, even though that's what the students
think.").
The turning point of feeling a "sense of community" is one that
most (70°/o) of the respondents in the present study have accomplished.
This seems to have been facilitated by close and easy contact (especially
via the toll-free telephone number) with the Headquarters office (71.4°/o),
attendance at conferences (42.9°/o), representatives of the Headquarters
office attending regional and local meetings (28.6°/o) and having a "sister
chapter" (14.3°/o). (In order to create "sister chapters," an active chapter
is usually paired with an inactive or young chapter so that both gain some
benefit from the other.) For the 30o/o who did not report this feeling,
three reasons were cited most frequently. First, 50°/o of this group of
respondents stated that not being able to attend regional and especially
international conferences led to their lack of a sense of community.
Other responses include a feeling of geographic disassociation and a lack
of local participation and interest.
Negative turning points were also explored in the interviews.
"Disappointment" was characterized in the present study by the
respondents' "nagging thoughts" of needing to do more for the
organization. This response was reported by 30°/o of the advisors.
Interestingly, 35°/o of the respondents reported they have never let down
the Society. In addition, the turning point of "alienation" was explored.
Forty percent of respondents report never to have experienced this
turning point, while 25°/o state that they had a feeling of alienation at a
first international conference ("I felt 'on the outs' with all the other
advisors who had been around for so long" and "The whole thing just
56
seems so damn southern!"). A key finding is that most of the respondents
who could isolate some specific negative turning point were also chosen
by the organization as representative of advisors who have rather low
levels of activity.
The turning points of "receiving informal recognition" and "gaining
formal recognition" were explored together in the interviews.
Respondents were split concerning these areas, with 50°/o reporting
positive experiences and 50o/o reporting negative ones. Characteristics of
the positive responses include campus awareness and support of the
organization, publicity on campus and faculty support. Negative
responses were characterized by comments such as "We're not treated any
differently than any other club" and "We are seen by the faculty as an
elitist organization."
A final turning point which was examined was "representing the
organization." Respondents were asked if they were known as "Mr./Ms./Dr.
PTK" and while So/o did not respond, 30°/o stated that they were, especially
on their campus. Sixty-five percent reported that they were not known as
the Phi Theta Kappa representative and many of these seem to be
especially proud of the multiple identities they have managed to create
and maintain ("I have been a teacher for 30 years ... l'd better be seen as
both I" and "I play down my role of advisor. PTK is for the students.").
A final question was included in the interview schedule which was
meant to verify a questionnaire as well as a document analysis item.
This question asked respondents to describe what keeps them from
severing their ties with the organization. Emphasizing the responses
obtained through the other two instruments, the majority of interviewees
57
(60°/o) reported that the benefit to and love for the student members keep
them involved. In another attempt to extrapolate meaning from the
responses of advisors and correlate them with the stated goals of the
Society, the majority of the above responses could be reflective of the
organization's goals of service or of fellowship.
Research Questions
In this section, answers to the research questions are developed on
the basis of the preceding analyses and comparisons of the responses of
participants who were highly identified with those who had achieved less
identification.
Research Question One
Research question one asked how does socialization within a
particular voluntary organization produce organizational identification?
One way this question was addressed was through an examination of the
self-reported personal goals of the advisors. Because the Society has a
published list of its four main goals (to promote scholarship, leadership,
fellowship and service), a questionnaire item was included to ascertain if
these organizational goals had been adopted by the respondents. As has
been referred to previously in this document, in highly identified
organizational members, the organization's goals are adopted as the
member's goals and represent the value indices upon which member
decisions are based. Of the advisors in the most strongly identified group
as reflected by the OCQ scores, 77°/o (1 0 of 13) reported at least one
personal goal in line with those of the organi::atiorl. In all but three of
58
the ten, more than one goal was identical to those put forth by the
organization. The most frequent response was "to increase involvement
in Phi Theta Kappa" or some derivative.
Responses such as this may relate directly to the organization's
successful socialization efforts. In this instance, the goal of fellowship
may have been personally adopted as a decision premise upon which to
establish priorities. This goal seems the logical one reflected since it
appears to be a prerequisite for the others. Comments such as, "if we can
get them to a meeting, they always come back for more" reinforce this
line of thought. These findings offer reinforcement to the idea that for
identification to take place, an individual must first have substituted
organizational goals for his/her own. In this case, the Society's
socialization efforts in the form of not only publication, but also
promotion of its goals has paid off by advisors' adoption of at least one of
the goals.
In addition, organizational socialization may be seen when
interview respondents reported the aspect of fellowship to be absent
when describing the turning point of "alienation." Twenty-five percent of
the respondents indicated that at a first international convention they
felt left out, a clear indication that what was expected was an act of
fellowship. Again one can see the organization's goals being substituted
for personal ones.
Another answer to research question one was revealed in the
questionnaire's item regarding the use of organizational materials.
Thirty-eight percent of the respondents reported using one or more of the
organization's publications once a week or more. Although respondents
59
were not requested to distinguish between their utilization of
organizational publications and their use of unifying symbols, the
responses regarding them revealed that these may give unique insights to
different levels of identification. Organizational publications such as the
Advisor's Manual provide information regarding organizational policies
and procedures. It is of note that of those who reported using
organizational materials once a week or more, the majority (58°/o) of them
scored low on the OCQ.
The responses attained regarding the use of unifying symbols came
generally from those advisors with higher scores relating to
identification. In this organization, unifying symbol distribution consists
of, at least in part, Headquarters-generated and disseminated copies of
the organization's primary symbol, the Phi Theta Kappa key, in various
forms. Many of these are on actual items and some are prepared
especially for the purpose of duplication and future use. For those high
scoring respondents, most reported using the materials once per week or
more not for gaining information, but instead for the promotion and
publicity of the organization itself and as a means of signifying their
attachment to it.
A final means of responding to the first research question was also
found in an analysis of the questionnaire, specifically regarding the item
which inquired as to the area of Phi Theta Kappa involvement the
respondent would most like to see improvement. Again in an examination
of those scoring in the high category on the OCQ instrument, 38°/o repo~ed
a desire to see improvement in the local chapter organization, 31 °/o in the
sponsoring institution, 15°/o in the regional organization and 15°/o did not
60
respond. It is notable that zero respondents reported a desire to see
improvement on the international level. The previous findings regarding
research question one imply that upon adoption of organizational goals
and acceptance of organizational socialization attempts (i.e., the
utilization of unifying symbols, etc.), identification takes place at rather
high levels.
Cheney (1982) speculated that the entity closest to an individual is
that which has the greatest chance of becoming an identification target.
Accordingly, in the present study it was anticipated that the local
chapter organization would be the target of respondents' identification.
