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Copyrighted Material

IntroductionASenseofWar

Thisbookconsidershowwarbecomespartofthebarelyregisteredsubstance

ofoureverydayanexperienceinextricablefromsittingathomeonaneveshy

ningrecallingabsentfriendsstaringatafiregazingoutawindowAsitlooks

backover twocenturiesWar at a Distance tellshowmilitary conflictona

globalscalelookedandfelttoapopulationwhosearmiesandnavieswaged

warfordecadesbutalwaysatadistanceForthoseathomethetaskwasto

findsentientgroundforwhatoftenappearedafreeshyfloatingimpersonalmilishy

taryoperationremovedfromtheirimmediatesensoryperceptionTheliterashy

tureandartproducedinBritainduringitstwentyshyyearconflictwithFrance

cultivatedthisgroundobsessivelymdashandindoingsoitestablishedformsfor

howwecontinuetothinkandfeelaboutwaratadistanceAsawartimepheshy

nomenonBritishRomanticismgivesitsdistinctivevoicetothedislocatedexshy

periencethatismodernwartimetheexperienceofwarmediatedoftimeand

timesunmooredoffeelingintensifiedbutalsoadrift

Modernwartimerefersfirsttotheexperienceofthoselivingthroughbut

notinawarAswritersinEnglandinthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenth

centurywentabouttheireverydayroutinestheircountrywassendingmento

killandbekilledacrosstheglobeInthecourseoftheeighteenthcenturythe

newlyUnitedKingdomhadcrushedtwoarmedrebellionsathomeparticishy

patedinahalfdozenwarsonthecontinentexpandeditsimperialholdingson

theIndiansubcontinentintheCaribbeanandinAfricaincreasedandthen

lostagoodportionofitsNorthAmericancoloniesmdashthroughwarfareAtthe

turnofthenewcenturyGreatBritainenteredaworldwidecampaignfighting

firstagainstregicidesandTerrorandlateragainstanevildespot(theFrench

RevolutionandNapoleonrespectively)emerginginastheworldrsquosdomishy

nantmilitarypower1Theintensityandlengthoffightinghaveledhistorians

torefertotheeighteenthcenturyasaldquoSecondHundredYearsWarrdquoandLinda

ColleyhasshownthatBritishnationalidentitywasdecisivelyforgedthrough

1 GreatBritainjoinedtheFirstCoalitionagainstRevolutionaryFranceaftertheexecutionof

LouisXVIinJanuaryTheruleofTerrorinFrancecommencedthatfallNapoleonseizedposhy

liticalpoweronNovembermdashthethBrumaire


thiscenturyofnearlyconstantmilitaryaction2Butthatmilitaryactionagain

wasundertakenataremoveafterthedefeatofStewartloyalistsatCullodenin

distancemdasheithergeophysicalor temporalmdashwas increasinglybuilt into

theBritishnationrsquosunderstandingofwarWaronhometurfhappenedback

thenitwashistoryIfitoccurrednowitoccurredbeyondthereachofeyes

andearssomewhereelseoverthere

Intryingtocapturethismodernwartimethechaptersofthisbooktakeup

materials asvariedasmeditationsonThe Iliad thehistoryofmeteorology

landscapepaintinginIndiapopularpoetryinthenewspapersandperiodicals

theories of history and the everyday the work of dictionaries and various

modesofprophecyandprognosticationtheycontemplateformsofwarand

wartimethatrangefromtheearlyyearsoftheeighteenthcenturytothepresshy

entYettheirprimarymaterial(theirldquohearthrdquoasitwere)istheliteratureofroshy

manticwartimeThismaterialmakesclear thatwartime responsesmove in

several directions In some instances the experience of war at a distance

promptsamovetowardabstractionanincreasingdistancefromthehuman

bodyHeretheconsolationsofsystemideaandpurposeholdswayasfroma

birdrsquosshyeye view you see patterns emerge you comprehend why and when

whereandhowwaroperatesWarbecomesanobjectofknowledgeaunivershy

salizingabstractionindeedinwartimeitthreatenstobecomeallyouknow

Inotherinstancesthereverseoccurswartimepromotesasenseofatomism

anddespairwhichfoldsintothebodysocompletelythatinertiaandapathymdash

lackof feelingmdashare itsonlysignsWartimeheredefeatshumanresponsiveshy

nessThereisathirdperhapsmoreproductiveresponsesuspendedbetween

andresistanttothepolarpullsofabstractionandnumbnessThelastchapter

ofthisbooklocatesthisthirdresponsevisuallyandspatiallyinaldquomiddledisshy

tancerdquoButitsurfacesthroughoutthebookasapoeticoraestheticresponsea

responsethatstrivestoproduceandgiveformtofeelingAnditisthisthird

termtheproductiveaspectofwartimewritingwhichopenswartimemdashand

theromanticwritingthatconceiveditmdashtothepresent

War at a Distance worksthenattheintersectionoftwoacademicfields

the studyofwartime literature and the studyof affectThe scholarshipon

wartimeliteratureandculturemdashforexamplePaulFussellrsquosmasterpiecesThe Great War and Modern Memory andWartime Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War BernardBergonzirsquosimportantWartime and Aftermath English Literature and Its Background ndash SusanGubarandSandraGilshy

bertrsquosNo Manrsquos Land The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth CenturyJayWinterrsquosSites of Memory Sites of Mourning The Great War in European Cultural History ormorerecentlyThe Writing of Anxiety Imagining Wartime

2 LindaColleyBritons Forging the Nation ndash(NewHavenYaleUP)


in Midshycentury British Culture byLindseyStonebridgeorGrief in Wartime Private Pain Public DiscoursebyCarolActonmdashhasbeenweightedheavilytoshy

wardthetwoworldwarsofthepastcenturyInrecentyearsthecategoriesof

ldquowartimerdquoandldquowartimeliteraturerdquohavebeenextendedtotheperiodofthe

AmericanCivilWarwhenasDrewGilpinFaustputsitldquotheUnitedStates

embarkedonanewrelationshipwithdeathrdquo3EvenasIlearnfromthiswork

Ireachbacktoayetearlierbutstillselfshyconsciouslymodernperiodofwarto

acknowledgeitscontinuedcurrency

Reachingbackbringsupaquestionallthesestudiestendtooverlookthe

questionofldquowartimerdquoitselfHowdoweknowormeasurehowdowetell the

timeofwarWhatsortofhistoriographydoesitrequireMyanswerstothese

questionsderiveinpartfromrecentworkinthesecondofthefieldsImenshy

tionthehistoryofaffectwhichstudiesmodesofresponseorapprehension

thatlieoutsideofcognitionperseAffectofteneludestheusualmodelsfor

organizingtimesuchaslinearitypunctualityandperiodicityiteludesaswell

theusualmodelsfororganizinghistoryIfwetakewartimelessasanobjectof

cognitionboundedbydatesmdashaperiodmdashandmoreasanaffectingexperience

whichresonatesbeyondthehereandnowthenwartimeliteraturebecomes

an attempt to trace and give shape to such affect to register its wayward

power

Thisintroductionwillbegintospelloutsomeofthehumanconsequences

ofwaratadistanceTheseconsequenceswereofthemostfundamentalsort

moststrikinglywewillseethatdistantwarunsettledbasictemporalexperishy

encesoftheBritishpopulationHowtimeandknowledgewereregisteredin

daily lifebecamenewlyuncertainAndwiththatuncertaintycameasetof

disturbing affective responses including numbness dizziness anxiety or a

senseofbeingoverwhelmedIntakingromanticwritersasarchitectsofmodshy

ernwartime Iwant tobring forth these relationsofdistance temporality

epistemologyandaffect the feltdistance fromcrucial events the limitsof

knowledgeinamediatedculturethetemporalgapsinthetransmissionofinshy

formationandfinallythedifficultyoffindingsoundsorformstowhichfeelshy

ingcanattachitself

ThechapterswhichthenfollowdividethemselvesintothreepartsThefirst

dealsinparticularwiththeconversionofwaratadistanceintoamatterof

timeintowartimeWartimeasmanyromanticwritersrealizedintheirwork

was the effectofwarmediatedbroughthome througha varietyof instrushy

ments As the poems discussed in the prelude already suggest a mediated

warsetsinmotionvariousandconflictingsensesoftimeandunsettledtimes

3 DrewGilpinFaustThis Republic of Suffering Death and the American Civil War (NewYork

AlfredAKnopf)xi


unleashunsettledfeelingsThisopeningsectionthereforesetsoutthecomshy

plextemporalstructureofwartimeunderstandingitasazoneofaffectwhich

troubleswhatwecanknowandespeciallywhatwecanknowofhistoryThe

secondsectionwhilestillunderscoringhowwarconductedatadistanceinshy

tensifiestimeshyconsciousnessandchargesitwithaffectiveresonanceconcerns

itselfmorewiththewaysdistantwarinvadesandbecomesimplicatedinthe

mostfamiliarformsoftheeverydayThechaptersofthissectioncenteronthe

thoughtthattheeverydayitselfitspeculiarstatusinmodernthoughtderives

fromitsintimaterelationshipwithwarIndeedwritingintheromanticpeshy

riod illuminateshowwar invades thought itself threateningtobecomethe

verygroundof thinkingunderstood inways thatmake itmdashlike theeveryshy

daymdashfamiliarandroutineeasytooverlookThefinalsectionofthebookthen

turnsfromwrittentovisualtextsinparttodemonstratecontinuitiesanddisshy

crepanciesbetweenromanticmediationsofwaratadistanceandmoreconshy

temporarymediationswhichprivilegethevisualandtelevisualourownldquofilms

uponthegraterdquoButindirectingattentiontorepresentationsofthelandscape

ofwarshytornIndiainthesmygoalisalsotoinsistupontheglobalnature

ofawaroftentakentoconcernonlyEuropeTheveryideaofaworldwaras

itemergedinthisperiodposesanewaquestionwhichlurksthroughoutthe

studythequestionofourmodernintimacywithandresponsetothesuffering

strangerwhothoughseenperhapsfleetinglyandatadistancenevertheless

comesalmostdailyintoourhomes

WarMediated

Takingupldquomodernwartimerdquoletalonesomethingcalledldquowartimeliteraturerdquo

meansenteringintothehistoryofwarandmediationWhenwarisconducted

atadistancehowonecanknoworlearnofwarbecomesmassivelyimportant

asdotheobstacles(psychologicalideologicalpractical)tosuchknowledge

TheepistemologyofmodernwartimeisanepistemologyofmediationConshy

sideragainCKWilliamsrsquosldquoTheHearthrdquowritteninthewakeoftelevision

reportsconsidertoohispoemldquoDovesrdquoaresponsetomediareportson

thewarinIraq

Somuchcrapinmyhead

Somanyrubbishyfacts

Somanyhalfshybaked

theoriesandopinions

Somuchpoliticalswill

SomuchcrapYet


somuchIdonrsquotknow

andwoulddearlyliketo(ndashndash)4

Orconsiderthefamiliarstoriesofsoldiersfoundinremoteplacesstillprimed

tofightbecausetheyhavenotheardwhatthosebackhomeknowalreadythat

peacetreatieshavebeensignedmonthsbeforeThesestoriescirculatingwidely

inthemedianotonlyadvertisethemoreldquoaccuraterdquoknowledgeoftheviewer

orreadercomparedtothebenightedwarrior(ldquotoocloserdquototheaction)they

alsoprovidean ironic fableof the larger indeterminaciesofwartime(when

doeswartimebeginorendwhereexactlydoesittakeplace)andtheirtight

linkstotheworkofcommunication

Buttherootsofthesefamiliarstoriesaboutthemediationanduncertainshy

tiesofwarreachdowntoanearlierperiodIfmodernwartimeistheexperishy

enceofnoncombatantsinatimeofwaritisworthrecallingthatitwasinfact

duringtheNapoleonicperiodthat thetermldquononcombatantrdquoaswellas the

popularunderstandingofldquocivilianrdquoasnonmilitaryfirstemergedinEnglish

andthenotionofldquowartimerdquoasadistinctcategoryemergedalongwiththem5

Withtheadventofmassmediaintheprintculturethatroseintheeighteenth

centuryandinanincreasinglypopularvisualcultureofprintspanoramas

andtheatricalperformanceswartimesteppedforthasamediatedrelationship

todistantviolence

Caughtwithintheseexamplesistherevelationthatbycallingupquesshy

tionsof epistemologyof certainties anddoubts amediatedwar evokes as

welltheunsettledterrainofwartimeaffectWithinsuchconditionsofmedishy

atedknowledgefeelingrespondsnotonlytothewaritselfbuttoonersquosprivishy

legedexperienceof itmdashtheprivilegeofknowingwarat adistanceA

pamphletwrittentoraisethealarmofinvasionbyFrenchforcescouldinshy

voke this privilege almost smugly insisting on the warrsquos distance and

invisibility

[I]thasbeenourpeculiarprivilegethroughthewholeofthisunpreceshy

dentedWar to triumph over our enemies without ever seeing them

withoutanyexposureofourpersonalsecuritywithoutanyinterruption

ofourdomesticquietwhileagreatpartofEuropehasexperiencedall

the horrors of War while its cities have been sacked and its fields

drenchedwithblood [W]ehave it in ourpower to frustrate the

4 WilliamsreadhispoemldquoDovesrdquoinhisacceptancespeechfortheNationalBookAwardinPoshy

etryinhttpwwwnationalbookorgnbaacceptspeech_ckwilliamshtml5TheOED quotesGenWellingtonwritinginandforthefirsttwoinstancesofthe

useofthewordldquononshycombatantrdquoAldquocivilianrdquooriginallystudiedorfollowedcivilasopposedto

canonlawldquociviliannrdquoThe Oxford English DictionaryndedOED Online (OxfordUP)

Augusthttpdictionaryoedcomcgientry


designsoftheenemywithoutseeingourCountrybecometheseatof

WarmdashwithoutevenanyviolationofourCoasts6

Thissenseofprivilegedsecuritysitsuneasilythoughinaworkdedicatedto

rousingitscountrymentoaconstantvigilanceElsewheretheauthorpaints

scenariosof ldquoviolenceand rapinerdquoonBritish soil and reportson incendiary

speechesinParismakingvisibleandproximatetheveryviolenceithopesto

defendagainstThepictureofdomesticquietremainsmeaninglesswithoutthis

threatof ldquointerruptionrdquoPamphlets like thisonemdashand thereweredozensmdash

mediatedbetweentheknownandtheunknownseenandunseenprompting

wildfluctuationsoffeelingTheycouldforinstancebeatoncecontemptuous

ofFrancersquosabilitytofundaninvasionandcertainthatthethreatwasrealand

imminentTheyofferedthefeelingofsecurityalwaysbundledwiththefeeling

ofvulnerability

Thearrivalmdashornotmdashofnewsfromabroadwasonedeterminingfactorof

wartimeexperienceofwhatyoumightknowandhowyoumightfeelAlshy

readyinSamuelTaylorColeridgecouldlamentthatreadingthemornshy

ingnewsonlydampenedhisabilitytorespondfeelinglytodistantwarfare

the papers offer ldquodainty terms for fratricide mere abstractions empty

sounds towhich We joinno feeling and attachno formrdquo ( ndash)7

Coleridgersquos ldquounshyjoinedrdquo feelingsrdquomdashunshyarticulated affectmdashwere encouraged

notonlybythenewspapersrsquoeuphemismandabstractionbutalsobythesheer

factsofphysicalandtemporaldistanceInthelateeighteenthcenturynews

ofwarcamewithconsiderablelagtimereportsofaparticulareventtheloss

ofabattleorthedeathofyourbrothercouldtakemonthstobecommunishy

catedhomeandconfirmedTodaywedependontheillusionofimmediacy

grantedbyinstantaneousandunceasingnewsreportingasifwecanalways

knowwhat ishappeningelsewhere intheworldas itoccursyetunshyjoined

feelingspersistSuchfeelingsmdashemptylackingsolidattachmentmdashcontribute

totheexperienceofanywaratadistanceThewartimewritingoftheRevolushy

tionary and Napoleonic period gives expressive form to this experience of

mediateddistancemdashdistancespatial temporalepistemologicaland inthe

endmortalmdashandtheresponsesitgeneratesForthesereasonsreadingthis

literaturehastaughtmethatwartimeisnotjustaperiodoftimethatcanbe

gotoverorsettledbutratherapersistentmodeofdailylivingandahabit

ofmind

6An appeal to the head and heart of every man and woman in Great Britain respecting the threatshyened French invasion and the importance of immediately coming forward with voluntary contributions LondonndashEighteenth Century Collections Online(ECCO)GaleGrouphttpgalenet

galegroupcomservletECCOMythankstoLilyGurtonshyWachterforpointingoutthispassage7 Samuel Taylor Coleridge The Complete Poems ed William Keach (New York Penguin