In analyzing the above question however, the majority of respondents
noted a desire for change at the local level. In addition, it has been shown
that when an identification target receives praise or blame, the
individual from whom the identification originates receives the praise or
blame in a parallel manner. It is assumed then, that the entity with
which one is most highly identified is the one toward which the least
amount of change seen as needed. As a result, a desire for improvement
in the Phi Theta Kappa Society automatically implicates the advisor as
needing some improvement. These analyses suggest, contrary to the case
with nonvoluntary organizations, that the primary identification target of
the respondents who are most highly identified is not that which is
closest, but the voluntary organization as a whole.
In summary of the findings regarding research question one, the Phi
Theta Kappa Society's socialization efforts in the form of not only
publication, but also promotion of its goals, have paid off. Additionally,
the assumption that organizational publications, and especially the
61
distribution of unifying symbols, does contribute to the socialization
process of individuals and that this process in turn may lead to high
levels of identification has been supported. Finally, the findings imply
that upon adoption of the organization's goals and acceptance of its
socialization attempts (i.e., the utilization of unifying symbols, etc.),
identification may take place at rather high levels. As a result, any
negative comments aimed at the identification target automatically
implicate the identifier. In sum, once the advisor learns and accepts the
organizational goals, then the consumption of organizational materials
becomes more necessary and desired, subsequently the more the member's
thinking converges with that of the organization. After a certain point,
however, these organizational materials are no longer necessitated as a
means of information and the identification process moves on to higher
levels.
Research Question Two
Research question two asked how, other than through socialization
within a particular voluntary organization, do individuals achieve
organizational identification in a voluntary organization? One means
which may encourage identification was revealed in the interview
question which examined the turning point of achieving a "sense of
community" within the organization. Of the 70°/o who responded that they
do have a sense of being a part of the international organization, 64°/o
reported that the close contact maintained with the Headquarters is the
reason why. On the other hand, those who reported feeling isolated cited
their inability to attend regional and international conferences as their
62
rationale. An implication of these findings is that promoting a sense of
community, beyond simply ensuring easy access to organizational leaders,
is a key in fostering high levels of identification. The Phi Theta Kappa
Society attempts to do just that when it lists fellowship as one of its
goals.
The turning points of "receiving informal/formal recognition" and
"representing the organization" may also contribute to an individual's
achieving identification with an organization. In the present study, of the
56o/o of respondents who reported that they are treated differently by the
faculty and/or administration of their college on a regular basis and/or
when he or she or the chapter wins an award, 60°/o were classified by the
Society as being high in organizational involvement. Additionally, of the
30°/o of advisors who reported being known on their campus as "Mr./Ms./Dr.
PTK," 83°/o of these had been labelled as active by the Headquarters. From
these analyses, it can be ascertained that individuals may achieve
identification through personal gains, such as receiving recognition and
being seen as representing the organization.
Further answers to research question two arise from analyses of
the questionnaire items regarding other roles held in the Phi Theta Kappa
Society, the number of other organizations in which the respondent is
involved and the reasons why the role of advisor was assumed. For the
first item, 80°/o of the respondents hold no other position in the
organization. Of those respondents who do hold other Society positions on
the regional level or higher, each scored high on the OCQ. This correlation
implies that a demonstrated willingness to exert effort on behalf of the
organization, such as attempting to assume higher organizational
63
positions and the responsibilities implicit in them, may be a good
indicator of high levels of identification.
In answer to the second item, 58°/o of the respondents are involved
in five or more other organizations in addition to the Society. Analyses
of the reasons why individuals assumed the role of Phi Theta Kappa
advisor revealed that of those with the highest OCQ scores, the most
frequent answer type was characterized by the promotion of others
and/or the giving of the self. Responses such as "The college and the kids
needed a group like PTK" and " ... no one else would step forward" were
typical. These seem indicative of the organizational goal of service,
however it is difficult to ascertain if the answer types correlate with
the organization's vaguely construed goals.
From these analyses, research question two may also be answered
with a reference to Manser and Cass' (1976) typology of volunteers
offered in Chapter II. Of particular interest here is the service
volunteers who are characterized as traditional "people-helping-people"
volunteers. These individuals attempt to help others directly and have as
their main concern, their client. This type of volunteer seems to be found
with the highest levels of identification in the Phi Theta Kappa Society.
An additional inference to be drawn from the above analyses is that,
especially due to the large number of other organizations in which over
one-half of the respondents are involved, some individuals may simply be
predisposed to be "joiners." An implication of this may be that as the
numbers of organizational memberships increase, so too may the
predisposition to be more open to identification. A further implication of
these findings is that the respondents' reasoning premises seem to be
64
aligned with those of the organization. Specifically regarding the items
dealing with other organizational memberships and rationale supporting
the choice to become a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, respondents seem to be
choosing options such as these based on their own desires for fellowship
and service, two goals specifically stated by the Society. This line of
reasoning is supported further in interview responses regarding what
keeps advisors from severing their ties with the organization, even in
difficult times. The most frequent answer given to this open-ended
question was "the students." Service, in this case to the students
themselves, was the foremost concern for over 55°/o of the respondents.
To summarize the other means by which individuals may achieve
identification other than through organizational socialization efforts, the
levels of oca scores of respondents in this study who reported holding
other Society positions indicate that success or prestige in an
organization do influence identification levels. This influence may also
emanate from within the individual who, by attempting to assume
additional roles signifies a willingness to put forth further effort on
behalf of the organization. Additionally, the ideas that volunteers have
different foci and that some individuals may enjoy volunteerism in and of
itself should not be overlooked as having the potential to influence levels
of identification.
Research Question Three
Research question three asked how is individual success in an
organization associated with the member's identification? One answer to
this question rests in the number of other positions held within the
65
organization. In the case of those respondents who have roles on the
regional level or higher, each scored in the high range of the OCQ. Since
competition for a limited number of roles is implicit in multiple roles
held in this organization, winning them constitutes success. This finding
relates to the assumption that higher levels of identification may be
revealed by the attempt to take on additional roles and responsibilities on
behalf of the organization.
A second answer to this question was calculated from the
questionnaire item which sought information regarding changes in chapter
membership levels during the advisor's tenure. Fifty-three percent of the
respondents listed an increase and 44°/o reported the membership stayed
about the same. Of those who did register a high level of identification,
69°/o reported an increase in chapter membership and 31 °/o said the
membership had stayed about the same. Strikingly, no highly identified
respondent chose the "decreased" option. The percentages for the
advisors with a low level of involvement showed the inverse. Forty-two
percent of the respondents reported a chapter membership increase, 5°/o
reported a decrease, and the majority of 53°/o said it had stayed about the
same. The maintenance and growth of membership reported by each of
these advisors is in itself an outright establishment of success with the
organization. Successes such as these are thought to contribute to high
levels of identification.
Third, analyses of organizational documentation of international
award winners for the years 1980 through 1990 revealed that almost
one-half (46°/o) of those respondents with the highest scored levels of
identification have achieved success by winning international awards.
66
The quantity of award-winning chapters with highly identified advisors is
dramatic. On the whole, it seems that continued measured success (i.e.,
awards won) correlates with higher levels of identification. The key to
this correlation appears to lie in the continuance of success, for among
the advisors who had gained international recognition throughout the
decade under consideration, most of them scored highest on the OCQ.
Another answer to research question three is found in the analyses
of responses to an interview item which pertains to how the advisor is
treated by the faculty and/or administration of his or her college when
either the respondent or the Phi Theta Kappa chapter wins an award. Over
one-half (56°/o) of the advisors reported that they are treated differently,
and in each case, differently equated to being treated to recognition and
publicity on campus.
Another interesting finding concerning success which also
originates from analysis of the interview responses is that only 30o/o of
the respondents report being known on the campus or in the community as
"Mr./Ms./Dr. Phi Theta Kappa." Sixty-five percent (n=18) said that they
are not known solely by this role and So/o did not respond. Of those
advisors who responded that they are known primarily by this one role, all
were labelled by the Society as being highly involved. Of those who were
seen by the Society as having a low level of involvement, all reported not
being known by this single role. For those responding in the negative, all
maintained great pride in recounting their "other identities." This finding
reinforces Burke's notion of the need for corporate identities, in the
plural, in order to be compensated for our innate division.
67
In summary, there does seem to be a relationship between success
and organizational identification. By implementing both formal and
informal means of recognition, members' levels of identification register
consistently high. The examination of success revealed that other roles
held within the organization, the growth and maintenance of individual
chapter memberships, and consistent and enduring achievement of
international awards all may work together to produce positive
experiences for an individual. These positive experiences may be
translated into a positive image of the identification target, as a whole,
and since identification targets and the individuals who identify with
them are sometimes seen as consubstantial, a positive reflection is cast
upon the individual. In the end, a mutually beneficial and circular
relationship is established.
Research Question Four
Research question four asks how is tenure in the organization
associated with identification? Of the respondents in the highest OCQ
group, the length of time in the advisor role ranged from 6 months to 25
years with an average of 6.3 years. Within this group of respondents, a
subgroup of advisors with the greatest tenure had OCQ scores clustered
from 74 to 79. Present study findings suggest there is no direct
correlation between level of identification and member tenure. For
example, the highest OCQ score (87) was achieved by two advisors: one
with nine years of service to the organization and the other with only
three years. In addition, within the early years of participation in the
68
organization, from 6 months to five years, two clusters of oca scores
may be isolated. Forty-two percent of the respondents in this grouping
had low OCQ scores, while 30o/o scored in the high range. Furthermore,
there is only a slightly positive relationship between tenure and levels of
identification after the eighth year of service in the organization. For
example, two respondents, both with 18 years as advisors, yielded vastly
different scores in different categories, 58 and 78.
In sum, the analyses have shown no strong correlation between
tenure and identification with this voluntary organization. The
implication does exist that there may be a slight but steady increase in
member identification after a significant number of years (8) in this
organization.
Overall, identification may be viewed as a product of
organizational socialization efforts coupled with the experience of
success of members who achieve a close and enduring relationship with
the voluntary organization. In order to delve more deeply into the nature
of identification with voluntary organizations, the following chapter will
examine the implications of this study, its limitations and suggestions
for future research.
69
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to explore how identification
manifests itself in members of voluntary organizations. Specifically, the
study examined how identification is created through an organization's
socialization efforts as well as how identification is related to volunteer
success and longevity in a particular organization. This study has
examined the existing body of literature and has related the management
of identification typically found in nonvoluntary organizations to the
realm of voluntary organizations. This final chapter will address five
theoretical and practical implications, isolate some limitations of the
study, and offer suggestions for future research.
Implications
While the existing body of literature in not only organizational
communication but also in popular literature reflects the many beneficial
outcomes which have been associated with organizations achieving high
levels of identification among their members, relatively little work
addresses the issue of how to create identification within organizations.
Moreover, until now, researchers have been silent about identification
with voluntary organizations. This section will discuss the five most
important implications drawn from the present study which relate to
identification and organizations.
70
First, the present study has implied that voluntary organizations
have an intrinsic advantage nonvoluntary ones do not, which is found in
the preexisting level of identification in their members. This is reflected
in the present study's lack of scores toward the low end of the scale of
organizational commitment. The present study revealed a lowest
identification score of 42, while the scale has a possible low score of 13.
Unlike nonvoluntary organizations, more altruistic motives probably drive
individuals in this setting. If altruism is not the dominant reason for
their joining, it may be assumed to be at least the force which served as
the impetus for the process of identification to begin. Because of this, an
innate level of identification among volunteers may be assumed. This
innate level of identification cannot be assumed to be present in
nonvoluntary organizations, where the majority of members may join due
to the benefits which can be gained through the extrinsic cues, such as
salary.
The second main implication from the present study revealed that
the distinction between voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations is far
from precise. In actuality, voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations may
have more characteristics in common than originally thought. Blurring
the line of distinction between the two types of organizations are three
considerations.
First, voluntary organizations were thought to be a "pure" setting in
which to study the concept of organizational identification. They were
considered pure in that they were presumed to be absent of the extrinsic
influences which may cloud measurements of identification. This
assumption was found, however, to be faulty. In those voluntary
71
organizations which are linked in some manner to the nonvoluntary
setting, many of the same extrinsic influences may be found. The present
study, for example, included respondents who were participants in the
voluntary organization under study simply because they had been
appointed or because it was an implicit part of their job descriptions. In
addition, one requirement of the Phi Theta Kappa Society is that advisors
be employees, either faculty or staff, of the sponsoring institution. With
this qualification, some of the advisors' voluntary responsibilities are
linked to the extrinsic influence of salary.
Second, while the driving motives underlying volunteerism have
been considered to be altruistic, the present study implies that although
altruism is a necessary component, it is often not the only motivator.
This is another commonality between voluntary and nonvoluntary
organizations. Individuals may become a part of a voluntary organization
for a plethora of reasons, including job advancement and the cultivation
of networks. It is prudent, then, to include the influence of extrinsic cues
in any examination of voluntary organizations, just as would be done in
studying nonvoluntary organizations
Third, just as extrinsic influences should be included in
considerations of voluntary organizations, so too should alternative
means of achieving identification be a consideration when studying
nonvoluntary organizations. This study has not only emphasized the role
of the organization in facilitating the product form of identification, but
also the individual's role in creating the identification process. Because
both are necessary for identification to occur, nonvoluntary organizations
72
should be leery of relying solely upon the capacity of extrinsic cues to
influence identification.
In summary, the line separating voluntary and nonvoluntary
organizations is made indistinct considering three areas of commonality.
First, voluntary organizations may have extrinsic influences present.
Second, the motives for volunteerism should not be considered to be
solely altruistic, for some other gains may be achieved in the process of
volunteering, and third, altruism may be a part of nonvoluntary
organizational participation. So while this study's first implication
reveals a distinct advantage of many voluntary organizations over
nonvoluntary ones, this second implication offers a caveat regarding
harsh distinctions between the two types of organizations.