)


Insuchcircumstancesmediationitselfbecomesanobjectofemotionof

comfortcomplacencyreliefanxiety impotencecomplicityInresponseto

themediatedversionsofwarwereceivewemayadmitasWilliamCowper

didwhilereadinghisnewspaperinthatldquoThesoundofwarHaslostits

terrorsereitreachesmeGrievesbutalarmsmenotrdquo(IVndash)8Yetatthe

nextmomentwemaydiscoverinthesafespaceofourlivingroomsashedid

thefleetingpresencemdashhoweverimaginedmdashoftoweringwarriorsandcitiesin

flames or towers inflames and cities full ofwarriorsDistant violencebeshy

comesatoncestrangeandfamiliarintimateandremotepresentandyetnot

reallyhereldquoBeingaspectatorofcalamitiestakingplaceinanothercountryrdquo

SusanSontagnotedldquoisaquintessentialmodernexperiencerdquo9 Insayingthis

sheechoesawellshyknownradicalpreacheroftheromanticperiodJosephFawshy

cettwhopublishedhisfamousantiwarpoemThe Art of WarinInhis

laterWar Elegies ()Fawcettputsuccinctlytheoperationofwartimeaffect

asitfluctuatessomewherebetweenmindsheartsandbodieshereandelseshy

whereThemiseryofwarheremarksconsistsinpartldquointhepainitinflicts

uponthemindofeverycontemplatorofitsravagesat whatever distance he

standfromitstheatrewhoseheartcanbleedathomealongwiththethoushy

sandswhosebodiesarebleedinginthefieldrdquo10Appealingwithoutapologyto

thebleedingheartinwartimeFawcettasksustoreexaminethisoverwornfigshy

ureasitpressescloselyontheproblemofmediationofwhatisfarbrought

closewhatoutermadeinnerFawcettexpectsheartsandmindstorespondto

warconductedanywhereatallatwhateverdistancefromldquohomerdquomdashandyetit

isdifficulttopinpointwhereandwhensuchmiserytakesplaceForFawcett

whatisatagreatdistanceseemsalsosomehow(throughsomeunspokenmeshy

diation)topenetrateus

Asthisthoughtsuggestswaritselfdoesnotnecessarilymake senseIndeed

wartimeisoftentheexperienceofanundoingordamagingofrationalsensemdash

whichistosaythatwarevenatadistanceworkstodismantletheformsthat

propupoursenseoftheworldandourplaceinitInThe Body in Pain The Making and Unmaking of the WorldElaineScarryanticipatesthisthoughtarshy

guingthatwarhasasitstargetldquoapeopleanditscivilization(ortherealms

ofsentienceandselfshyextension)rdquo11 In thefaceofsuchabsolutedestructiveshy

nessshetriestogivevoiceandshapetotheldquointeriorandinarticulatesenshy

tiencerdquothataccompaniesandregisterstheprosecutionofwar()Deprived

8 WilliamCowperThe TaskinThe Complete Poetical WorksedHSMilfordthed(Oxford

OxfordUP)ndash9 SusanSontagRegarding the Pain of Others(NewYorkFarrarStrausandGiroux)

10JosephFawcettWar Elegies(LondonJJohnson)viiemphasisadded11ElaineScarryThe Body in Pain The Making and Unmaking of the World (NewYorkOxford

UP)


ofthefortificationsofintellectandunderstandingdeprivedevenoftheimshy

mediacyofempiricalevidencetheinhabitantsofmodernwartimeoftenrely

onanotherandlesscategorizableldquosenserdquoofwhatwarisanddoesaffectisthis

alternate sense or sentience Usually associated with the body and autonoshy

moussensationitnamesanawarenessnotdistinctlypsychologicalorphysioshy

logicalbutsharingaspectsofeachthatremainsatsomeremoveatadistance

fromrationalcomprehension12

Fawcettandhiscontemporariesrespondtothewarstheylivethroughacshy

cordingtothismoreextensiveviewofdistanceknowledgeandaffectInthis

theyrunathwarttwentiethshycenturytheoristCarlSchmittwhoarguingfrom

theaftermathoftheTreatyofWestphalia()famouslycalleduptheLines

ofAmitytoldquobracketrdquoeighteenthshyandnineteenthshycenturyEuropeanwarfare

fromviolenceconductedelsewhereontheplanetWarfareinEuropewassoshy

calledlimitedwarlimitedtofamiliarandrespectableenemies(justis hostes)limitedinscaleandultimatelylimitedinitsethicalconsequences13Fawcettrsquos

viewpartakesinsteadofthecosmopolitanperspectiveprovisionallyoutlined

byImmanuelKantinldquoPerpetualPeaceAPhilosophicalSketchrdquo()14This

perspectiveadmitstheclaimsofthatstrangerwesawinthepreludecoming

fromnomatterhowremoteaplacewhomightintrudeuponthewintereveshy

ningsofcontemplatorssuchasFawcettCowperorColeridgeForKantthe

strangermayclaim

aright of resortforallmenareentitledtopresentthemselvesinthesocishy

etyofothersbyvirtueoftheirrighttothecommunalpossessionofthe

12SeeKevisGoodmanrsquosdiscussionoftheldquohistory ofthesense of historyrdquoinGeorgic Modernity and British Romanticism Poetry and the Mediation of History (CambridgeCambridgeUP)ndash

nAdelaPinchStrange Fits of Passion Epistemologies of Emotion Hume to Austen (Stanford

StanfordUP)andJulieEllisonCatorsquos Tears and the Making of AngloshyAmerican Emotion(Chishy

cagoUofChicagoP)FormoregeneraldiscussionsofaffectandfeelingseeEveKosofsky

SedgwickTouching Feeling Aff ect Pedagogy Performativity (DurhamDukeUP)ReiTerada

Feeling in Theory Emotion after the ldquoDeath of the Subjectrdquo (CambridgeMAHarvardUP)

BrianMassumiParables for the Virtual Movement Aff ect Sensation (DurhamDukeUP)and

DeniseRileyImpersonal Passion Language as Aff ect(DurhamDukeUP)13InThe Nomosof the Earth (NewYorkTelos)CarlSchmittcalledtheldquobracketingof

warrdquothegreataccomplishmentoftheEuropeanpowersintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies

Thisldquobracketingrdquodependsupontheconceptofjustis hostesthejustorrespectableenemywhich

structureswarasaduelbetweenpersonifiedsovereignsandasldquowarinformrdquoHisinfluentialaccount

arguesthataftertheTreatyofWestphaliaaninternationallawprevailingwithintheLinesofAmity

markedEuropeasthesupposedzoneoflimitedwar(among justus hostes)Outsidetheselinesmdash

notoriouslyinthecolonialholdingsofEuropeanstatesmdashwarwasexemptedfromthislawSchmitt

canseetheNapoleonicperiodonlyasananomaly(ndash)SeeGarrettMattinglyldquoNoPeacebeshy

yondWhatLinerdquoTransactions of the Royal Historical Society th Ser ()ndashEligaH

GouldldquoZonesofLawZonesofViolenceTheLegalGeographyoftheBritishAtlanticcircardquo

William and Mary Quarterly(July)ndash14ImmanuelKantldquoPerpetualPeaceAPhilosophicalSketchrdquo inKant Political Writingsed

HansReiss(CambridgeCambridgeUP)


earthrsquossurfacesincetheearthisaglobetheycannotdisperseoveran

infiniteareabutmustnecessarilytolerateoneanotherrsquoscompany()

TakingtheglobeasafinitespaceKantseesthelinebetweennearandfardisshy

solvingTheprincipleofhospitalityconsequentlyextendsbeyondtherealmof

theldquocivilizedstatesespeciallythecommercialstatesrdquoofEuropetoallldquoforshy

eigncountriesandpeoplesrdquo()15 To givethatprincipleforcetomakeit

feltKantturnsfromtheabstractionofstates(hismainconcern)tothefigure

ofanindividualstrangerknockingasitwereonthedoortoyourhomeKant

understands such visitations in a quite literal and geographically grounded

senseldquowhenhearrivesonsomeoneelsersquosterritoryrdquoastrangershouldnotbe

ldquotreatedwithhostilityrdquo(ndash)ForFawcettandotherromanticwritersthe

visitationsfromotherlandsarestrangerbothmoreintimateandmoremetashy

physicalFawcettdrawshislinesnotgeopoliticallybutasthedifferencebeshy

tweenaninnerandanouterldquobleedingrdquointheheartoronthefieldinvisible

orvisibletotheoutwardeyeOrperhapsitwouldbemoreaccuratetosaythat

thebleedingthatisnotvisiblebecauseittakesplaceatageographicaldistance

elicitsthisotherinvisiblebleedinglocatedintheinnerterraindesignatedby

the conjunction of ldquoheartrdquo ldquomindrdquo and ldquobodyrdquo Such mediation between

innerandouterworldsprovidesno improvedaccess to sensoryperception

Indeeditputstheproblemofdistanceonanewfootinghowremoteoracshy

cessible is this innerworldAndyet themediationproducesaldquosenserdquo that

movementsacrosstheglobecanbefeltandregisteredcaneveninflictwith

painthewartimeldquocontemplatorrdquo

The wartime affect described by Fawcett produced in response to wars

which cannot be seen or heard smelled or touched might thus recall the

ldquosenseofHistoryrdquoAlanLiudescribesasldquotheabsencethatistheverypossibility

of the lsquohereandnowrsquordquo16 ButpreciselyasaldquosenserdquoofHistory theaffectof

wartimealsoresistssuchabstraction(resiststhesheernegativityofldquoabsencerdquo

orKantrsquosldquoinfinitedistancesrdquo)toattach itself toa feelingbodyThroughout

War at a Distancewritingandartareattunedtothisnewsenseofawarthat

haspotentiallynolimitsorendwhosescopeexpandsbothinternallyandexshy

ternallyTheyaskhowcanthehumanformwithitsmortallimitsregister

andcheckwhatremainsbeyonditsken

15HereKantstateshisdifferencefromtheGrotiusshyPufendorfschoolofinternationallawandits

WestphalianviewofEuropeanexclusivityInhiscritiqueofcolonialviolence(ndash)Kantechoes

WilliamGodwinrsquosconcurrentthoughtsinAn Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and Its Influence on Morals and Happinessvol(LondonGGandJRobinson)ndashSeealsoRichard

TuckThe Rights of War and Peace Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (OxfordOxfordUP)ndash

16AlanLiuWordsworth The Sense of History (StanfordStanfordUP)Liutakesthe

conceptofhistorystructuredasldquoabsentcauserdquofromLouisAlthusserandEacutetienneBalibarReading ldquoCapitalrdquotransBenBrewster(LondonVerso)


AsIrsquovebeensuggestingandasthenextchapterwilldevelopatlengthwarshy

timeisanaffectivezoneasense oftimethatcaughtinthemostunsettledsort

ofpresentwithoutknowledgeofitsoutcomecannotknowitsownborders

Itindicatesadislocationoftheboundedterrainusuallyassociatedwithwar

andtheextensionofwarintoarealmwithoutclearlimitsToconsiderwarshy

time then shifts attention from war on the battlefield to the experience of

thoseathomebutalsomovesfromobjectiveeventstothisothersubjective

arenamuchhardertolocateWhenPaulFussellintroduceshisbookWartime asastudyoftheldquopsychologicalandemotionalcultureofAmericansandBritshy

onsrdquoduringWorldWarIIheisfollowingacourselaiddowntwohundred

yearsearlierinapreviouswartime17 Hisexplanationofldquowartimerdquoconfirms

mysenseofitspervasiveaswellasitselusivenatureEvenasitisnoteasily

amenabletoreasonwartimemakeswaramatterofmind

Thedamagethewarvisiteduponbodiesandbuildingsplanesandtanks

andshipsisobviousLessobviousisthedamageitdidtointellectdisshy

crimination honesty individuality complexity ambiguity and irony

nottomentionprivacyandwit

Suchdamagehappenseverydayimperceptiblyinthemosttrivialinstancesor

utterancesAndyetWar at a Distance discoversnotonlythedamagingbutalso

the creative or productive nature of wartime that wartime may establish

somethingthatwarwouldotherwisedestroynamelyacultureandthatwarshy

timewritingandartmightbeabletomaketheimperceptiblefeltHowever

fragileorcompromisedthepsychologicalandemotionalculturecalledwarshy

timeprovidesitsownresponsesandsometimesitsownresistancetothedeshy

structivenessofwarThewartimeculturecalledRomanticismhasbeentreshy

mendouslyinfluentialpreciselybecauseitwasaculturethatcouldbefeltand

questionedandimitatedinresponsetoawarthreateningtodestroytherealm

ofsentienceandtherealmofitsextension

Thetaskofcapturingthishistorytornasitiswithknowingandnotshyknowshy

ingfeelingandnotshyfeelingwasfeltacutelybyWilliamHazlittawritersupshy

ported but also troubled by the wartime growth of the periodical press18

Studyinghiswritingwillgiveamoreconcretesenseofthemediationofdisshy

tant war in its seemingly endless complexity Indeed Hazlittrsquos essay ldquoThe

LettershyBellrdquoisanactofcreativereshymediationaselfshyreflexivemeditationon

17PaulFussellWartime Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War (NewYorkOxshy

fordUP)18DavidMindenHigginsRomantic Genius and the Literary Magazine(LondonandNewYork