A third main implication of the present study supports the
orientation toward the process form of identification which emanates
from the individual organizational member. Concerning identification as
a process, the importance of the individual's role is not in question.
Without effort on the part of the individual, identification simply cannot
occur. So, the most crucial implication of the individual's role in
identification is that it is absolutely necessary. This is an implication
which reiterates the original suggestion in this study that identification
be viewed as both a product and process in order to be fully understood
and most efficiently managed.
Three steps compose the basic activities in which individuals may
engage in order to become identified. These steps are based on Burke'~
(1969) idea that identification is compensatory to division. First, the
individual must recognize an area of lacking. A parallel may be drawn
73
between this area of lacking and the notion of division, specifically. This
must then be coupled with the desire to fulfill that lacking. Finally, an
effort must be made by the individual to fulfill the lacking. After these
three steps are completed, much of the burden to foster identification
rests upon the organization to provide a product for consumption. As a
result of completing these three steps, individuals may join
organizations, specifically voluntary ones, and thus be compensated for
the division that had been previously experienced. It is notable that
individuals may have motives or personality types which predispose them
to be "joiners." In previous references to Manser & Cass' (1976) typology
of volunteers in this document, the framework for this implication is
provided in the researcher's suggestion of the category of individuals
called "service volunteers." But whatever the primary motivation, by
joining individuals may open themselves to both single and multiple
identifications. In addition, a cultivation of their altruistic motives may
occur which may dispose them to join even more organizations.
So the process of identification, which springs from the individual
organizational member, is a vital one. It is not only the origination point
for identification to take place, but individual efforts to identify with
various entities may cause an individual to be more open to identification
efforts as well as cultivate altruism.
The fourth main implication of this study reveals that the
historical emphasis in communication literature on the product
orientation of identification is justified, considering that even in this
study, the practical implications for the organization's role in the
manufacturing of the product of identification have predominated. This
74
occurred despite a concerted effort to explore evenly both orientations to
identification. This finding in no way demeans the individual's role,
however, for without the individual's efforts, the process of
identification cannot begin as has been discussed.
The fourth main implication of this study reveals that two steps
should be taken by organizations in order to facilitate the adoption of the
product of identification. This study implies that voluntary and
nonvoluntary organizations seem to be able to foster identification in
basically the same way; therefore, the steps proposed should be directly
applicable to all organizations. It is ironic that the two specific steps
suggested are the ones most likely to be left out of nonvoluntary
organizational efforts to facilitate identification. The steps are
composed of discovering individual identification targets and creating
opportunities for member identification.
First, the organization should discover the target of an individual's
identification. The question of primary concern, then, is not if members
identify but instead with which entity of the organization do they
identify. For commitment as well as the other positive outcomes of
identification to be ensured or measured, it must be determined what the
identification target is. Cheney (1982) suggests that in nonvoluntary
organizations, identification targets are most likely to be those entities
closest to an individual. This seems not to ring true for voluntary
organizations. The present study has shown a reversal of assumed
identification targets between voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations.
From this study, the assumption can be made that due to the frequency of
positive comments regarding the International Headquarters, the bulk of
75
identification is taking place on that level. As reflected in the turning
point analysis used regarding the interviews as well as in the
questionnaire, respondents in the present study vocalized more desire for
change at the local rather than at the international level. In line with the
premise of identification that criticism of identification targets equates
to criticism of the self and that identifications are generally positive in
nature, the inference may be made that the identification target is the
international rather than the local organization. While respondents seem
satisfied with the overall workings, there seems to be unrest closer to
home. If local identification is low and volunteerism continues, global
identification can be assumed to be high. However, since the local
organization is the site of immediate action in most cases, some efforts
need to be made to heighten local identification. These efforts comprise
what is the essence of creating the product of organizational
identification: creating opportunities for members.
The second step for organizations to facilitate identification is to
provide opportunities for member identification. There are three steps in
creating these opportunities. First, organizations must put forth
specific, understandable, clear, and concise goals. By doing so, the
organizational members will be more able to first isolate, then
understand and subsequently identify with these goals. In the voluntary
organization under examination, its goals (to promote scholarship,
leadership, fellowship and service) are diffuse and abstract. The nature
of the stated organizational goals seems to lead to the problem of
recognizing the individual circumstances under which members identify
with the Phi Theta Kappa Society.
76
A second step for organizations to implement in creating
opportunities for identification is to build a sense of community among
members. Turning point analysis has revealed that the desire for a sense
of community is a strong force in the construction of identification.
When this sense is lacking, individuals may withdraw from the
organization and, thus, have quite low levels of identification. This was
illustrated by the responses garnered in the interviews concerning the
turning points of not only "sense of community," but also of "alienation"
and "settling in." To build a sense of community, voluntary organizations
may utilize three suggestions which proved to be useful in the present
study: creating a system of organizational conferences, creating a
support system, and distributing unifying symbols.
First, a system of conferences should be created. Attendance at
conferences, especially at the international level, not only contributes to
a member's feelings of community and of settling in, but also contributes
to a fulfilled expectation of the part of the member in regard to the
stated goals of the organization, specifically, that of promoting
fellowship. Those respondents in the interviews who could identify a
turning point characteristic of a feeling of alienation most frequently
cited not being able to attend a conference. All organizations, then,
should make an effort to schedule gatherings frequently and on many
levels. By implementing the suggestion in this way, more members may
have the opportunity to participate.
A second means for building a sense of community in a voluntary
organization is to establish a system of support. This system may
promote a circular pattern which may result in highly identified
77
individuals affecting those who are less identified. The impetus for this
implication rests in the success of the Phi Theta Kappa Society's "Sister
Chapter" program, in which advisors and chapters seen as less active are
paired with those considered to be more active. Creating a system of
support using means such as this may create a circular pattern which can
help the organization is its efforts to build identification. French and
Raven's (1960) idea that organizational identification functions as a
basis for "referent power" also lends credibility to this implication.
Beginning the pattern is the process of an individual becoming
identified with a particular organization. This may be achieved in various
manners, a process that has been discussed previously. Subsequently, the
individual's contacts see the highly identified individual as less likely to
sabotage new organizational ideas because the organization's goals and
values have been adopted by the individual as his or her own. Thus, the
highly identified individual is seen as being trustworthy. As this highly
identified individual interacts with other individuals, they see how
others view him or her and they too may begin to view the individual as
being trustworthy, loyal, credible, and as possessing a host of other
positive organizational attributes. From these positive associations
which feed upon each other, the original individual may become an
identification target for someone else. In this case, multiple
identifications manifest themselves in which subsequent members
identify themselves with the organization through another individual.
These findings are supported in the Phi Theta Kappa Society's
"Sister Chapter" program in which struggling chapters and/or advisors
aspire to emulate their mentor chapter/advisor, thus being prepared to
78
take on a fledgling "Sister Chapter" of their own someday. Those advisors
who are either new to the organization or who are seen by the
Headquarters as low in involvement are paired with more experienced and
more active advisors. By doing this, the organization is clearly
attempting to foster multiple identifications. This same line of
reasoning holds true in the selection of chapter co-advisors.
These support systems should be encouraged on many levels, and
not just within a single organization. As mentioned previously, multiple
identifications serve many positive purposes, so membership in other
related voluntary organizations may actually prove to be beneficial. Just
as was referred to in the discussion regarding the individual's efforts to
enact the process of identification, becoming a "joiner" or "service
volunteer" may not only serve to cultivate altruism, but also may dispose
one to be more open to identification efforts on the whole.
Third, creating an organizational sense of community may be
achieved through the distribution of unifying symbols. Distinct from
organizational publications in general, unifying symbols serve no real
informational purpose for the consumer, but instead they serve to link the
individual with the organization. In the present study, those most highly
identified with the organization were the advisors who utilized the
distribution of unifying symbols in a quality manner. Specifically, these
respondents used the symbols to promote the organization. Because of
their levels of identification, this organizational promotion seems to
become a sort of self promotion which leads to a mutually beneficial
relationship.
79
The third and final step suggested to organizations for providing
opportunities for members is to provide opportunities for success. In the
present study for example, those respondents who had attained other
organizational roles had higher levels of identification as measured by
the OCQ scores than did those who served the organization in only the
advisory role. The implication thus follows that success in competition
within organizations may yield higher levels of identification. This
reasoning was also supported in the self reports of the increases or
maintenance of chapter memberships during the respondent's tenure. Each
of the individuals in these two groups also scored fairly high on the
instrument. A final support may be found in the analyses of the turning
points utilized in the interviews. While success may be measured in many
ways, one frequently reported measure was through the turning point of
"gaining recognition." Respondents with relatively high OCQ scores
reported gaining some type of recognition on campus or in the community.
The form taken by the recognition did not seem to influence its effects on
perceived success, for whether it was formal or informal the respondent
showed an increase in identification level. Respondents provided
examples of formal recognition such as having an article written about
them or their chapter in the campus newspaper and examples of informal
recognition as being commonly known on the campus or in the community
as "Mr./Ms./Dr. PTK." Each of these may contribute to an individual's
perceived level of identification with an organization.
Because the dividing line between voluntary and nonvountary
organizations is difficult to clearly distinguish, many of the practical
implications discussed above may be generalized to both types of
80
organizations. These include creating a spirit of competition within the
organization through a formal awards system as well as other positions
of leadership individuals may compete to hold. By including an
hierarchical framework in which volunteers strive to achieve more and
more responsibility and to gain more recognition, identification levels
may be increased as well. It is important to remember, however, that the
effects of failed attempts at success remain a mystery, at least in the
results of this study. Concerted efforts to foster member recognition
should also be made. Internally, the organization should disseminate
information regarding member successes and projects. In addition to the
understanding that people generally like to see their names in print is the
realization that recognition among peers has special meaning. A creative
angle to this suggestion is to couple these publicity efforts with
information that could cause individuals who are less identified or who
simply know little about the nature of the organization to take an
interest. The distribution of member testimonials is one way to achieve
this. These testimonials may tap several motives in potential
participants, specifically altruistic ones. External publicity efforts
should also be made, for recognition outside the organization has
implications for formal recognition.
While it may be assumed that length of time in a voluntary
organization correlates with success, the sixth main implication of this
study is that tenure has no direct correlation with level of identification.
In fact, identification appears to increase steadily until a certain point,
at which point it decreases somewhat and then levels off. This finding is
consistent with that of Bullis and Bach (1989) who reported more scores
81
decreased than increased over time on a different measure of
identification, the Organization Identification Questionnaire. The
implications for tenure are also consistent with those of Sass & Canary
(1990).
This study has yielded five main implications for the study of
organizational identification. First, volunteers probably have a
preexising level of identification with their chosen organization. Second,
the distinction between voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations is not a
clear one. Third, that identification as a process is vital and that
individuals need to be familiar with the steps involved to facilitate
identification. Fourth, the organization's role as a creator of the product
of identification predominates concerning practical implications. The
organizations role is characterized by the implementation of two main
steps: discovery of identification targets and creation of identification
opportunities. The fifth and final implication which can be drawn from
this study is that tenure shows no direct correlation to organizational
identification.
Limitations
While the present study has revealed these five theoretical and
pragmatic implications, some limitations of the study as well as to the
study of organizational identification in general may be isolated. First, a
limitation was discovered concerning the specific organization under
study. The Phi Theta Kappa Society does have a publicized enumeration of
its four goals, but due to the diffuse and abstract nature of them the
question arises as to resondents' 2b111t~ to in.2rpr~t ancJ enact them.
82
Even among those respondents most highly identified, no one-to-one
correlations were found concerning goals. The limitation thus presents
itself as the task of discerning which personal goals are in fact adopted
organizational goals. The issue is clouded by the great latitude afforded
by the organization's unspecific and highly interpretable goals.
Concerning the present study, some of the items contained within
the instruments as well as the method for their collection could have
been improved. Specifially, a new alpha should be computed in order to
ensure validity to the partially used OCQ instrument. Some original
questions could have been reworded, in addition. For example, to measure
the correlation of success and identification put forth in research
question three, a questionnaire item would have yielded more pertinent
information if it had been worded to request information concerning the
other roles respondents had attemped to attain in addition to what other
roles the respondents currently hold within the Society. Through this
simple rephrasing, insight could have been gained regarding failed
attempts at success and their effects on identification. This should be
included in future administrations of questions probing the
success-identification relationship. In addition, efforts to provide for
multiple coders and to establish some level of interceder reliability may
have improved this study's reliability.
Similarly, the questionnaire item which requested information
regarding the socialization efforts on the part of the organization could
have been rephrased. As opposed to inquiring as to whether
organizationally distributed information is used once per week or more,
the question of how each of these is used should have been included. In
83
scrutinizing the effectiveness of organizational socialization, quality of
use is of concern in addition to the quantity of use.
Regarding the method chosen to gather data, the Organizational
Commitment Questionnaire scores and the range of scores in the present
study may be biased. If an individual has a low level of identification,
that individual will probably not make the effort even to complete the
questionnaire, much less return it in the mail. This is an understandable
problem in all research of the self-reported nature and it was
compensated for by the inclusion of the other two methods of data
collection: document analysis and moderately scheduled interviews.
Finally, the differences between voluntary and nonvoluntary
organizations should not be assumed to be clear cut. For example, since
the voluntary organization under study was so closely tied to the
respondents' workplace, some of the extrinsic influences thought to be
naturally absent were in actuality present. Influences such as job
description and the pressure of superiors could have been confounding
variables in this study. There is a need for a sharper division in the
conceptualization of job-related versus non-job-related volunteerism. In
addition, there is the need to control for these extrinsic influences in
certain voluntary organizations and to explore the possibilities available
for their manipulation.