Routledge)ndashgivesalivelyaccountofHazlittrsquosstruggleswithwritingfortheperiodical

press


theverymaterialconditionsofmediationinwartime19 Inthisthelastessay

hewroteHazlittbroodsoveranunresolvedageAsifinresponsetoColeridgersquos

worriesabouttheldquoemptysoundsrdquoofjournalismandCowperrsquosmusingonthe

soundsofviolencemutedby thenewspaperHazlittmakes thememoryof

soundsandvariousmediaofcommunicationtheobjectsofhisattentionAnd

indoingsohedrawstogethervariousstrandswhichregularlyfollowfromthis

preoccupationwithmediathestructureandfeelingoftimeasenseofhistorishy

cal eventfulness that falls away into eventlessness and wordless sounds or

ldquovoicesrdquowhichifwecouldonlydiscernthemproperlywoulddescribeaworld

ofaffectinginterest

ldquoTheLettershyBellrdquosurveysHazlittrsquoscareerasawriterbeginningwiththepresshy

entmomentinashe learnsoftheJulyRevolutionthathasdriventhe

Bourbons(again)fromFranceandextendingbackalmostfortyyearstothe

timeoftheexecutionofLouisXVIandtheopeningdaysofBritainrsquoswarswith

France20Thenwasldquomyfirstentranceintolifetheperiodofmyfirstcoming

uptotownwhenallaroundwasstrangeuncertainadversemdashahubbubof

confusednoisesachaosofshiftingobjectsrdquo()Amidthesereflectionsthe

ringingofaletterbellannouncingcomingnewsanddepartingmissivesorgashy

nizesthechaosawakeningtheyoungHazlittfromldquothedreamoftimerdquointoa

senseofthemomentouspresent()Enunciatingthatmomentthebellcalls

HazlittintolifeandintowritingButitsringingsimultaneouslycallshiminto

whatScarrywouldcallsentienceanditsextensionldquo[T]hissoundalone

broughtmeasitweretomyselfmademefeelthatIhadlinksstillconnecting

mewiththeuniverseandgavemehopeandpatiencetopersevererdquo()The

musicalsoundthusgrantsHazlittasensemdashheardandfeltmdashofhistoryitsitushy

ateshimintheworldandinhisworkThushedescribestheendofawintry

dayashesitsbythefireplaceldquowhiletheLettershyBellwastheonlysoundthat

drewmythoughtstotheworldwithoutandremindedmethatIhadataskto

performinitrdquo()Yetevenasthesoundingbellcallshimtohishistoricrole

itrecallsthedistancebetweentheworldwithoutandtheworldwithinhehas

infactwithdrawnfromtheworldandlapsedinhisattentiontohistaskIn

signaling the moment the letter bell also exposes the surrounding drift of

19OnremediationseeJayDavidBolterandRichardGrusinRemediation Understanding New Media (Cambridge MIT Press ) esp pp ndash and ndash Celeste Langan and Maureen

McLaneargueforthespecificallyromanticpreoccupationwithremediationldquoTheMediumofRoshy

manticPoetryrdquoinJamesKChandlerandMaureenMcLaneedsCambridge Companion to British Romantic Poetry(CambridgeCambridgeUP)ndash

20ldquoTheLettershyBellrdquowasfirstpublishedposthumously inThe Monthly MagazineMarch

Hazlittprobablywrote intheaftermathoftheldquotrois glorieusesrdquomdashthethreedaysofrevolutionin

ParisthatoustedCharlesXandresultedinLouisshyPhilippersquosconstitutionalmonarchyThe Selected Writings of William HazlittedDuncanWuvol(LondonPickeringampChatto)n


unsoundedeventlessnessitspunctualitycarvesoutthealternativetimeofhis

ldquoreveriesrdquoandtheunsortedldquodreamoftimerdquo()

Hazlittwantstheplayoftheseeverydaysoundsandrhythmstoevoketheir

ownhistoriography

The punctuating of time at that early period [during his early

adulthood]mdashevery thing that gives it an articulate voicemdashseems of

theutmostconsequenceforwedonotknowwhatscenesintheideal worldmayrunoutofthemaworldofinterestmayhanguponevery

instantandwecanhardlysustaintheweightoffutureyearswhichare

contained in embryo in the most minute and inconsiderable passing

events()21

ForamanofHazlittrsquosgenerationtheletterbellmighthaveannouncedthe

comingnewsofvictoriesanddefeatsandhedropsinthewordldquoalarmrdquo(the

bellldquowasakindofalarmrdquohesays)tohintattheyearsofinvasionscaresthat

troubledBritainduringthewarsthebellwasthenapotentmediumofwarshy

time()22YetHazlittasksustounderstandthepastfourdecadesnotbythe

contentofthenewswhichpresumablywealreadyknowbutbytheseresoshy

nantformsorsoundswhichtellofwhatwemayyetknowanditscompanion

feelingsanticipationawakeninglongingregrethopeForHazlittthesound

ofthebellcollapsescontentandformintoakindofhistoryanldquoarticulaterdquo

if wordless voice that emerges from the chaotic ldquohubbubrdquo to suggest the

possibilitiesmdashstillwordlessandperhapsneverrealizedandonlyldquoidealrdquomdashof

any instant The passing of the letter bellmdashits echoes passing through the

streetsofLondonbutalsonowpassingawayasaviablemediummdashitselfbeshy

comesoneofthoseldquominuteandinconsiderablepassingeventsrdquothatchallenge

thehistorianThepoignancyoftheessayderivesfromthepotentialconfusion

ofoneinstrumentofcommunication(thewriterrsquosownwordsprintedupin

theperiodicalpress)with thisother (the repeating ringingbellof themoshy

ment)theidentificationofhisevocativeprosewiththiswordlesssoundand

therecognitionthatthesepassingldquovoicesrdquocarryasenseofthefailuresaswell

asthefullnessoftimes

AndsoHazlittendsbygivingahistoryofwartime(thatistosayahistory

ofwarmediated)intheguiseofanessayonaestheticsInthefinalmovement

oftheessayheturnsfirsttoCowperrsquosThe Task (themodelforhisownldquotask

toperformrdquo)andquotesat length fromtheopeningofBookIV thenoisy

arrivalofthepostshyboyThispoeticpassage(andHazlittremainsambivalent

21HazlittrsquosldquoOnaSunshyDialrdquoalsoreflectsontimeshytellingasawayintoideasofhistoryInSelected Writingsndash

22ComparewithThomasDeQuinceyrsquostriumphantldquoTheEnglishMailCoachrdquoinConfessions of an English Opium Eater and Other WritingsedGrevelLindop(OxfordOxfordUP)ndash


whetherpoetrymaybeanotherpassinginstrument)underwriteshisclosing

meditation

InCowperrsquostimeMailshyCoacheswerehardlysetupbuthehasbeautishy

fullydescribedthecominginofthePostshyBoy[HequotesIVndash

whereinfactCowperdescribesboththecomingandthepassingofthe

postshyboy]Andyetnotwithstandingthisandsomanyotherpassages

that seemlike theverymarrowofourbeingLordByrondenies that

CowperwasapoetmdashtheMailshyCoachisanimprovementonthePostshy

BoybutIfearitwillhardlybearsopoeticaladescriptionThepicturshy

esqueanddramaticdonotkeeppacewiththeusefulandmechanical

The telegraphs that lately communicated the intelligence of the new

revolutiontoallFrancewithinafewhoursareawonderfulcontrivance

buttheyarelessstrikingandappallingthanthebeaconshyfires(mentioned

byAeschylus)whichlightedfromhillshytoptohillshytopannouncedthe

takingofTroyandthereturnofAgamemnon(ndash)23

ItwouldbeeasyandprobablynotincorrecttoallyHazlitttoareactionary

andnostalgicviewofwarfareButweshouldunderstandfirstthathiscritique

appliestothemechanizationandsystemizationofcommunicationnotwarshy

fare itselfandthathemournsthere(evenashereproduces) thepassingof

somethingldquopoeticalrdquowhichmixesmattersofgeopolitical informationwith

timingorldquopacerdquoandaestheticeffectsIncallingattentiontotheldquopoeticrdquo(for

himasynonymfortheaesthetic)Hazlittrsquospurposeisnotnecessarilytoproshy

moteaspectacularandsublimeviewofhistoryorwarfareldquoappallingrdquofires

andthefateofAgamemnonsurelyshortshycircuitsublimeupliftRatherheacshy

centuatesthelivedsenseandstructureofhistorythatsuchmediatinginstrushy

mentsmdashbe they bell or telegraph film or Web sitemdashmight convey From

themHazlittconstructshisversionofwartimeasaneverydayexperience24

TheaestheticinvestigatedinthechapterstocomeasinHazlittrsquosessaywill

shyawayfromthespectacularandsublimeeffectsusuallyassociatedwiththe

representationofwar incliningmoretowardtheunconsideredorthecomshy

monplaceakintowhatAnneshyLiseFranccediloisdescribesasldquouncountedexperishy

encerdquo25 In not calling attention to themselves such aesthetic strategies are

23WalterScottlightssimilarsignalfiresintheopeningofThe Lay of the Last Minstrel ()

thensubjectsthemtomildparodyinhisnovelThe Antiquary ()CharlotteSmithinvokessignal

firesinldquoBeachyHeadrdquo()MorerecentsignalfiresappearinPeterJacksonrsquosfilmadaptationsof

JRRTolkienrsquosThe Lord of the RingsThe Return of the King()24CelesteLanganandMaureenMcLaneunderstandromanticldquocontroversiessurroundingthe

disputedtermlsquopoetryrsquoaspreciselyanattempttogeneratebothmediatheoryandmediahistoryrdquo

ldquoTheMediumofRomanticPoetryrdquonp25AnneshyLiseFranccediloisOpen Secrets The Literature of Uncounted Experience (StanfordStanford

UP)xixFranccediloisexploresrepresentationsofuncountedexperienceinordertoremovethe


nonethelessmdashandmaybeallthemoremdashaffectingastheyglideintotherhythms

ofordinarylifeFoundinmomentsofgazingatthefireplaceorhearingabell

theyalsodisclosethemselvesIwillshowlaterinthesceneofasnowshycovered

fieldinunremarkableaccidentsinadriftingcloudamakeshiftbridgeSuch

figuresinvitethecondescensionwegivetothepicturesqueeventhoughthey

allcarrywiththemlikeCowperrsquospostshyboyasenseofdistantcalamityLike

ldquoTheLettershyBellrdquothechaptersthatfollowwilllookbackwardtowhatisknown

tohavehappenedbutputthebackwardturnintheserviceofcontemplating

ldquotheweightoffutureyearsrdquopressingonthatpastInmakingthepresentand

pastanswerabletoadistantfuturewartimewriterssustaininhistoryaformof

prophecyTheywritethatistosaybothofandoutoftheirtime26

ldquoTheLettershyBellrdquodemonstrateshowtheldquotaskrdquoofthepoeticoraestheticinshy

spiresHazlittandinfiltrateshisproseeventhoughthattaskisalwaysatriskof

beingforgottenorpassingunnoticedInthistraditionWar at a Distance takes

itsbearingsfromwhatmayseemasingularlyunlikelysourceWilliamCowpshy

errsquosThe Taskwith itspostshyboyand its ldquoWinterEveningrdquo setby thehearth

ThoughCowperrsquosmasterpiecehaslongbeentakenasahymntodomesticity

andChristianpietyHazlittandmanyotherromanticwritersrecognizedthat

inThe Task Cowperprovidedmaterialsandtechniquesthathelpedthemconshy

structacomplexaestheticformodernwartimethesematerialsandtechniques

havesincebeenoverlookedWhenHazlittsuggeststhatByronapoetmoreasshy

sociatedwiththespectacularandsensationalmightrelearnhowtoreadCowshy

perandthusrediscovertheldquomarrowofourbeingrdquohechallengesustoreread

aswellIndoingsowemaylearnanewhowtoreadandwriteaboutwar

WorldsWithoutandWithin

WhatCowpergavetohiscontemporaryreadershasbeenvariouslydescribed

asamodelofnineteenthshycenturydomesticsubjectivitytingedwithevangelical

pietyanuneasyrehabilitationofthebachelorfigureassuburbanmananda

sensibility critical of the inhumanity of slavery and imperial expansion27

FrancisJeffreycouldclaiminthatldquoeveryoneisinternallyfamiliarrdquowith

subjectfromethicalldquoclaimsrdquoorldquodemandsrdquoandprovideinsteadacertainldquogracerdquo(ndash)Inmy

accountoftheeventlessnessofwartimehoweverclaimsanddemandsstillpermeatetheexperience

oftheordinary26Fussellsuggeststhatwartimepresentsaworldinwhichdeadlyblundersldquoaremorecommon

thanusualrdquoandexplanatorynarrativesaredifficulttoachieve()27LeonoreDavidoffandCatherineHallFamily Fortunes (ChicagoUofChicagoP)ndash

AndrewElfenbeinldquoStrickenDeerSecrecyHomophobiaandtheRiseoftheSuburbanManrdquo

Genders ()TimFulfordDebbieLeeandPeterJKitsonLiterature Science and Exploration in the Romantic Era Bodies of Knowledge(CambridgeCambridgeUP)ndashndash


theldquoprivatefeelingsrdquoofferedinThe Taskbythepoemhadbeengiventhe

statusofldquohouseholdwordsrdquo28 Yetthereremainsaneglectedaspectofthereshy

markablebequestofCowperrsquospoemsentoutfromhisrefugeinOlneytoa

largerworldForromanticwritersofmodernwartimeaworldhangsinnearly

every lineofCowperrsquosldquoTheWinterrsquosEveningrdquoaworldofbarelydiscerned

consequencesandviolence Iwill frequently reread these lines in thepages

that followFor themoment Iwant tonote theldquoworldlinessrdquoofCowperrsquos

thinking the ldquoworldrdquo and its putative distance are both the objects of his

thoughtandtheenablingconditionsofthatthoughtHere isCowperrsquosdeshy

scriptionofreadingthenewspaperldquoatasafedistancerdquofromtheldquoroarrdquoofthat

world

Iseemadvancrsquod

Tosomesecureandmorethanmortalheight

Thatlibrsquoratesandexemptsmefromthemall

It[theworld]turnssubmittedtomyviewturnsround

WithallitsgenerationsIbehold

Thetumultandamstill(IVndash)

Thedescriptionisremarkablyvexingbutalsocannythepoetmightaswellbe

watchingtheeveningtelevisionnews(anditstrademarkspinningglobe)with

thesoundmutedldquoThesoundofwarHaslostitsterrorsereitreachesmerdquo

headds(IVndash)Themodernexperienceofwartimecancertainlyadopt

thisdetachedrationalandobviouslyprivilegedstanceButdetachmentand

rationalitysometimesgivewayinhispoemtoaclosermoreintimatesenseof

warEvenashereadsthepaperandremarksuponhispeacefulparlourCowshy

perglancesuptoseeafleetingimageoftheenemywarriorGoliathinthemirshy

rorsoftheroom(IVndash)Andlaterthoughapparentlyexemptfromthe

effectsofwarCowperdiscovers in theldquoindolentvacuityof [his] thoughtrdquo

uncanny remindersofwar evenwithinhis cozy retreat (IV)AsKevis

GoodmandiscoversinherreadingofThe Taskthepoemopensontoldquocertain

hauntedstrangersthatwanderthroughiteachofthemdispossessedorvashy

grantsubjectstouchedbytheeffectsofimperialexpansionrdquo()Goodmanrsquos

readingupendsconventionalinterpretationsofthepoembyfindinginitasoshy

phisticatedandanxiousoutlookonthenewsandalargerworldofsuffering

Cowperrsquosmasterpiecefitswithinherlargertheorizingofthecomplexmediashy

tionofaffectandconsequentrevisionsofhistoryatworkinthepoetryofthe

longeighteenthcenturyHerinsightshaveprofoundlyinfluencedthisstudy

28Jeffrey writes of Cowper in his review of ldquoHayleyrsquos Life of Cowperrdquo Edinburgh Review

()ndashthelastcitationcomesfromGeorgeGodfreyCunninghamedLives of Eminent and Illustrious Englishmenvols(GlasgowAFullarton)JeffreyandLives arecitedinElfshy

enbein


assubsequentchapterswillmakeclearFornowitisenoughtosaythatindisshy

coveringthesehauntingremindersaffectiveratherthanintellectualCowper

sketchedabridgefromimmediatefeelingandperceptiontoasenseofdistant

sufferingItistruethatthisbridgeistentativeanduncertainthosecrossingit

areliableatanymomenttofallbackintodetachmentoraffectiveparalysis

tobeholdthetumultandbestillButromanticwritersafterCowperfoundin

hispoemthetoolsbywhichtoexpresstheiraffectiveunshyjoinedinarticulate

responsetobattlesfoughtafar29

OnereasonCowperrsquospoemwassopowerfulforthosewriterslayinitsenshy

gagementwiththatpowerfultraditionineighteenthshycenturymoralphilososhy

phywhichinsiststhatourfeelingsdiminishastheobjectsofsufferingarereshy

movedbydistancetemporalorgeographicalCowperreactsthatisagainst

whatwemightcallapriortheoryofmediationThusforDavidHumethe

newsismildlybutnotdeeplyaffecting

AnyrecentEventorPieceofNewsbywhich theFortunesofStates

Provinces or many Individuals are affected is extremely interesting

eventothosewhoseWelfareisnotimmediatelyengagrsquodSuchIntellishy

genceispropagatedwithCelerityheardwithAvidityandenquirrsquodinto

withAttentionandConcernTheImaginationissuretobeaffected

thorsquothePassionsexcitedmaynotalwaysbesostrongandsteadyasto

havegreatInfluenceontheConductandBehaviour30

Intelligencefromabroadgrabsyourattentionbutdoesnotmoveorpenetrate

youElsewhereinfactHumewarnsagainstmakingdistantsufferingldquopresent

andintimaterdquo

[I]fweconfineourselvestoageneralanddistantreflectionontheillsof

humanlifethat canhavenoeffecttoprepareusforthemIfbyclose

andintensemeditationwerenderthempresentandintimatetousthat isthetruesecretofpoisoningallourpleasuresandrenderingusperpetshy

uallymiserable31

29Cowperdoes this in response to even incompetitionwith the reigningmedia form the

newspaper(Georgic Modernity ndash)SeealsoIanBaucomSpecters of the Atlantic Finance Capital Slavery and the Philosophy of History(DurhamDukeUP)ndash

30DavidHumeAn Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals(LondonAMillar)31DavidHumeEssays and Treatises on Several Subjectsvols(EdinburghandLondonGeorge

CawCadellandDavies)emphasisoriginalAdamSmithreiteratesandextendsthis

thoughtinThe Theory of Moral Sentiments (AmherstNYPrometheus)ldquoAllmeneventhose

atthegreatestdistanceareentitledtoourgoodwishesButifnotwithstandingtheyshouldbe

unfortunatetogiveourselvesanyanxietyuponthataccountseemstobenopartofourdutyrdquo()

OnSmithandlongshydistancesympathyseeEllisonndashBaucomndashandChristopherHershy

bertCulture and Anomie Ethnographic Imagination in the Nineteenth Century(ChicagoUofChishy

cagoP)ndash


ThispassagefromHumersquosessayldquoTheScepticrdquoprovidesanextremecounter

tothesentimental traditionpromoting insteadthefantasyofa formidably

insularindividualNeverthelessitshrewdlyhighlightsthetwofacesorldquotwo

cosmopolitanismsrdquoavailableinthesentimentaltraditionontheonehandthe

ldquogeneralanddistantreflectionrdquousuallyassignedtoafigurelikeAdamSmithrsquos

ldquoimpartialspectatorrdquokintoCowperrsquosldquolibrsquoratedandexemptedrdquoreaderandon

theothertheldquocloseandintensemeditationrdquoofthemelancholiconewhocanshy

nothelpasSmithalsosaysldquochangingplacesinfancywiththesufferer

andbe[ing]affectedbywhathefeelsrdquo()32 AsCowpershowedwithspecial

forcethisoscillationbetweenabstractionandintimacydetachmentandinvashy

sionprovesfundamentaltothepsychologicalandemotionalcultureofmodshy

ernwartime

Whenprosecutedonthescaleoftheplanetas itwasat theturnofthe

nineteenthandagaininthetwentiethcenturywartookshapeasforcesspanshy

ningtheglobeButasCowperrealizedrecognitionoftheglobalsweepofthe

warlentonlynewurgencytothecultivationofaninterioritywhichcompreshy

hendedtheinteriorspacesofEnglanditselfitscottagesandhearthsitsldquodoshy

mesticquietrdquobutalsoandincreasinglyitsinnerpsycheAsbothCowperand

Hazlittunderstooditwartimewasamatterofboththeworldldquowithoutrdquoand

aworldwithin33 If asGeorgLukaacutecs argued the ldquoinner lifeof anation is

linkedwiththemodernmassarmyinawayitcouldnothavebeenrdquopriorto

theFrenchRevolutiontheinnerlifeofindividualscannotescapethismilitashy

rized context Indeed as the three poems in my prelude and as Hazlittrsquos

bellmdashitwas ldquolike an alarmrdquo and ldquobroughtme tomyself rdquomdashall suggest

wartimemakesithardtodeterminewhetherornotthosepsychicspaceshad

beenconjuredpreciselytoregisterwarrsquosintrusion

DescribingtheldquocalamitousyearsrdquoofforeignwarfareinldquoTheRuinedCotshy

tagerdquo()WilliamWordsworthbeginstodevelopsomeoftheaffectiveand

rhetorical possibilities that lie within this conception of wartime34 In that

temporally layeredandhighlymediated talewritten in butfirstpubshy

lishedinthepoetworksoutaldquostrangedisciplinerdquotocoordinatetheopshy

erationsofworldswithoutandwithin35Thepoemrsquosnarratortellsofrepeated

32InhisanalysisofSmithrsquosTheory of Moral SentimentsBaucomidentifiesldquothetwocosmopolishy

tanismsrdquothatofthedisinterestedspectatorwithitssystematicviewoftheworldandthatofaldquodeshy

jectedrdquosystemofawidelyrangingsympatheticfancyindependentofdistance(Baucom)33GeorgLukaacutecsThe Historical Novel(LincolnUofNebraskaP)34William Wordsworth The Excursion book I line in Wordsworth Poetical Works ed

ThomasHutchinsonrevErnestdeSelincourt(OxfordOxfordUP)Allfurthercishy

tationsfromthistext35WilliamWordsworthldquoReconcilingAddendumrdquotoldquoTheRuinedCottagerdquoinPoetical Works

of William WordsworthedErnestdeSelincourtandHelenDarbishire(OxfordClarendon)


visitstoMargaretinherruralcottageandchartsherdeclineintopovertyand

miseryafterldquotheplagueofwarrdquohitsFirstcomediseaseanddroughttheefshy

fectsofwhichpushherhusbandRoberttosellhimselftojoinldquoatroopOf

soldiersgoingtoadistantlandrdquo(Indash)Thehistoricalreferentseemsto

betheAmericanWarof Independencebutthetimingremainsunclearinany

casethepoemrehearsesandthenisitselfrehearsedasawartimenarrative36

MargaretisleftnonotejustablanksheetofpaperwiththemoneyRobert

raisedsheunderstandslittlebutthathewantedtokeepherfromfollowing

andldquolsquosink[ing]Beneaththemiseryofthatwanderinglifersquordquomdashthatisthenot

uncommonpracticeofaccompanyingherhusbandtowar(Indash)Yetas

the effects of distant war accumulate Margaret does take to a desperate

wandering

ldquoIhavebeentravellingfarandmanydays

AboutthefieldsIwanderknowingthis

OnlythatwhatIseekIcannotfind

AndsoIwastemytimeforIamchanged

Andtomyselfrdquosaidsheldquohavedonemuchwrongrdquo(Indash)

Whenherbodygrowstoowearyhermindwandersinasortofvacancyor

wasteoftimereminiscentofCowperrsquosldquolosthourrdquo

inyonarbouroftentimesshesate[thenarratorreports]

Alonethroughhalfthevacantsabbathday

Onthisoldbench

Forhoursshesateandevermorehereye

Wasbusyinthedistanceshapingthings

Thatmadeherheartbeatquick(Indashndash)

Thiswanderingofbodyandmindansweringtoandmirroringtheinvisible

movementoftroopsindistantlandsprovesinfectiousnotonlytoMargaret

buttothestorytellerlaternamedldquoTheWandererrdquointheversionthatappears

inBookIofThe ExcursionHetoohasldquowastedrdquoanhourstaringataldquodesolaterdquo

ldquospotrdquo(I)Often inhiswalks theWanderer saysldquoAmomentary

36InitsfirstversionthenarratortellsofhisvisitstoMargaretrsquoscottageandrelaysherversionof

whathappenedInthelaterversionembeddedinThe Excursionthenarratornowknownasthe

PedlarrepeatsataletoldhimbytheWandererwhoconveysMargaretrsquostaleinanarrativefullofinshy

terruptionsanddigressionsInanotedictatedtoIsabellaFenwickWordsworthdoesnotexactly

clarifythehistorymixingtheWarofIndependenceandthemorerecentwarswithFrance

IwasborntoolatetohaveadistinctremembranceoftheoriginoftheAmericanwarbut

thestateinwhichIrepresentRobertrsquos[thehusbandrsquos]mindtobeIhadfrequentopportushy

nitiesofobservingatthecommencementofourrupturewithFrance in lsquo (Qtd

inWilliamWordsworth The PoemsedJohnOHaydenvol(NewHavenYaleUP

)n)


trancecomesovermeAndtomyselfIseemtomuserdquoonsomeonewhohas

eitherdiedorbeenldquoborneawayrdquo(Indash)

Thisvagrancyofaffectionderivesinpartfromtheepistemologicalquanshy

darythesecharactersinhabitMargaretforinstanceldquohad[n]otidingsof

herhusbandrdquogonetowar(I)ldquoSheknewnotthathe lived ifhewere

deadSheknewnothewasdeadrdquo(Indash)Butthewanderingofaffecthas

anothersourceonecloselyrelatedtothisunanswerablequestionoflivingor

deadandonewhichmakesevidenttherelationbetweenthetropeofwandershy

ingandtheoscillationofdetachmentandintimacywefirstsawinCowperAs

AlanLiuarguesWordsworthrsquospoemportraysaworldwherefeelinghumanity

waversbeforeasystemorldquopatternrdquoofunfeelingthings(Indash)theldquounshy

couthfiguresrdquocarvedbyadisconsolateRobertldquoontheheadsofsticksrdquothe

broken bowls the omnipresent weeds the ruin of the cottage For all the

Wandererrsquosbeliefthattheldquosecretspiritofhumanityrdquosurvivesintheldquoplants

andweedsandflowersrdquothatclusteraroundtheruinsofthecottage(Indash

)Liupointsoutthatldquothere is also something shockingly dehumanizing about [such]imageryrdquo(emphasisoriginal)37 Notmerelytheindividualobjects

butpatterningitselfthetranslationofdisparatethings(andpersons)intoforshy

mal or conceptual organization powerfully challenges a felt or feeling life

EvenasRobertexchangeshisvitalpresenceformuchshyneededcash(whichis

soondispersed)evenashishappydomesticitywithMargaretyieldstolarger

economiesthatputhiminaldquotrooprdquotransportedtoaldquodistantlandrdquoevenas

Margaretneglectsherinfantbecausehermindispathologicallyldquobusyatadisshy

tancerdquosothepatternofthepoemleavesthereaderlikeMargaretgazingafter

absentpeoplewhileldquoshaping thingsrdquo ina futile effort toldquomade [the]heart

beatrdquoldquorsquoTisacommontalerdquoaccordingtotheWandererpartofapatternone

mightsayandcommonnowtoMargaretandreaderalike(I)Andinbeshy

comingcommonthepoempullsawayfromfeltimmediacyldquoAtaleofsilent

sufferinghardlyclothedInbodilyformrdquo(Indash)(Wordsworthrsquostropes

are characteristically complex read backwards the sentient body is a

ldquoformrdquoconvertedthroughmetaphortoinsensateclothingwhichisthennearly

removedfromtheldquotalerdquo)IndeedasLiuimpliesinitscomplexformalpatshy

terninginitslayersoftemporalandnarrativemediationldquoTheRuinedCotshy

tagerdquoprovidesasmuchdistancedcomprehensionofaldquocommonrdquosituationas

movingtestimonygroundedinthesufferingofhumanbodies

Thepoemrsquosaffectiveandepistemologicaluneaseislocatedinthediscrepshy

ancybetweenthesetworealmsbetweensensiblefeelingandcomprehensive

patternThisdiscrepancyservesinfactasthemotorforthepoemrsquosvagrancy

37LiutakeshiscuefromCleanthBrooksldquoWordsworthandHumanSufferingNotesonTwo

EarlyPoemsrdquoinFrom Sensibility to Romanticism (LondonOxfordUP)ndashOntheStoic

apatheiaorunshyfeelingatworkinThe ExcursionseealsoGoodmanndash


its restlessness of mind and body In his momentary trance Wordsworthrsquos

Wanderercallsupafigurefromthepurgatorybetweenthefeltandtheunfelt

ldquoIseemtomuseonOneAhumanbeingdestinedtoawakeTohuman

lifeorsomethingverynearrdquo(Indash)Margaretperformsherownconstant

ldquotracingrdquoandretracingof thispurgatorialzoneamoving intothedistance

andreturningtothecottagetowardabsentpeopleandbacktopresentthings

Eachperformsthisperpetuallyfrustratedsortofcognitivemappingthemoveshy

mentof their feet in theoutsideworld corresponding to thewanderingof

theirmindsAgainstCowperrsquosmoreprivilegednewspaper reader sitting at

homewhiletheworldturnssubmittedtohisviewthesecharactersareextershy

nally and internallymovedunsettled sentwandering fromhomeEvenas

theyattempttomapthissentientgroundtheyrealizenothingwillbesettled

orascertainedhereldquoIwanderrdquoMargaretexplainsldquoknowingthisOnlythat

whatIseekIcannotfindrdquo(Indash)Suchpurgatorialfiguresldquonotdeadbut

neverfullyaliveeitheranimatedthingsordeanimatedpersonsrdquohauntWordshy

sworthrsquospoetrymoregenerallyasDavidSimpsonnotesTheyareldquoghostswho

arenotfullyofthepresentyetseembereftofaccessiblepastsmdashhauntingthe

presentfromthepresentitselfrdquo38

WhenWordsworthwantstodisclosethecoordinationoftheworldwithin

andtheworldwithouthestagesitasanincursiononwhatwemightcallthe

presentframeofmindbydistantviolenceLikeCowperColeridgeHazlitt

andWilliamsWordsworthliteralizesthisincursioninawinterscenebythe

hearthForpoorabandonedMargaretthesecurityandexemptionCowper

foundinhisretreatarefarpastHerhomeandtheveryframeofherinner

worldarepermeabletotheruinousforcesoftheworldwithoutinwaysthat

beliethesupposeddivisionofinnerandouter

MeanwhileherpoorHut

Sanktodecayforhewasgonewhosehand

AtthefirstnippingofOctoberfrost

Closedupeachchink

Andsoshelived

Throughthelongwinterrecklessandalone

Untilherhousebyfrostandthawandrain

Wassappedandwhileshesleptthenightlydamps

Didchillherbreastandinthestormyday

Hertatteredclotheswereruffledbythewind

Evenatthesideofherownfire(Indash)