Suggestions
The most pressing suggestion for improving future research is to
design an instrument which can alleviate the problems in converting the
Organizational Commitment Oues1iJn1 drre c·ild o:~1er such instruments
84
which have been developed to measure identification in the workplace to
correlate with voluntary organizations. The development of the Voluntary
Organization Identification (VOID) measure could be a combination of
refined existing instrument items, but each should reflect the particular
and unique characteristics of voluntary organization identification.
Because some, but not all, of the extrinsic influences may be assumed to
be absent from voluntary organizations and because altruism may play a
significant role in volunteerism which may not be found in the
nonvoluntary setting, an instrument designed to reflect these unique
circumstances should be developed.
Second, future research should not focus on the use of terms but
should instead choose one and then get on to more important studies. If,
for example, it was generally accepted that the terms commitment and
identification were operationalized equivalently, this would alleviate
much semantic confusion and allow researchers' focus to be more
properly channeled. Definitional arguments need to be put to rest.
In the present study, the turning points suggested fairly
generalizable areas in which some changes in respondent identification
were notable. Through the examination and analyses of actual
communication, it seems that themes could be isolated which may reveal
much about an individuals level of identification and from which entities
it has emanated. One example of language analysis is the organization of
data by recurring metaphorical themes (Larkey, L. K., 1990). Although
procedures such as this will not provide researchers with sweeping
generalizations, this type of analysis may guide researchers to a more in
depth understanding of the complex nature of organizational
85
identification. The practical implication of this finding rests in the
understanding that if actual categories of turning points can be isolated,
these may also be created, thus allowing for a clear avenue for
identification. Both voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations may benefit
from the exploration and incorporation of this implication. As an
extension of this implication and to suggest a means for its
incorporation, the present study implies the need for an examination of
the actual language used in organizational communication. Language
choices may reveal information about the respondents' level of
identification. For example, in conducting the research interviews more
errors in language occurred among those respondents whom the
organization had labelled as less active. In one instance, the respondent
repeatedly referred to the Society as a fraternity, a descriptor which the
Headquarters staff had made a concerted effort some two years ago to
abandon. Additionally, another low involved respondent continually
mispronounced the proper names of many of the Headquarter's staff
members. An analysis of the language use of organizational members may
give needed insight to members' decision premises which would facilitate
the judgement of their alignment. An implication of this finding is that
the study of the influences which reduce identification is needed.
A final suggestion for future research is to study the effects of
multiple memberships. To a point, it is thought that multiple
memberships not only make individuals more open to identification
efforts, but also that a cultivation of altruistic motiviations may take
place. Due to an individual's personal constraints on time, expense and
86
energy expended however, future research should explore at which point
these positive effects create diminishing returns.
In summary, this study recognizes that many factors combine to
contribute to organizational success; however, the focus in this case has
been upon certain qualitites of membership which can be labelled as
avenues for explaining this success. When members substitute
organizational objectives for their own aims as value indices which
determine their decisions, they exhibit the quality of membership known
as identification. Identification has been linked to many positive
outcomes, such as goal commitment, goal achievement, and quality of
performance in nonvoluntary organizations. This study has drawn
correlates between identification in the nonvoluntary and voluntary
organizational settings. In nonvoluntary organizations, identification
has shown to be related to effective organizational socialization efforts
as well as to success within the voluntary organization. Because of the
strong implications drawn from the study relating to success in voluntary
organizations, implementation of the steps suggested in this document
should be considered and encouraged. Additionally, because of the
indistinct line shown to exist between many voluntary and nonvoluntary
organizations, the suggested steps for identification facilitation should
be considered an integral part of both voluntary and nonvoluntary
organizations.
87
REFERENCES
Allen, K., (1982). Social responsibility: The growing partnership of business and voluntary organizations. In J. D. Harmon (Ed.), Volunteerism in the eighties: Fundamental issues in voluntary action (pp. 95-11 O).Washington, DC: University Press of America.
Bakal, C. (1979). Charity. U. S. A. New York: Times Books.
Barge, J. K., & Schlueter, D. W. (1988). A critical evaluation of organizational commitment and identification. Management Communication Quarterly, 2 (1 ), 116-133.
Baxter, L., & Bullis, C. (1986). Turning points in developing romantic relationships. Human Communication Research, 12, 469-493.
Becker, H. (1960). Notes on the concept of commitment. American Journal of Sociology, 66, 32-40.
Buchanan II, B. (1974). Building organizational commitment: The socialization of managers in work organizations. Administration Science Quarterly, 19_, 533-546.
Bullis, C., & Bach, B. W. (1989). Socialization turning points: An examination of change in organizational identification. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 53 (Summer), 273-293.
Burke, K. (1937). Attitudes toward history. New York: The New Republic.
Burke, K. (1969). A rhetoric of motives. California: University of California Press.
Burke, K. (1972). Dramatism and Development. Massachusettes: Clark University Press.
Cheney, G. (1982). Organizational identification as process and product: A field study. Unpublished master's thesis, Purdue University.
88
Cheney, G. (1983a). On the various and changing meanings of organizational membership: A field study of organizational identification. Communication Monographs, 50 (4), 342-362.
Cheney, G. (1983b). The rhetoric of identification and the study of organizational communication. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 69, 143-158.
Clark, P. B., & Wilson, J. Q. (1961 ). Incentive systems: A theory of organizations. Admjnistatjon Science Quarterly, §, 129-166.
Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1980). New work attitude measures of trust, organizational commitment and personal need non-fulfillment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 39-52.
Eisenberg, E. M., Monge, P. R., & Miller, K. I. (1983). Involvement in communication networks as a predictor of organizational commitment. Human Communication Research, 10, 179-201.
Falcione, R. L. & Wilson, C. E. (1988). Socialization processes in organizations. In G. Goldhaber and G. Barnett (Eds.), Handbook of organizational communication (pp. 42-56). New York: Ablex.
Filer commission (1974). Giving in America: Toward a stronger voluntary sector. Report of the Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs. John Filer, Chair.
French, J., & Raven, B. (1960). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright and A. Zander (Eds.), Group Dynamics (pp. 607-623). New York: Harper and Row.
Gallup, Organization (1979). Survey of the public recollection of the 1978 charitable reduction. Princeton, New Hampshire: The Gallup Organization.
89
Johnson, G. M., & Hall, B., (1990, November). In the eye of the beholder: Organizational identification and personal control in innovation networks. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association Conference, Chicago, Illinois.
Krackardt, D., & Porter, L. {1985). When friends leave: A structural analysis of the relation between turnover and stayers attitudes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30, 242-261.