38David Simpson ldquoDerridarsquos Ghosts The State of Our Debtrdquo Studies in Romanticism

(SummerndashFall)ndash


Iwillhavemoretosaylateraboutthelongwinterofwartimeandthechillshy

ingnumbnessthatitspreadsForthepresentImerelywanttonotethatif

ldquoTheRuinedCottagerdquoseemsaraworstrippeddownversionofthewartime

createdintheotherpoemsitnonethelesscomestousthroughthemediation

ofthemanoflettersWordsworthrsquosinitialnarratorandthentheWandererIn

eachcasethenarratorworksdiligentlytoputthishistoryanditswoestorest

ldquoMyFriendenoughtosorrowyouhavegivenrdquotheWandererchideshislisshy

tenerasifsorrowhaditsowneconomy(I)39Yetaswehaveseenthetale

itselfpressesagainstallmanneroflayingtorestandmovesinuponthepresent

audienceelicitingthattroublingsorrowInitsemphasisontheturningsand

reshyturningsthatplacethenarratorsoncommongroundwithMargaretmdashldquoI

turnedasideinweaknessrdquosaysthenarratorforasecondtimewhenthetaleis

doneldquoThentowardsthecottageIreturnedrdquo(I)mdashweseehowthe

poemconstructswartimeasaparticularandrecurrent(retraceable)geopolitishy

calconditiontheverygroundofanexperiencethatisneverthelessalwaysin

somesenseremovedreshymoved

IftheconductoftheNapoleonicwarspromptedGeneralCarlvonClauseshy

witztotheorizeldquowarwithoutlimitsrdquoanideawhichledacenturylatertothe

theoryandpracticeofwhatwenowcalltotalwarthatmilitarytheorywas

accompanied and supported by another feature of those wars As Wordshy

sworthrsquosldquostrangedisciplinerdquohintswritersfoundthecapacitytorepresentwar

asanadaptivesystemwithaglobalreachmovingimpassivelyandextensively

butalsointensivelyandminutelymdashwithoutlimitsWarinthiserawasshown

tooperatebothgloballyandsimultaneouslywithintheeverydaycultivating

what SamuelTaylor Coleridge calls in ldquoFrost at Midnightrdquo ldquodim sympashy

thiesrdquobetweenpresentandabsentrealitiesTakenasaubiquitoussystemwar

wasatonceunremarkableandnearlyimperceptiblesomethingnonevident

thatcouldnotalwaysbemadeevidentFeltandunfeltimpersonalandintishy

matewarbecameforthoseexperiencingitatadistanceanotshyfullyshyconscious

awareness thatcouldflareupandflickeroutevenas theywentabout the

routines of the day read the paper watchedTV or turned and stared as

manydidatsomethingelsemdashornothingatallIntheirhistoriesofmodern

wartimethetextsofRomanticismdonotdisclosewhathadbeenhiddenor

repressed but ask us to attune ourselves to the signs of what was always

elsewhere

39TheWandererwasstronglyinfluencedbyWordsworthrsquosencounterswithJosephFawcettthe

preacherandpoetcitedearlierWordsworthmentions thatFawcettrsquosldquoPoemonWar [The Art of War laterpublishedasCivilised War]whichhadagooddealofmerit mademe

thinkmoreabouthimthanIshouldotherwisehavedonerdquo(ldquoNotesrdquoinPoetical Works)


WartimeWithoutLimits

PeriodizationflourisheswithinwartimeThedesireispowerfultoputperiod

toandstepoutsideofthetimeofwartocontainandmanageittobeholdit

andbestillThisisoneformbywhichwaratadistanceismediatedaform

whichreplacesgeographicaldistancewiththedistanceofchronologicalclassishy

ficationeveninthesimpleformoftodayrsquosnewsoccludingthenewsofyestershy

dayAswersquollseeRaymondWilliamsremarkinthenextchaptersuchmediatshy

ing structures of feeling (like any form of mediation) can allow both the

transmissionof experience and itsobstructionChannelingwar intodelinshy

eatedperiodsof timewithdefinitebeginningsandendsmdashor thinkingspashy

tially with obvious insides and outsidesmdashallows and heightens certain reshy

sponsestowarbutalsokeepsitataremovePeriodizinginotherwordsresists

oraimstocloseofftheongoingldquopresentnessrdquoorincompleteldquopresenttenserdquoof

historyasWilliamsconceivesitTheldquoperiodizationstrategyrdquoRussellBerman

hasarguedpolemically isldquodesignedtoseparatethereadersofth[is]present

from the claimants of the pastrdquomdashthat is from the claimants of a present

markedasdifferentandoveryesterdayrsquosnews40 Itrsquos nothardtounderstand

thenwhywartimegeneratesarushtosuchformsofseparationandendinga

wardingoffofthosetroublingghoststhatSimpsonperceivesldquohauntingthe

presentfromthepresentitself rdquo()

Andyetmysurveyofwartimewritingindicateswartimealsohastrouble

measuringitsdistancefromothertimesofwaritproducesahistoryofthe

presentalwayspermeabletootherpresentsotherwartimesRecallthestrucshy

tureofWordsworthrsquosldquoRuinedCottagerdquoitsturnsandreturnsfusingthewarshy

timeoftheearlyswiththatofthesandthosewithanimaginedfushy

turewartimeofthereaderInanotherwaytheldquofilmsrdquothatColeridgeseeson

thefire grate anticipate the strangefilms that invadeour living (ormedia)

roomsAndsomywritingalsonowandthenletsinsuchstrangersfromanshy

othertimehazardingaconfusionofproperhistoricalplacementintroducing

anachronismItdoessonotmdashornotsimplymdashtoshakeofftheconstraintsof

historicism with its emphasis on periodizing nor to generate topical releshy

vance(Infacttheanachronismofwartimeisaslikelytoflingupwarsfrom

theancientpastasmorehistoricallyrecentconflicts)Insteadthisstudyparshy

ticipatesinanachronisminordertobetruetoitstopic41Ratherthanprovide

40Russell Berman ldquoPolitics Divide and Rulerdquo MLQ Modern Language Quarterly

()41On anachronism seeSrinivasAravamudan ldquoTheReturnofAnachronismrdquoMLQ Modern

Language Quarterly ()ndashJamesChandlerEngland in (ChicagoUofChicagoP

)ndashndashandJeromeChristensenRomanticism at the End of History (BaltimoreJohns

HopkinsUP)ndash


thehistoryofapastperiod itrecordsthevestigesofanunlimitedpresent

sentientofawarwithoutlimitsThesevestigesarewaysofexperiencingand

tellingwarthathavenotbeenfullyacknowledgedyetaffectusstill

OverthetenyearswhileIwaswritingitWar at a Distance becameasifby

accidentawartimehistoryofmodernwartimeWhenandwhereitactually

beginsthusisdifficulttosayDuringthefirstGulfWarwhenIinitiallyturned

myattentiontothisearlierwartimeOrduringtheVietnamerawhenBettyT

BennettassembledheranthologyofBritish War Poetry in the Age of Romantishycismthediscoveryofwhichstimulatedmyownresearch42Orindeedduring

theyearsoftheRevolutionaryandNapoleonicwarstowhichmyreflections

ontwentyshyfirstshycenturywartimereturnagainandagainUndertheevershypresshy

entpossibilityofunlimitedwarwartimeitselfseemsincreasinglydifficultto

restrictorsealoffalwaysvulnerabletoinvasionfromotherwarsTheproblem

isnotsolelymineThroughoutthiscontemporarywartimethequestionsreshy

mainhotlydebated Is theUnitedStatesagainfighting in thequagmireof

VietnamOrisitengagedinthenoblemissionofWorldWarIIOrareopenshy

ingoftheCrusadesWhereandwhendidthistimeofwarbeginAndwhydo

thesepastwarssuddenlyseemnottohavebeensettledonceandforallElseshy

whereperhapsmorequietlythepresentwartimegivesincreasingcurrencyif

notexplanatoryvaluetotheNapoleonicadventureanditsworldwideeffects

asinPeterWeirrsquosrecentscreenadaptationofPatrickOrsquoBrienrsquosnovelsMaster and CommanderThe Far Side of the World ()inthePirates of the Caribshybean moviefranchiseorinthepublicvoteonldquoTheGreatestPaintingin

BritainrdquowhichwenttoThe Fighting TemeraireJMWTurnerrsquosrenderingof

a battleship celebrated for its role in the battle ofTrafalgar (an event

whose bicentennial was celebrated with enormous fanfare throughout the

BritishCommonwealth)43 ButInotealsothebroodingpresenceofthisearshy

lier wartime among intellectuals In Booker Prizendashwinner Barry Unshy

sworthpublishedLosing Nelsonnarratedbyamanobsessedwithandcomshy

pelled to reenact in contemporary London the career of Admiral Horatio

NelsonheroofTrafalgarSusanSontagrsquoseloquentessayonwarphotography

Regarding the Pain of Others ()hasasitscovera(prephotographic)image

fromFranciscoGoyarsquos chilling seriesThe Disasters of Warhis recordof the

ravagesofwarinSpaincircandashEconomistandNew York Times columshy

nistPaulKrugman tells readers thathis eyeswereopened to thechicanery

oftheGeorgeWBushadministrationwhenhebegantostudythepolitical

42BennettrsquosanthologyremainedmoreorlessneglectedbyscholarsofRomanticismuntilthis

centurywhenanupdatededitionwasmadeavailableonlineundertheauspicesofRomantic Circles athttpwwwrcumdedueditionswarpoetry

43ThevotewassponsoredbyBBCRadiorsquosToday ProgrammeinassociationwiththeNational

Gallery


maneuveringsofCastlereaghandMetternichinEuropeinndash(Krugman

hadbeenreadingA World Restoredastudyofthetwostatesmenwrittenyears

earlierbyHenryKissingerarchitectofforeignpolicyduringthelatterpartof

theVietnamera)44IhavealreadycitedCKWilliamsrsquospoemldquoTheHearthrdquo

withitsechoesofCowperandColeridgeitisthemostreprintedpoemfrom

hisprizeshywinningcollectionThe Singing ()Intheacclaimedlastnovelby

theGermaneacutemigreacuteWGSebaldthelosthistoryof hisheroisfilteredthrough

anameAusterlitzwhichasksthereadertorecallNapoleonrsquosgreatvictoryas

wellasthegrandtrainstationinPariswhichcommemoratesthattriumphand

servesastheswitchboardofEuropeButAusterlitz ()alsoinsiststhatwe

hearinitstitlethegarbledtransmissionofamorerecenthistoryforwhich

AuschwitzservesasthepropernounWhydoestheHolocaustsurvivorAusshy

terlitzorphanedbytheNaziconcentrationcampswanderingadriftfromhis

ownpastcarrywithhimatalismanicrelicfromthegraveofMarshallMichel

Ney Napoleonrsquos great accomplice in war Sebaldrsquos work worries over the

painedforgottenshynessofEuropeanhistoryandinAusterlitzasinhisprevious

novelVertigotheNapoleoniceramarkstheheartofwhatforgottenorunnoshy

ticedyetmovesandmotivatesourworld

SeveralyearsagoJeromeChristensenproposedthatRomanticismtheinshy

tellectualandaestheticmovementthataccompaniedtheriseofNapoleonand

itsaftermathinEuropehadrehearsed(orpreviewed)thepredicamentofthe

turnofthetwentyshyfirstcenturythatisithadwrestledwiththeldquoendofhisshy

toryrdquo inways thatmight illuminateourowncondition45Thatproposition

wasofferedbefore the ldquoendofhistoryrdquowasblownapartby the events and

aftermathofSeptemberItseemsnowthattheconditionoftheroshy

manticperiodwhichspeaksmostpressinglytothecurrentdayisitssenseofa

historyofwarfarethathoweverdistantkeepsnotendingnotinwith

thedeathoftheFrenchKingnotinwiththeendoftheTerrornotin

thePeaceofAmiensnotinNapoleonrsquosfirstabdicationinnotinthe

seeminglydecisivebattleofWaterlooin(echoedinatthedisasterof

Peterloo)andcertainlynotinorIfanythingitisatraumatized

senseofhistorywehaveinheritedfromtheromanticandNapoleoniceraone

thatdisruptsanysettledsenseofperiodcontextorlinearity46Whenforinshy

stanceKatieTrumpenercharacterizesthegenreofthenationaltalecirca

shecharacterizesaswellanaspectofothercontemporarywartimewritings

theexplorationofldquothecoexistenceofmultiplelayersoftimeinplaceandthe

44PaulKrugmanThe Great Unraveling Losing Our Way in the New Century (NewYorkNorton

)45Christensenseeespndash46PhilipShawprobestheunclosedldquowoundrdquoofthebattleofWaterlooinWaterloo and the Roshy

mantic Imagination(BasingstokeUKPalgraveMacmillan)ndash


discontinuitiesofplaceintimerdquo47 Incontrasttotheprogressivisthistoriesof

theScottishEnlightenmentgivenimaginativeforminmanyofWalterScottrsquos

Waverley novelsthisalternateviewattendstoldquothelongshytermeffectsofhistorishy

caltraumathedeliberateoramnesiacrepressionofhistoricalmemoryand

theneuroticmechanismsdevelopedtocontainitsexplosivenessrdquo(Trumpener

)SuchahistoryisrecognizabletoanyreaderofSebaldrsquosnovelsItisrecogshy

nizablealsoIwouldsuggesttoreadersofColeridgersquosldquoRimeoftheAncient

MarinerrdquoorldquoKublaKhanrdquo()withitsldquoancestralvoicesprophesyingwarrdquo

()AnditisrecognizabletooinCowperrsquosThe Task

Allofthissuggeststhatthewartimeofthosefirstmodernandglobalwars

demandsthesortofhistoriographysuggestedbyWalterBenjaminrsquosldquoTheses

onthePhilosophyofHistoryrdquomdashalsowritten inwartime inaldquomomentof

dangerrdquo48Thisearlierwartimeasksthepresenttoldquotakecognizanceofitin

ordertoblastaspecificerardquomdashourownbuttheRomanticeraaswellmdashldquoout

ofthehomogeneouscourseofhistoryrdquo(Benjamin)TheviolenceofBenshy

jaminrsquoslanguageshouldnotbeoverlookedhewroteevenastheNaziregime

strovetoblastentirepeoplesandtheirculturesoutofthepresent(hiswordis

Jetztzeit)andintoanirrevocablepast49ldquo[E]ven the deadrdquoBenjaminfamously

urgesldquowillnotbesafefromtheenemyifhewinsrdquo(emphasisoriginal)

ThisiswhatinScarryrsquosaccountwarsdotheydestroytheveryldquoextensionrdquo

ofapeopleintimespaceandBenjaminwouldaddinhistoryAsIhave

saidthetimeofwarwartimemaycontributetothezealforendingsputshy

tinganendtotheclaimsofothersputtinganendtofeelingtowartimersquos

ownldquopsychologicalandemotionalculturerdquo50 Butwartimecanalsoentaila

countereffectameleeof temporal synchroniesanddiscontinuities thatreshy

sultsnotintheendofhistorybutitsreopeningInthissenseWar at a Disshytance bringsintothepresenttheexperienceofadistantviolencethewartime

ofthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturieswithallitsstrangeness

andfamiliarity

Iapproachwartimeanditsunsettlingsenseofchronologyasforeverchalshy

lengingtheldquosettlementsrdquoofhistorybydrawinginpartonitsaffectiveresershy

voirthesenseforexamplethatcurrentwarscallupoldconflictsthatold

47KatieTrumpenerBardic Nationalism The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (Princeton

PrincetonUP)48WalterBenjaminldquoThesesonthePhilosophyofHistoryrdquoinIlluminations Essays and Reflecshy

tions ed and introHannahArendt transHarryZohn (NewYorkSchocken ) The

ldquoThesesrdquowerecompletedinspringof(n)49ldquoHistory is thesubjectofa structurewhosesite isnothomogeneousemptytimerdquoasserts

Benjaminldquobuttimefilledbythepresenceofthenow[Jetztzeit]rdquo()50BenjaminrsquoscritiqueofhistoricismhasbeentakenupasacritiqueofperiodizationperseSee

forexampleBerman()


conflictshavenotfullypassedawayInplaceofthetunnelofemptyhomogeshy

neoustimethroughwhichonesortofhistoryglideswartimefindsitshistory

inadangerousandunpredictableminefieldThislatterviewofhistoryisparshy

ticularlyromanticWartimecallsforthsomethingsimilartowhatIanBaucom

(alsodrawingonBenjamin) calls amelancholy or romantic historicismFor

Baucomthisromantichistoricismldquoinsistsonitsabilitytoreturntothelostor

absent scene person or thing imaginatively fancifully but also crucially

truthfullyrdquoTheldquoparadigmaticcaserdquoofsuchmelancholyhistoryisldquothelost

newsofthenewsoflossrdquo(Baucomemphasisoriginal)Themelancholyof

thisformofhistoryindicatesaconditionFreudfamouslydiagnosedthereshy

peatedintrojectionofthelostobjectsothatthehealingworkofmourningis

suspended never finished In this way the loss remains an open psychic

wound51ThetruthfulreturnBaucomidentifiescannevereffectafullrecushy

perationitisratherthisopeningorsuspensionnotareturnof thelostobject

but a return to its loss or absencemdashlike the retracings described in ldquoThe

RuinedCottagerdquo thecompulsive turningback to theabandonedhouseby

MargarettheWandererandhislistenerWhataromantichistoryoffersinits

returnsisahauntedawarenessthatcallsuppowerfulfeelingsoflossandsorshy

rowsothattheyareneverputtorestBaucomrsquosthinkingderivesfromthehisshy

toryoftheslavetradeanditssignalmomentisthelostnewsoffallenbodies

HefollowsthecaseoftheslaveshipZongwhereslavesconsideredsickand

unmarketable were thrown overboard in by order of the captain and

drownedTheownersoftheshipsubsequentlycollectedinsurancemoneyto

compensatethemfortheirldquolostrdquomerchandiseInBaucomrsquostreatmentofthis

storyromanticormelancholyhistoryarisesattheendoftheeighteenthcenshy

turyinreactiontoaspecifichistoricalsituationtheincreasedroleofspeculashy

tivefinance(inenablingthelongshydistancetransactionsoftheslavetrade)and

correlativemodesofthoughtthosewhichattempttoaccountforhumanexshy

perienceldquointheaggregaterdquooraverage(asldquocommontalesrdquo)andthosewhich

redeemaneventbyassigningitacompensatorymeaningorvalue(asldquointershy

estrdquoorasatisfactoryreturnonyourinvestment)

Thehistoricalsituationrevealedbyaromantichistoryhowevercouldalso

bederivedfromthelostnewsandthenewsoflossproducedbydistantglobal

warfareThesystemofmodernglobalwarliketheslavetradedidnotemerge

allatoncecertainlytheSevenYearsrsquoWarandtheAmericanWarofIndepenshy

dencecontributedtoanewunderstandingespeciallyinBritainofthegeoshy

politicsofwarfare52ButbytheopeningofthenineteenthcenturytheBritish

51SigmundFreudldquoMourningandMelancholiardquoinOn Metapsychology The Theory of PsychoshyanalysisedAngelaRichards(HarmondsworthUKPenguin)ndash

52RecentworkonthistopicincludesCABaylyThe Birth of the Modern World ndash Global Connections and Comparisons (MaldenMABlackwell ) esp ndash and Imperial


nationaleconomyhadrefineditssystemsofcreditsoastosupportprolonged

warswithmassarmiesacrosstheglobeWilliamPittnotonlysuccessfullyinshy

stituted incometaxbut insuspendedspeciepaymentbytheBankof

Englandpromotingtheuseofcreditalmosttothepointofbankruptcyin

ordertopayoffcoalitionforcesonthecontinent53 Financecapitalinother

words was as formative for global warfare as it was for the Atlantic slave

tradeindeedthetwopracticesweretightlyimplicatedoneintheotherAt

thesametimethetranslationofmenlikeRobertinldquoARuinedCottagerdquointo

thenumbersneededformassarmieshadbecomeproverbial thoughmore

slowlyinBritainthanonthecontinent(Napoleonwassaidtohaveboasted

thatasamilitarycommanderldquoAmanlikemedoesnotgiveashitaboutthe

lives of a million menrdquo)54 Worldwide the war advanced a vision of men

takenintheaggregateInanearshyparodyofthenumbersthatcameincreasshy

inglytorepresentthewarPhilipShawgivesthestatisticsofthebattleofWashy

terlooldquoWithinanareaoflandmeasuringjustlessthanthreemilesfromeast

towestand less thanamileandahalf fromnorth to southover

menrdquomdashandhorsesmdashwerekilledinamereeighthoursldquoshortevenby

modernmilitarystandardsrdquo()AttritionalbattleswerenowthenormNashy

poleonaimedtodominatebysheerforceofnumbersamonghisreasonsfor

proceedingtoIndiawasthethoughtoftheenormousreservesofconscriptshy

ablebodiesthere(LefebvreBaylyModern World)Cannonfodder

wasalsoonthemindofCharlesWilliamPasleywhoseinfluentialEssay on the Military Policy and Institutions of the British Empire ()advocatedusingcoshy

lonialbodiestobolsterBritainrsquosfightingstrength55 Asmanyasfivemillion

Meridian The British Empire and the World ndash(LondonLongman)JGAPocock

ldquoPoliticalThoughtintheEnglishshySpeakingAtlanticndashrdquoinThe Varieties of British Political Thought ndash (CambridgeCambridgeUP)DrorWahrmanThe Making of the Modern Self Identity and Culture in EighteenthshyCentury England (NewHavenYaleUP)andKathleen

WilsonThe Sense of the People Politics Culture and Imperialism in England ndash (NewYork

CambridgeUP)53BytherisksofPittrsquosfinancialsystemhadunleashedwidedebateabouttheprinciplesof

politicaleconomySeecritiquesbyWilliamCobbettPaper against Gold The History and Mystery of the Bank of England()andDavidRicardoThe High Price of Bullion a Proof of the Depreciation of Bankshynotes ()OnthegrowthofthemilitaryfiscalstateineighteenthshycenturyBritainsee

JohnBrewerThe Sinews of Power War Money and the English State ndash (LondonRoutledge

)OnthelatecenturymorespecificallyseeBaylyBirth of the Modern WorldndashGeorges

LefebvreNapoleon(NewYorkColumbiaUP)ndashArthurHopeshyJonesIncome Tax in the Napoleonic Wars (CambridgeCambridgeUP)ndashndashandJeromeshyAdolpheBlanquiA History of Political Economy in EuropetransEmilyJosephineLeonard(NewYorkGPPutmanrsquos

Sons)ndash54DavidABellThe First Total War Napoleonrsquos Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It

(BostonHoughtonMifflin)55CharlesWilliamPasleyEssay on the Military Policy and Institutions of the British Empirend

ed(LondonAJValpy)ndash


soldiersinEuropemdashtherearenoreliablenumbersforciviliandeathsordeaths

onothercontinentsmdashdiedintheNapoleonicventure56

More significantly perhaps the impulse to understand the enormity of

thesewarsthroughenumerationwassupportedbynewscientificmethodsfor

calculatingwarfatalitiesandcasualtiesAdistinctstraininromanticwriting

identifiesandattackstheimpulseevidentinearlydemographicalstudieslike

ThomasMalthusrsquosAn Essay on the Principle of Population () toconvert

humanbodiestotheabstractionandspeculationpromotedbynumbersHere

againisJosephFawcettaghastattheldquoarithmeticaleyesrdquoencouragedbymodshy

ernmediatedwar

Thereisnothingperhapssoshockinginallthehorribleperversionof

naturewhichthemonstrousandprodigiousstateofwarexhibitstothe

contemplativemind as the coldnesswithwhich [readers] throw

their eye over the sum total of the slain in battle which the

[news]paper presents to them No emotions of horror are excited in

thembythelargestamountsofthesemilitarymurderswhichthepublic

printscanannounceTheylookatthesumwithonlyarithmeticaleyes

TheyseenothingbutfiguresinitTheyconsideritwiththecoldmathshy

ematical feelingsof an accomptant as if it consistedonlyof abstract

unitsTheydonotseemtoreflectforsomuchasamomentthatoneof

theseunitsdenotesaMANthatitisthelittlesummarymarkofavolshy

umeofanguishandofill(Elegiesndashn)

Affectiveresponseseemsacuretothearithmeticaleyeldquoahorrorshould

causehis[thereaderrsquos]headtoswimandstrikeasicknessintohisheartrdquo(Eleshygies ndashn)Moreoftenthoughthesefallenbodieswerequicklyexchanged

aspromissorynotesfornationcultureandreligion57

InreturningtothewartimeoftheRevolutionaryandNapoleonicwarsI

amlookingforsignsofthispersistentromantichistoryAnintellectualtradishy

tionsinceKantandHegelhasorganizeditshistoryaroundasingularsignor

eventtheFrenchRevolutionForhispartBaucomstepsawayfromthistradishy

tion by introducing the Zong as an alternative event the unacknowledged

56HistoriansdebatethesenumbersthecountofwardeadinEuropevariesfromtwotofour

million civilian deaths may have reached one million For a list of varying statistics and their

sourcesseehttpuserserolscommwhitewarschtm57InA History of the Modern Fact (ChicagoUofChicagoP)MaryPooveyarguesthat

ColeridgeSoutheyHazlittandothersfoundMalthusrsquosuseofnumberscouldbeldquoheartlessand

amoralmdashthefewwhousedthemcouldinflictactualdamageonthemanywhowerepowerless

toresistrdquo()SeealsoFrancesFergusonldquoMalthusGodwinWordsworthandtheSpiritofSolishy

tuderdquoinLiterature and the Body Essays on Populations and PersonsedElaineScarry(Baltimore

JohnsHopkinsUP)ndashandMaureenNMcLaneRomanticism and the Human Sciences Poetry Population and the Discourse of the Species(CambridgeCambridgeUP)


truthofwhathecallsldquoourlongcontemporaneityrdquo58IshareBaucomrsquosdesireto

letsomethingotherthantheFrenchRevolutioncastitslightuponthisongoshy

ingunsettledhistorySinceitsinceptiontheFrenchRevolutionhasappealed

tointellectualsasaneventthatretrospectivelyhasgrantedconsiderablehisshy

toricalagencytointellectualsgreatandsmall59TheRevolutionmdashalongwith

Britishcounterrevolutionmdashhasalsoprovidedtheprimaryaxisforalongand

familiartraditionofscholarshipinterpretingromantictextsFocusingonthe

FrenchRevolutioninthesewayshascontributedtoanemphasisonpolitical

discourseideologicalstruggleutopianpossibilitiesandthemodernorientashy

tiontowardanopenfuture60Butsuchafocushasnotencouragedustoattend

totheresponsemdashfeltandunfeltmdashtofallenbodies61

Ifthemodernisaneraofrevolutionofdramaticsocialandpoliticalupshy

heavalthenitisworthrememberingthattherevolutionswhichinaugurated

thismodernitymdashinAmericaFranceandHaitimdashwereaccomplishedthrough

stateshysponsoredviolenceagainstbodiesThebloodynatureof these revolushy

tionsdistinguishesthemfromtheearlierGloriousRevolutioninEnglandand

inauguratesthemodernmeaningofthewordThusReinhartKoselleckends

hishistoriographicalessayonldquoTheModernConceptofRevolutionrdquobynoting

that as the declarations of the American French and Russian revolutions

all make clear modern expressions of Revolution ldquoall spatially imply a

world revolutionrdquo(emphasisoriginal)TurningthentotheexampleofNashy

poleonKoselleckobservessadlythatthenotionofworldwiderevolutionhas

producedaplanetwhereldquoallwarshavebeentransformedintocivilwarsrdquoldquoreshy

gionally limited but globally conductedrdquo where civil wars ldquoboundlessrdquo in

their ldquoawfulnessrdquo are held in check only by the prospect of total nuclear

58ldquoItisnowwellpasttimerdquoBaucomcomplainsldquoforanyonewishingtospeakoftheEuropean

discoursesonandofmodernitytohavedonewiththismonomaniaofhistoricalvision[directedat

theFrenchRevolution]rdquo()59RogerChartierldquoDoBooksMakeRevolutionsrdquoinThe Cultural Origins of the French Revolushy

tion (DurhamDukeUP)ndashChartiertargetsworkslikeRobertDarntonrsquosinfluentialLitshyerary Underground of the Old Regime(CambridgeHarvardUP)

60OntheldquoopenfuturerdquoofmodernityseeReinhartKoselleckFutures Past On the Semantics of Historical Time trans Keith Tribe(NewYorkColumbiaUP)espndash

61TheshiftinemphasisfromrevolutiontowarhasbegunThesecondessayintheAn Oxshyford Companion to the Romantic Age ed Iain McCalman (Oxford Oxford UP ) is titled

ldquoWarrdquothefirstessayisldquoRevolutionrdquoOthersignsofchangearePhilipShawrsquosWaterloo and the Roshymantic Imagination andhiseditedcollectionRomantic Wars Studies in Culture and Conflict ndash (BurlingtonVTAshgate)GillianRussellThe Theatres of War Performance Politics and Society ndash (OxfordClarendon)SimonBainbridgeBritish Poetry and the Revolushytionary and Napoleonic Wars Visions of Conflict (OxfordOxfordUP)JRWatsonRomantishycism and War A Study of British Romantic Period Writers and the Napoleonic Wars (BasingstokeUK

PalgraveMacmillan)MoretellingistherecentworkbyDavidSimpsonHisessayldquoRememshy

beringtheDeadAnEssayuponEpitaphsrdquoin The Culture of Commemoration (ChicagoUof

ChicagoP)reflectingontheaftermathofSeptemberdrawsdeeplyonWordsworthrsquos

ldquoEssayonEpitaphsrdquo(ndash)


destruction()62ForKoselleckthewarlikeheartofrevolutionisldquotheunsposhy

kenlawofpresentinternationalpoliticsrdquoitisourlongcontemporaneity()