Kreps, G. L. {1983). Using interpretive research: The development of a socialization program at RCA. In L. L. Putnam and M. E. Pacanowsky {Eds.), Communication and organizations: An interpretive approach {pp. 243-256). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Larkey, L. K. {1990, February). Organizational commitment in times of change: An alternative research approach. Paper presented at the Western Speech Communication Association Conference, Sacramento, California.
Lee, S.M. (1969). Organizational identification of scientists. Academy of Management Journal, 12, 327-337.
Lewis, L. S. {1967). On prestige and loyalty of university faculty. Administrative Science Quarterly, 11, 629-642.
Lodahl, T. M., & Kejner, M. (1965). The definition and measurement of job involvement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 36,
40-44.
Manser, G., & Cass, R. H. (1976). Voluntarism at the crossroads. New York: Family Service Association of America.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1984). Testing the "side-bet theory" of organizational commitment: Some methodological considerations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 372-378.
90
Morris, J. H., & Sherman, J. D. (1981 ). Generalizability of an organizational commitment model. Academy of Management Journal, 24, 512-526.
Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W., & Dubin, R. (1974). Unit performance, situational factors, and employee attitudes in spatially separated work units. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 12., 231-248.
Mowday, R. T., Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 224-247.
Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee-organization linkages: The psychology of commitment. absenteeism. and turnover. New York: Academic Press.
Naylor, H. (1985). Beyond managing volunteers. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 14 (2-3), 25-30.
Nielson. W. (1980). The third sector: Keystone of a caring society. An Independent Sector occasional paper. Washington, D. C.: Independent Sector.
O'Connel, B. (1976). Effective leadership in voluntary organizations. Chicago: Follet.
Patchen, M. (1970). Participation, achievement. and involvement on the j,Qb. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Peters, T., & Waterman, R. H. Jr. (1981 ). In search of excellence. New York: Random House.
Peters, T., and Austin, N. (1985). A passion for excellence: The leadership difference. New York: Random House.
91
Phi Theta Kappa Society. (1990). Year End Report. Jackson, Mississippi: Author.
Porter, L. W., Steers, B. M., Mowday, B. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, ~. 603-609.
Rotondi, T., Jr. (1975a). Organizational identification: Issues and implications. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13.. 95-109.
Rotondi, T., Jr. (1975b). Organizational identification and group involvement. Academy of Management Journal, 4, 892-896.
Salancik, G. (1978). Commitment is too easyl Organizational Dynamics, 7 (1 ), 62-82.
Sass, J. S., & Canary, D. J. (1990, November). Organjzatjonal commitment and identification: An examination of conceptual and empirical convergence. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association Conference, Chicago, Illinois.
Schindler-Bainman, E. & Lippitt, B. (1975). The volunteer community (2nd ed.). California: University Associates.
Sias, P., & Drummond, K. G. (1990, November). "Any warm body will do": Organizational commitment jn a voluntary organization. Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association Conference, Chicago, Illinois.
Simon, H. A. (1976). Administrative behavior: A study of decision-making processes in administrative organization. New York: Free Press.
Smith, D. (1982). Altruism, volunteers, and volunteerism. In J. D. Harmon (Ed.), Volunteerism in the eighties: Fundamental issues in voluntary action (pp. 23-44). Washington, DC: University Press of America.
92
Steers, R. M., & Braunstein, D. N. (1976). A behaviorally-based measure of manifest needs in work settings. Journal of Vocational Behavior,~. 251-266.
Stohl, C. (1986). The role of memorable messages in the process of organizational socialization. Communication Quarterly, ~. 231-249.
Tompkins, P. K. & Cheney, G. (1983). Account analysis of organizations: Decision making and identification. In L. L. Putnam and M. E. Pacanowsky (Eds.), Communication and organizations: An interpretive approach (pp. 123-146). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Tompkins, P. K. & Cheney, G. (1985). Communication and unobtrusive control in contemporary organizations. In R. McPhee and P. Tompkins (Eds.), Organizational communication: Traditional themes and new directions (pp. 179-21 0). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Williams, R. H., & Williams, S. A. (1987). Level of identification as a predictor of attitude change. Simulation and Games, iS (4), 471-487.
Wilson, M. (1976). Effective management of volunteer programs. Boulder, CO: Volunteer Management Associates.
Wortman, M.S., Jr. (1981 ). A radical shift from bureacracy to strategic management in voluntary organizations. Journal of Voluntary Action, 10 (1 ), 62-81.
93
APPENDIX A: PILOT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE
94
PHI THETA KAPPA QUESTIONNAIRE _Two Year College _Alumni
1. I contribute significantly to the success of Phi Theta Kappa.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly very strongly agree agree disagree strongly agree nor disagree
disagree
2. Of how many other student/campus organizations are you involved?
1 _2 _3 _4 _5 _6 _7+
3. My input has a significant impact on the success of Phi Theta Kappa.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly very strongly agree agree disagree strongly agree nor disagree
disagree
4. To what extent do the following influence the decisions made which shape and guide Phi Theta Kappa? Please assign values of 1 - 5 with l=most influential, 5=1east influential.
_sponsoring institutions _community _local chapter members _local chapter officers _ local chapter advisors
_state/regional officers _state/regional advisors _national officers _national headquarters staff _other:. ________ _
5. In what order do you consider the following when making decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa? I =considered first, 8=considered last.
_self _family _community _ sponsoring institution
_local chapter organization _state/regional organization _national organization _other ________ _
6. As a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, please list your goals in descending order of importance.
a. (most important goal)----------------------b. --------------------------------------------------------c. -------------------------------d. ---------------------------------------------------------e. ----------------------------------------------------
95
7. During your time as the advisor, has your chapter membership ...
_increased _decreased _stayed about the same
8. The national headquarters sees my chapter as one that is ...
_excellent _above average _average _below average _poor
9. How long have you been an advisor of Phi Theta Kappa?
10. Other than local chapter advisor, what position(s) do you hold in the Phi Theta Kappa Society?
11. What is the name of your college (university) and chapter at which you are a Phi Theta Kappa advisor?
college chapter city
12. About how many hours per week do you spend on your various responsibilities and activities? Please see the provided example and please include time devoted to Phi Theta Kappa.
13. Please list the organizations, including Phi Theta Kappa and other campus/community groups, in which you have a role.
14. Please refer to the above question and rank those organizations in order of their importance to you by placing a number immediately to its left (l=most important).
96
state
15. Why did you assume the role of Phi Theta Kappa advisor?
16. Despite your best efforts, you have had your vacation planned for many months when you realize that the Phi Theta Kappa state convention will be taking place while you are vacationing in another state. Given the opportunity to choose one or the other, which do you choose and why?
17. The Phi Theta Kappa national convention is being held at the same time as your professional organization's national meeting. Which do you attend and why?
18. On a given day, you have only enough time to visit with one student. Do you speak with a student who is performing poorly in the class that you teach or do you speak with a normally active Phi Theta Kappa member who is now performing poorly? Please explain.