AndsothisworkstepsawayfromtheFrenchRevolutionasthesignaleventof

ourcontemporaneitybecauseforallitseacuteclaircissement ofmodernityitsbrightshy

nessthrowsintoshadowcrucialsituationsandsystemsfinancecapitalwith

theincreasinglyspeculativetrafficinfallenbodiesisonetheunboundedawshy

fulnessofmodernwarfarepaidforbyfinancecapitalandlegitimatedbythe

discourseofrevolutionaryfreedomisanother

IshouldsayaswellthatIstepawayfromRevolutiontodistancemyself

fromitsaestheticsofthespectacularandsublimeIntakingthesingularand

awfuleventoftheZong murdersBaucomverymuchhopestoputhisreaders

inthepositionofeyewitnessesofthatspectacularhorrorHischapterldquoThe

ViewfromtheWindowrdquoimaginesthescenefromtheperspectiveofaneyeshy

witness watching the bodies fall past his cabin window close enough to

counteachoneandbeingcalledlatertotestifytothiseventldquoTheviewfrom

thewindowrdquoBaucomdiscoversldquoistheviewpointthatindeedproduces humanityas atestamentaryeffectofbearingwitnesstothemassacrerdquo(

emphasis original)Baucomrsquos imaginationwants tobypass theobstaclesof

timeandmediationandforgeimmediacyNotunlikethewarphotography

Sontagdiscussesorthegreatpanoramasoftheromanticperiod(towhich

wewillturninchapter)Baucomrsquosmelancholyhistoryhopestoerasedisshy

tanceandmaketheabsentunflinchinglypresenttoourmindsThewartime

perspective by contrast sees very little out itswindowmdashsees if anything

darkness slashing sleet or only Cowperrsquos uncountable ldquodowny flakes

Descendingandwithnevershyceasinglapserdquo(IVndash)Thiswartimeview

acknowledgeswithoutovercomingobstructionanddistanceWhatisevident

ofdistantmassacresappearssecondshyhandorasintimationafleetingapparishy

tionasenseAndwartimersquoshistorythoughtouchedwithmelancholydraws

fromamorevexedandvariedaffectivestoreItisnotthenthehistoryofa

signal event illuminatinga situation it takesup instead theldquonotobviousrdquo

thatfascinatesPaulFussellittakesupHazlittrsquosldquominuteandinconsiderable

passingeventsrdquoIttakesupeventlessnessastheverytextureofthesituationof

distantwar

Theselastremarkssuggestthatwartimetranslateswarfromtherealmof

sublimeeventtoanunderlyingsituationorconditionofmodernityIndoing

sothewartimeperspectiveshareswithsomerecentphilosophersandintellecshy

tualsanunderstandingofwarasanabsentpresencethatinfiltratespolitical

62Baylynotesthattheldquomostpotentlegacyrdquoofthesoshycalledageofrevolutionswasldquothecreation

ofyetstrongermoreintrusivestatesEuropeancolonialandextrashyEuropeanrdquo(Birth of the Modern World)


andculturalinstitutionsandmovesthrougheverydaylife63Thisapproachfor

instanceturnsawayfromjustshywartheorybasedasitisonanotionofwaras

adelimited eventwith identifiabledecisions andactions to investigate the

preexistingconditionsthatleadtowarandrendermilitaryviolenceplausible

orinevitableWhenwarisnotaneventbutaconditionthenitsdistinction

frompeacebecomeshardertoseeinamilitarizedsocietyinotherwordsit

may alwaysbewartimeThus speaking about the contemporary situation

ChrisCuomomakesthelinkbetweenawartimeexperiencedbythoseatadisshy

tancefromthefightingand(anillusory)peacetimewheremilitarybasesupshy

holdlocaleconomiesmilitaryserviceprovideseducationandsocialadvanceshy

mentandpopularcultureroutinelyidentifiesmasculinitywiththefigureof

thecitizenshysoldierShecouldbedescribingthelateeighteenthcenturyinBritshy

ainldquoNeglectingtheomnipresenceofmilitarismallowsthefalsebeliefthatthe

absenceofdeclaredarmedconflictsis peaceItisparticularlyeasyforthose

whoselivesareshapedbythesafetyofprivilegeandwhodonotregularlyenshy

countertherealitiesofmilitarismtomaintainthisfalsebelief rdquo(emphasis

original)

Authorsofromanticliteratureprivilegedastheyweredidnotnecessarily

sharethisnegligenceorfalsebeliefJaneAustenforinstanceunderstoodin

quite specific terms the significance of themilitia encamped atMeryton64

BothJosephFawcettandMaryRobinsontwoofthemostpowerfulantiwar

poets of their generationunderstood the emergenceof somethingFawcett

calledldquoinactivewarrdquoorldquoarmedpeacerdquothetransformationofsocietynotby

warfarepersebutbyamilitarizationofinstitutionssocialsystemsandsensishy

bilities65Theabsenceofopenfightingintheirmidstdidnotalwaysdeceive

thoseinEnglandthattheylivedinpeaceIsharewithwriterslikeCuomothe

desiretoconceiveofwarbeyondthelimitsofthe(oftenspectacularoftendisshy

tracting) event to trace its extension throughout a culture even to those

whoselivesappearldquoshapedbysafetyand[the]privilegerdquoofdistanceIlookfor

signsoftheinfiltratingsensethatasystemofwarwagedonaglobalscaleyear

63War as ldquopresencerdquo is the thoughtofRobinMaySchott ldquoGender and lsquoPostmodernWarrsquordquo

Hypatia ()ndashOtherswhomovewarawayfromtherealmofldquoeventrdquoincludeChrisJ

CuomoldquoWarIsNotJustanEventReflectionsontheSignificanceofEverydayViolencerdquoHypatia (Autumn ) ndash Judith Butler Precarious Life The Powers of Mourning and Violence (LondonVerso)LucindaPeachldquoAnAlternativetoPacifismFeminismandJustshyWarTheshy

oryrdquoHypatia ()ndashandManueldeLandaWar in the Age of Intelligent Machines (New

YorkZoneBooks)64TimFulfordldquoSighingforaSoldierJaneAustenandMilitaryPrideandPrejudicerdquoNineshy

teenthshyCentury Literature(September)ndash65FawcettrsquosdiscussionwillbetreatedbelowMaryRobinsonrsquospoemldquoTheCamprdquo()testifies

tothesocialtransformationeffectedbyamilitarizedsocietyOnmilitarycampsseeRussellrsquosdisshy

cussionofldquoCampCulturerdquoinTh eatres of Warndash


afteryearconditions themovementsofyourdaywhereyouwalkedwhat

youtalkedabouthowyourmindwandered

WarasAllWars

Initspermeabilityandtemporalwaywardnessinitscollapsingofeventinto

conditionorsituationmodernwartimerisksflatteningallwarsintooneWar

standingapartfromanyspecificoccurrenceWartimeenablesthewordldquowarrdquo

to congeal into a universal and collective entity which ldquoappear[s] to unite

withinitselfthecourseofallindividualrdquowarstoborrowagainfromKoselleck

()66Thisisnotanentirelynewturnancientculturesforinstanceundershy

stoodwarinatranshistoricalwayenjoiningcodesofconductbeyondallparshy

ticularmanifestationsofitspowerInmodernityhowevertheturntakesparshy

ticularformsinmodernwartimewarbecomesunderstoodasaconceptan

absoluteandultimatelyaspurification

Firstwarldquobecomesaregulativeprincipleofknowledgeinadditiontoacshy

tion and conductrdquo (Koselleck ) Writing in the aftermath of these wars

HegelwouldfamouslytakeWarasaprincipleoftheIdeaofHistoryHeoffers

aglancinganalogybetweenthecareerofNapoleonmdashthegeneralwilling to

sacrifice the livesof amillionmenmdashand theldquogeneral ideardquowhichoperates

withthecunningofreason

It isnotthegeneralideathatisimplicatedinoppositionandcombat

andthatisexposedtodangerItremainsinthebackgrounduntouched

uninjuredThismaybecalledthe cunning of reasonmdashthatitsetsthepasshy

sionstoworkforitselfwhilethatwhichdevelopsitsexistencethrough

suchimpulsionpaysthepenaltyandsufferslossTheparticularis

forthemostpartoftootriflingvalueascomparedtothegeneralindishy

vidualsaresacrificedandabandoned67

Hegelrsquosanalogyrelocatestheterrainofwarfaretotherealmoftheintellect

wherethepassionalandparticularembodiedandmortalsufferintheservice

ofatranscendentandimperviousIdeaMorecruciallyWarsuppliesthatgovshy

erningIdeaAgainstanEnlightenmentviewofwarasanarchysavageryand

confusionHegelpositsaWarthatmakessenseofHistory(evenasitsacrifices

specificwars)68ThistransformationfromwarstoWarandfromspecificacts

66KoselleckusesthisphrasetodescribethefateofthewordldquoRevolutionrdquo67GWFHegelThe Philosophy of History(NewYorkDover)68MichelFoucaultredirectsthistendencyseeinginhistoryespeciallythewritingofhistorythe

prosecutionofwarldquobyothermeansrdquoandawayofunderminingthelegitimacyofthestateSee

FoucaultldquoSociety Must Be Defendedrdquo Lectures at the College de France ndashedsMauroBertani

andAlessandroFontanatransDavidMacey(NewYorkPicador)ndash


ofviolencetoaprincipleofknowledgewillbechartedrepeatedlyinthepages

thatfollowinahistoryofhistoricismincritiquesoftheoriesoftheeveryday

andinasurveyofeighteenthshycenturydefinitionsofthewordIndeedoneaim

ofthisprojectistocallattentiontoourunquestionedrelianceonametahisshy

toricalWarastheverysubstanceofsomeofthemostradicalandprogressive

contemporaryintellectualworkwhereityieldsafascinationwithstrategies

andtacticsoracommitmenttounendingconflict

Even as it promotes a malleable heterogeneous and indefinite sense of

timeromanticwartimegeneratesitshyperrationalalternativeThisisthesecshy

ondwaybywhich thewartimeof the lateeighteenthandearlynineteenth

centurypressedindividualwarsintoWarnotjustthroughtheconceptualizashy

tion of war as universal and abstract but through its conceptualization as

totalmdashwarldquotoextremesrdquo69 RogerChickering rehearses the reigningmaster

narrativeofTotalWaramongmilitaryhistorianswhichstressesitsldquonaturalrdquo

progressionandinevitabilityoverthecourseofthepasttwocenturiesThis

narrativehenotesldquoinformsallthestandardhistoriesofmodernwarfarerdquo

ItbeginsinwhenthearmiesofrepublicanFrancebackedbythe

mobilizedcitizenryathomerevolutionizedcombatbyvirtueoftheir

sheernumbersandtheintensityoftheircommitmenttothecausethey

wereservingTheFrenchRevolutionthusforetolddevelopmentsduring

thenexttwocenturies70

In this story ldquothe growth in both intensity and expanse that marked the

modernizationofwarfareenroutetototalityrdquowasfurtheraugmentedinthe

nineteenth centuryby the growthof industrializationnew technologiesof

transportation and communication and finally developments in weapons

technologyTogethertheseforcesincreasinglyextendedthetheaterofoperashy

tionstociviliansuntilinthetwentiethcenturyitculminatedintheldquocalcushy

latedand systematic annihilationof civiliansboth fromtheair and in the

deathcampsrdquo(ndash)ThisisaldquoromanticrdquostorybywhichChickeringmeans

itsplotcentersontheldquogrowthandfulfillmentrdquoofmodernwaranditsSelbstshybehauptung (selfshyassertion)andselfshytranscendenceingaschambersandnuclear

bombsSacrificinghistoricalfacts(manywarsinthisperiodwerenotfought

ldquotoextremesrdquo)thecommonstoryofWarbecomesthestoryofTotalWar

InThe First Total War Napoleonrsquos Europe and the Birth of Warfare As We Know IthistorianDavidABellspecifiessomeoftheparticularwaysthatthis

69CarlvonClausewitzOn WaredandtransMichaelHowardandPeterParet(NewYork

OxfordUP)70RogerChickeringldquoTotalWarTheUseandAbuseofaConceptrdquoinRogerChickeringand

StigForsteredsAnticipating Total War The German and American Experiences ndash (Camshy

bridgeCambridgeUPandWashingtonDCTheGermanHistoricalInstitute)


totalizingimpulsetookshapeattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyTodoso

hechartsthehistoricalconjunctionoftwoforcesanEnlightenmentphiloshy

sophicaltraditionthatsoughttheendofallwarsandapoliticalrealitythat

furnishedmass armies ready tofight to extremes for idealsTogether ldquothe

dreamofperpetualpeaceandthenightmareoftotalwarrdquogavebirthtothe

modernunderstandingofwar71Thedesiretorepudiatewarasbarbaricand

outdatedwasjoinedtothedesiretoenvisioneachnewmilitaryconflictasa

finalapocalypticstruggleldquothatmustbefoughtuntilthecompletedestrucshy

tionoftheenemyandthatmighthaveapurifyingevenredemptiveeffecton

theparticipantsrdquo(Bell)Oneresultofthismoderntangleisamixofenlightshy

enedandpreenlightenedideasofwarfaremodernwarsareatoncetechnoshy

logicallyadvancedandsavagesecularandsacredAnotheristheabstraction

orgeneralizationofwarthattakesitoutofhistorydebatefocuseslessonthe

specificsofthisorthatconflictorevenoverwhohasthesovereignrightto

declarewarthanovertheideaofWarBellmapsthatshiftinthedebatein

theFrenchNationalAssemblyinMayopeninghisbookwithanapt

quotationfromtheFrenchGeneralDumouriezinashecontemplates

thecomingwarinEuropeldquoThiswarwillbethelastwarrdquo()Eventuallythis

visionofwarcarriedovertheChanneltoGreatBritainTwentyyearsafter

Dumouriezrsquospronouncement (afterhisdefection to theAllied armies and

afterhisremovaltoLondonwhereheadvisedtheBritishWarOffice)the

Times of LondonofannouncedwhatlaywithinDumouriezrsquosvisionthat

thewartoendallwarsalsoentailedawarofexterminationldquoWeareengaged

inawarmdashawarofnocommondescriptionmdashawarofsystemagainstsystem

inwhichnochoiceisleftusbutvictoryorextirpationrdquo(qtdinShaw)Such

rhetoricsuggestsanewmindsetreplacingtheideaoflimitedwarwiththe

modernideaofawartoendallwarsClausewitzrsquosldquoabsolutewarrdquoAsageneral

ideasuchwaradmitsofnosubtractionordiminutionallornothingwithshy

outremainder

IronicallythisreorientationdissolvesanywarintotheoneWarsothatthe

wartoendallwarsneverinfactendsThewartoendallwarscanbeundershy

stoodsemanticallyasthesubsumptionofindividualwarshereandtherenow

andthenintooneuniversalWareverywhereandalways72Itisanideaofwar

wehaveinheritedEvenashedatestheemergenceofthisviewofwarastotal

Bellremindshisreaderthathisdescriptionldquoappliesequallywelltotwodiffershy

entcenturiesrdquo()Ashissubtitleannouncesheisinterestedinldquothebirthof

71Here Bell follows closely the work of JeanshyYves Guiomar Lrsquoinvention de la guerre totale XVIIIendashXXe siegravecle(ParisLeFeacutelinKiron)