19. It has been proposed that Phi Theta Kappa examine the current national awards system. Which of the following should be done?
Please explain your choice(s).
a. Revert to the awards system which was in effect until the 1989 national convention?
b. Abolish any awards system at the national level. c. Revise the current awards system. d. Allow popular vote to select national award winners.
97
APPENDIX 8: PRESENT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE
98
December 20, 1990
Dear Phi Theta Kappa Chapter Advisor:
Happy holidays and Phi Theta Kappa hugs to you! As the Society's 1986-1987 National President, I continue to profit daily from my involvement in Phi Theta Kappa. The organization has given so very much to me, and now I am proud to take the opportunity to give something back. With a few minutes of your time, you too can help not only the organization, but also yourself as an advisor.
I am gathering information which will be used to construct my Master's thesis. Scheduled to graduate in May of 1991 from Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, the title of my thesis is: Voluntru.y Organizations: Identification and Success. Simply put, I plan to research those variables that call such special individuals to serve as Phi Theta Kappa advisors. In addition, my study will focus on the needs that you as advisors identify as well as on the areas of strength that you see in Phi Theta Kappa. Much of this information will be of direct benefit to the National Headquarters staff, as will be evident to you upon completion of the enclosed questionnaire. All returned instruments will be analyzed and the results will then be provided to Headquarters; complete anonymity is assured to you.
Just 30 minutes of your time is not only an essential element of this research project, but it will also be a benefit to the organization that has helped so many two-year college students realize their full potential. A postage paid, self addressed envelope has been provided for your convenience in returning the questionnaire by January 31, 1991. My sincerest thanks to you for your participation.
Sincerely,
Julie Landgraf Johnson 1988-89 Texas State Alumni President 1986-87 National President
99
PHI THETA KAPPA QUESTIONNAIRE Please attach additional sheets of paper as necessary.
1. The national headquarters sees my chapter as one that is ...
_excellent _above average _average _below average _poor
2. Other than local chapter advisor, what position(s) do you hold in the Phi Theta Kappa Society?
3. In what order do you consider the following when making decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa? !=considered first, 8=considered last.
_self _family _community _sponsoring institution
_local chapter organization _state/regional organization _national organization _other ________ _
4. As a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, please list your goals in descending order of importance.
a. (most important goal) ----------------------
b. --------------------------------c. -------------------------------d. -----------------------------------------------------e. ----------------------------------
5. There is not too much to be gained by sticking with this organization indefinitely. (Please circle one number which best reflects your attitude.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
6. This organization really inspires the very best in me in the way of performance.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
100
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
7 · It would take very little change in my present circumstances to cause me to leave this organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
8. Often, I fmd it difficult to agree with this organization's policies on important matters relating to its members.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
9. During your time as the advisor, has your chapter membership ...
_increased _decreased _stayed about the same
10. How long have you been an advisor of Phi Theta Kappa?
11. What is the name of your college and chapter at which you are a Phi Theta Kappa advisor?
college chapter city
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
state
12. Which of the following do you use once a week or more? Please provide details of how and why you use it/them.
Advisor's manual _Golden Key _ 3.5 Plus magazine
1 01
_Phi Theta Kappa insignia _National Headquarter's toll free
telephone number
13. It has been proposed that Phi Theta Kappa examine the current national awards system. Which of the following should be done?
Please explain your choice(s).
a. Revert to the awards system which was in effect until the 1989 national convention?
b. Abolish any awards system at the national level. c. Revise the current awards system. d. Allow popular vote to select national award winners. e. Maintain current awards system.
14. Ofhow many other organizations are you involved (campus, church, community, professional, etc.)?
1 _2 _3 _4 _5 _6
15. My input has a significant impact on the success of Phi Theta Kappa.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
16. I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization to be successful.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
17. To what extent do the following influence the decisions made which shape and guide the international Phi Theta Kappa Society? Please assign values of 1 - 5 with l=most influential, S=least influential.
_7+
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
_community _sponsoring institution _local chapter members _local chapter officers _ local chapter advisors
_elected student regional officers _regional advisors
102
_elected student national officers _national headquarters staff _other: __________ _
18. Why did you assume the role of Phi Theta Kappa advisor?
19. On a given day, you have only enough time to visit with one student. Do you speak with a student who is performing poorly in the class that you teach or do you speak with a normally active Phi Theta Kappa member who is now performing poorly in Phi Theta Kappa activities? Please explain.
20. I talk up this organization to my friends as a great organization to be a part of.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly
strongly agree agree disagree
agree nor disagree
21. I feel very little loyalty to this organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6
very strongly agree neither disagree strongly
strongly agree agree disagree
agree nor disagree
22. I fmd that my values and the organization's values are very similar.
1 2 3 4 5 6
very strongly agree neither disagree strongly
strongly agree agree disagree
agree nor disagree
23. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6
very strongly agree neither disagree strongly
strongly agree agree disagree
agree nor disagree
103
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
24. I am extremely glad I chose this organization in which to be an advisor.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
25. I really care about the fate of this organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
26. I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for this organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
27. I could just as well be working for a different organization as long as the type of work was similar.
1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor
disagree
28. In which area of your Phi Theta Kappa involvement would you MOST like to see improvement? Please choose only one area.
_Sponsoring institution _Local organization
_Regional organization _National organization
29. Please briefly explain how the above chosen relationship could be improved.
104
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
7 very strongly disagree
30. Why do you think most Phi Theta Kappa chapter advisors remain working in this organization?
We will conduct telephone interviews of approximately 20- 30 minutes to augment this questionnaire. If you would like to participate, please provide the requested information below.
Name: -------------------------------------------------------------College at which an advisor: ------------------------------------------Telephone number: --------------------------------------------
Please return the survey in the provided envelope to :
Julie Landgraf Johnson P.O. Box557
Shallowater, Texas 79363
Thank you for your participation.
105
APPENDIX C: PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
106
Interview Schedule
1. Can you identify a time or an event when you first became comfortable in your role as Phi Theta Kappa chapter advisor? (settling in).
2. Tell me about a time when you have felt "lost" in your role as chapter advisor. (protecting self/getting away)
3. a. Do you feel "a part" of the national Phi Theta Kappa organization?
b. Can you pinpoint any particular time or event that caused you to have these feelings?
(sense of community)
4. Tell me about a time you feel you let Phi Theta Kappa down. (disappointment)
5. As a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, are your treated any differently by the faculty/administration of College?
a. (If yes) Please give me an example. (receiving informal recognition)
b. How about when you/your chapter wins awards? (gaining formal recognition)
6. Explain to me an incident or time when your felt alienated from Phi Theta Kappa. (alienation)
107
7. Are you known on your campus or in your community as "M/D. PTK?" Give me an example. (representing the organization)
8. You're feeling down about Phi Theta Kappa; what keeps you from severing your ties?
9. In what ways would you like to see your relationship with Phi Theta Kappa improve?
108