72To hiscreditKantunderstoodthedangerofthisviewofperpetualpeacealdquowarofextermishy

nationrdquohemaintainedldquowouldallowperpetualpeaceonlyuponthevastgraveyardofthehuman

racerdquo()


warfareasweknowitrdquowhichistosayWarasIdeaorldquoregulativeprincipleof

knowledgerdquomdashasifitweresomethingwemightfinallyknow

WorldWars

Theideaofalastwarisalwaystheideaofaworldwarawaronbehalfofthe

world(conceivedascivilizationorhumanity)thatneverthelessthreatensthe

endoftheworldapocalypseoranewworldTheideaofalastwarlegitimates

theemergenceofaplanetwhereasKosellecksayscivilwarsareldquoregionally

limitedbutgloballyconductedrdquo(Futures Past )wheresincethelateeighshy

teenthcenturyanywarcanconceivablytakeas itsoutcomethefateofthe

worldWemightsaythateachlastwardreams(again)ofbeingfinallytheonly

worldwarCounting(firstsecondthird)markstherepeatedfailureofthis

dream

Enumerationsofworldwarshoweverdonottypicallybeginwiththewars

ofthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturythosewarsinrecenthisshy

torieshavecountedneitherasworldwarsnorastrulymodernwarsDespite

thefactthattheycomprehendedarmedconflictnotonlyinEuropebutin

AfricaAsiaandtheAmericasdespitethefactthattheyworriedwatersfrom

thePhilippineIslandstotheIndianOceanfromtheCapeofGoodHopeto

theMediterranean fromtheEnglishChannelwestward to theChesapeake

BayandGulfofMexicononethelessthesewarsarethoughtnottoencompass

theworldAndyetunliketheearlierSevenYearsrsquoWarwhichcouldboasta

comparablegeographicalreachthesewarsfromtheirrevolutionarybeginning

wereunequivocallyaddressedtotheworldTheytookastheirobjectnotsimshy

plycontestedterritoriesdynasticfeudsorimperialtraderoutesbutcentrally

astheLondonTimes assertedinworldsystems

Sincetheendofthenineteenthcenturyandincreasinglyduringthetwo

worldwarsoftheearlytwentiethcenturythegeneralwisdomhasbeenthat

theNapoleonicconflictcouldnolongerbeconsideredldquoTheGreatWarrdquoasit

hadbeenknownthroughmostofthepreviouscenturyAccordingtosomeasshy

sumedcalculusofviolenceandinkeepingwithafaithintechnologicalprogshy

ressthesabersbayonetsmusketsandcannonsoftheseearlierwarscouldnot

keepupwiththemachineguntherocketshylaunchedmissileortheincreasshy

inglydestructivebombsdevisedinthetwentiethcenturyPaulFussellinhis

groundshybreakingThe Great War and Modern Memoryinsistsrepeatedlyonthe

inadequacyoftheearlynineteenthshycenturywarsortheirliterature(atleastin

theBritishtradition)forunderstandingtheconflictofWorldWarImdashdespite

thefactthatsoldiersinthetrencheswerereadingWordsworthAustenand

Byron despite the fact that thatwar reconsecratedbattlegrounds from the


Napoleonicventure (inFranceandtheLowCountiescertainlybutalso in

CentralEuropeandtheMideast)Thewarofndashcouldbeunderstood

onlyasanldquounparalleledsituationrdquoatraumapreciselybecausenothingcomshy

parablehadprecededit(Fussell)Fussellismixingtwolevelshere

thatofindividualmemoryandthatofhistoryandtraditionwhenheasserts

ldquoThewar[WorldWarI]willnotbeunderstoodintraditionaltermsthemashy

chinegunalonemakesitsospecialandunexampledthat itsimplycanrsquotbe

talkedaboutasifitwereoneoftheconventionalwarsofhistoryrdquo()Tosay

thisistomakeallpreviouswarsnomatterwhattheirinnovationsldquoconvenshy

tionalrdquo Here Fussell seems unable to imagine that for many participants

warfaremightalwaysbeldquoanunparalleledsituationrdquoThedesiretomarkaconshy

flictasunprecedentednewandthereforeldquospecialrdquoisindeedareflexofmoshy

dernityandwasabundantlyexpressedintheotherfirstldquoGreatWarrdquoGoethe

forinstancehavingwitnessedthefirstvictoryofFrenchrevolutionarytroops

atValmyintestifiedtoitsworldshyhistoricalnoveltyldquoFromthisplaceand

fromthisdayforthbeginsanewerainthehistoryoftheworldandyoucan

allsaythatyouwerepresentatitsbirthrdquo(qtdinBell)

Equally we find the commonplace disparagement that ldquoback thenrdquo the

homefronthadbeeninsulatedasifinchildlikeinnocencefromthehorrors

ofwarSodespitetherelentlessinvasionscarestheeconomichardshipsand

thethousandsofwidowsandorphansproducedbytheearlierwarsLeslieSteshy

phencould in condescend toBritainahundredyears earlier (anduse

ldquoFrenchRevolutionrdquoasastandshyintermforthetwentyshyyearshylongwar)

whenwespeakofthemiseryofanationatthetimeofsomegreattroushy

blemdashtheFrenchRevolution forexamplemdashit isdifficult toremember

howsmallwastheproportionofactualsufferershowmanythousands

ormillionsofchildrenwereenjoyingtheirlittlesportsutterlyignorant

of the distant storm how many mothers were absorbed in watching

theirchildrenandhowmanyquietcommonplacepeopleweregoing

abouttheirdailypeacefullabourprettymuchasusualandwithonlya

vaguemdashandpossiblypleasurablemdashexcitementatthenewswhichoccashy

sionallydriftedtothemofthecatastrophesinadifferentsphere73

Stephenisnotwrongtosuggestthatawartimepopulaceespeciallythemore

privilegedrankscouldcontinueinitseverydayroutineswhiletheldquodriftrdquoof

mediareportingsuppliedoccasionalthrillingremindersofcatastrophesocshy

curringelsewheremdashSontagrsquosldquocalamitiestakingplaceinanothercountryrdquoFor

Stephenthisisthegeneralconditionofldquothenationatthetimeofsomegreat

73LeslieStephenldquoForgottenBenefactorsrdquoinSocial Rights and Duties (LondonSwanSonnenshy

schein)


troublerdquothestateofGreatBritainduringtheyearsoftheRevolutionandNashy

poleonrsquosriseservesasonlyoneexampleAfewdecadeslatersuchgeneralizashy

tionwoulditselflooknaiumlveandanachronistic

Formanylaterwartimereadersthevillagelifeof JaneAustenrsquosnovelstypishy

fiedthisprivilegedinsulationandherwarsanoutmodedpossibilityAnanonshy

ymous criticwritingofAustenrsquoswork in attempted todrawparallels

betweenhertimeofnationaltroubleandhisownldquoJaneAustenforexample

wrotePride and PrejudicewhenNelsonwaspatrollingoffSpainrdquoButthehisshy

toricalcomparisonsurfacesonlytoreinforcethesenseofabsolutedifference

ldquoSuchparallelsrdquoitseemsldquofailtocarryconvictionrdquo

forthereisnoprecedentinthenationalhistoryforthepresentcondishy

tionofthingsJaneAustenrsquosnerveswereneversetonedgebythestrain

ofcontinuouslyexpectingsensationalnewsfromtheoutsideworldThe

calmofherHampshirevillagewasbrokenbynoradiomessagesofcrisis

Eventhenewsof Trafalgardidnotreachher tillmanydaysafter the

battleShewasvisitedbynoARPwardentofitherwithagasmask

norwassheinstructedtomakeprovisionalarrangementsforreceiving

inherhomeanumberofchildrensuddenlyevacuatedfromLondon74

Areviewof JaneAustenrsquosworkintheLondon ObserverneartheendofWorld

WarIImakesthequitespecificandfamiliarcharge

TheseAustencharactersarethegreatestescapistsofalltimeTheyear

maybebutWaterlooisasfaroffasCathayandtheideaofwarshy

workvexesneitherstrappingyoungsternorpotentialdespatcherofthe

militaryldquocomfortrdquoandthenutritivepackage75

Ifdismissing the seriousnessof theearlierwartimeon thebasisofdistance

werenotenough(ldquoasfaroffasCathayrdquo)thereviewerconjuresthepresumably

gamelikenatureofthosewarsldquoCampaignswerethenconductedlikefootball

toursinforeigncountriesrdquoInreadingAustenldquowecanourselvesescapefeelshy

ingforanhourortwoasremotefromtheflintyandsteelcouchofwaraswere

Emma and Mr Knightley among the settees and strawberryshybeds of their

tranquilHighburyrdquo(ibid)ItseemedldquoapleasantcosywarrdquotoanotherEnglish

reviewerin76

Denigrationoftheearlierwartimeevincesaperverseprideincontemposhy

rarytechnology(oursteelvstheirsoftbedsourbombsvstheircannons)but

74UnmarkednewspaperclippingprobablyEnglishNotebooksofAugustaBurkeBurke

CollectionGoucherCollegeLibrary75IvorBrownReviewofldquoEmmardquo[stageproduction]ldquoTheatreandLiferdquoThe London Observer

February76ReviewofRoydeSmithJane FairfaxTimes Literary SupplementSeptember


italsowobblesbetweenassumptionsabout livedexperienceandinterpretashy

tionsofthe literatureoftheperiodoneisusedtoexplainandcritiquethe

otherEvenasperceptiveareaderasVirginiaWoolfupdatingherfatherLesshy

lieStephenrsquosobservationscouldnotfindintheBritishnovelsofNapoleonrsquos

dayevenatraceofherownmodernawarenessofdistantcatastropheInalate

essaycompletedbeforetheBattleofBritainshechartsherowndistancefrom

romanticliteraturesummarizingthecommonview77

InEnglandwasatwarasEnglandisnowAnditisnaturaltoask

howdidtheirwarmdashtheNapoleonicwarmdashaffectthemWasthatoneof

theinfluencesthatformedthemTheanswerisaverystrangeone

TheNapoleonicwarsdidnotaffectthegreatmajorityofthosewritersat

allTheproofofthatistobefoundintheworkoftwogreatnovelistsmdash

JaneAustenandWalterScottEachlivedthroughtheNapoleonicwars

eachwrotethroughthemButthoughnovelistsliveveryclosetothelife

oftheirtimeneitheroftheminalltheirnovelsmentionedtheNapoleshy

onicwarsThisshowsthattheirmodeltheirvisionofhumanlifewas

not disturbed or agitated or changed by war Nor were they themshy

selvesWarswerethenremotewarswerecarriedonbysoldiersand

sailorsnotbyprivatepeopleTherumoursofbattletookalongtimeto

reachEnglandComparethatwithourstatetodayTodaywehear

thegunfireintheChannelWeturnonthewirelesswehearanairman

tellingushowthisveryafternoonheshotdownaraiderhismachine

caughtfireheplunged into the sea the light turnedgreenand then

blackherosetothetopandwasrescuedbyatrawlerScottneversaw

sailorsdrowningatTrafalgarJaneAustenneverheardthecannonroar

atWaterlooNeitherofthemheardNapoleonrsquosvoiceaswehearHitlerrsquos

voiceaswesitathomeoftheevening

Thatimmunityfromwarlastedallthroughthenineteenthshycentury78

Thepassagesuggeststhatthewarshytornwriterofthetwentiethcenturyhasa

moreimmediatelessldquoimmunerdquoexperienceofwarthanhercounterpartsfrom

thepreviouscenturyeventheldquoprivatepersonrdquocannotnowescapethewar

AndthoughthiswillbetrueforWoolfandhercompatriotsinafewmonths

oncetheblitzkriegbeginsitisnotyettrueatthismomentasshewritesLook

closelyathowWoolfherselflosessightofthedistinctionbetweenwarandwar

mediatedHerwar isbroughttoherbythewirelessradiobydisembodied

voicesintheairExceptforthegunfireinthechannelitisheardsecondhand

77TheBattleofBritainwithitsbombingcampaignbytheGermanLuftwaffelastedfromJuly

toOctoberWoolfwroteheressayanddelivereditasaspeechinMayofthatyear78VirginiaWoolfldquoTheLeaningTowerrdquoinThe Moment and Other Essays (NewYorkHarcourt

Brace)ndash


ratherthanseen(Hassheactuallywitnessedsailorsdrowningplanescrashing

intotheseaAndyetwehavenodoubtthatsuchmediationcouldsetldquonerves

onedgerdquoastheanonymouscriticinputit)Napoleonrsquosvoicecouldnot

beheardinBritaininbutitcouldbereadaloudorsilentlyhisspeeches

werefrequentlytranscribedintoprintform79Themediaforbroadcastingwar

hadchangedbutdidtheytrulyoffergreaterimmediacyTheiraffectiveforce

maybemarkedlydifferentfromearliermodesofcommunicationbutwasthat

forcenecessarily strongerBywhatmeasureDofeelings likeweaponsand

communications technology become more powerful and effective over the

courseof(aprogressive)historyWoolfandhercontemporaryaudienceldquositat

homeintheeveningrdquomdashnotunlikeJaneAustenandhercontemporariesmdashand

trytoimaginetheviolencehappeningelsewhere

ThefollowingpagesattempttoshowthatmanyofStephenrsquosandWoolf rsquos

assumptionsmdashabout ldquodistant stormsrdquo and the ldquodriftrdquo or force of the news

aboutldquoprivatepersonsrdquoandthepeacefulnessoftheeverydayaboutformsof

absorption and utter ignorancemdashwere in fact tested and revised by ldquoquiet

commonplacepeoplerdquowriters likeAustenherselfwho livedthroughthose

earliercatastrophesTheyfoundthemselves incapableofconfiningcatastroshy

phetoadifferentdistantldquosphererdquotheyallowedittoinvadetheireveryday

Precisely intheseregistersof themundaneandunspectacularregisters that

havemistakenlybeenreadassignsofimmunitymdashorworseobliviousnessmdash

Britishromanticwritersstruggledtoapprehendtheeffectsofforeignwar

Perhapsthesimplestwayformetomakethecaseforreadingromanticlitshy

eratureaswartimeliteratureforunderstandingitscontinuingeffectonour

presentworldandfortakingseriouslytheoverlookedandunspectacularconshy

ditionsofwartimecultureistoendwithadetailfromWilliamStClairrsquosThe Reading Nation in the Romantic PeriodHismaterialistaccountofthepublishshy

ingbusinesswilltakethereflectionsofthischapterandputthembeforeyour

eyes and in yourhandsFrom the library stackspick abookpublished in

BritaininthisperiodtwohundredyearshenceItcouldbealmostanyvolshy

umeonanytopicItcouldbeaboundvolumeoftheMonthly Review ora

bookofsermonsitcouldbetheMemoirs of the Author of the Vindication of the Rights of Women orachapbookforchildrenHoldittouchitspagesandlook

atthesheetsofpaperbackgroundtotheprintedwords

ThepaperwasmadebyhandsheetbysheetThebattlefieldsofEurope

werepickedoverbeforethebloodwasdryforeveryscrapofcloththat

could be sold in the rag fairs and on to the international markets

[Inadditiont]hecastshyoffsmocksofHungarianshepherdstheshirtsof

79SeeforexampleongoingreportsintheAnnual RegisteraswellasNapoleacuteonBuonaparte An Account of the French Expedition in Egyptnded(LeedsEdwardBaines)


ItaliansailorsandthebonnetsofIrishladiesallmadetheirwaytothe

boomingBritishpapermillswhichwerespringingupalongmanyBritshy

ishriversBoiledbleachedandsmoothedthepaperfromwhichmost

English books of the romantic period were made remains white and

spotlessaftertwohundredyearsshamingallsubsequentbooks80

Thepagesinyourhandsintheirhandsonwhichtheyreadnovelshistories

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