The Role of TheoryWhether building from experience or from books, we all tend to have our own private assumptions about how things work, how things get done. Providing the basic grounding for our behavior, Argyris (1977) calls these assumptions theories of action.The danger of these theories is forgetting we have them. As Keynes (1936) implies, those who boast of their commonsense approach to management are very probably just following the ill-formed, half-forgotten, pseudo-scientific nostrums peddled to them in their early careers. Drawing upon his work with American senior managers, Argyris (1977) warns that nothing is more dangerous than to leave underlying assumptions hidden. Until we surface our implicit theories of action, we cannot test their accuracy and amend them to the conditions of the day. Those who do not actively confront their underlying assumptions are condemned to be prisoners of their own theories (Argyris, 1977: 119).Source: Richard Whittington, 1993. What is strategy and does it matter?.

Programmed decisions versus non-programmed decisions Programmed decisionsProblem:FrequentRepetitiveRoutineMuch certainty regarding cause and effect relationships

Programmed decisions - continuedProcedure: Dependence on: policiesrulesprocedures

Non-programmed decisions Problem:NovelUnstructuredMuch uncertainty regarding cause and effect relationshipsProcedure: Necessity forCreativityIntuitionTolerance for ambiguity

Making the Choice MaximizeMake the best possible decisionSatisficeFirst option that is minimally acceptableOptimizeBest possible balance among several goalsBounded RationalityTimeIncomplete information

Group Decision Making AdvantagesMore information may be availableBroader perspectivesMore alternatives can be evaluatedProvides member support for a decisionDisadvantagesTime consumingCompromise decisions may satisfy no oneGroupthinkWasted resources if used for programmed decisions

Why managers have a tendency to look at issues from a biased or limited perspective:A companys creative type had come up with a great idea for a new product. Nearly everybody loved it. However, it was shot down by a high ranking manufacturing executive who exploded: A new color? Do you have any idea of the spare-parts problem that it will create?This was not a dimwit exasperated at having to build a few new storage racks at the warehouse. Hed been hearing for years about cost cutting, lean inventories, and focus! Says consultant Lieberman, Good concepts, but not always good for innovation.Source: OReilly, B. March 3, 1997. The secrets of Americas most admired corporations: New ideas and new products. Fortune: 60-64.

The Firemans Two Tools Max DePree, recently retired CEO of Herman Miller, Inc., shared an amusing family experience:Our grandson once locked himself in the bathroom. Despite his mothers best efforts to get the door open, she failed. She called in the police, who also failed to open the door. Finally his mother called the fire department. By the time the fire trucks arrived, there was quite a scene on the front lawn. The firemen promptly broke down the door with their axes, tools they certainly know how to use.When our son Chuck arrived, at the height of the suspense, he could not figure out what was happening. There was no fire or smoke, but his bathroom door and its frame were in shambles.At the office the next day, he was complaining to a colleague about the damage. The colleague observed that there might be a management lesson in the story. A fireman has two tools, an axe and a hose. If you call him, youre going to get one.Source: DePree, Max 1989, Leadership is an Art. Doubleday: New York: 91-92.

LEADERS OFTEN NEED TO REDEFINE PROBLEMSEXAMPLE:Russell Ackoffs Elevator Problem

LEADERSHIP 1. How would you define leadership?2.What are a leaders most important activities?3. What are the most important traits/attributes for successful leaders?4. What are the most important skills for leaders?

When we plunge into the organizational literature on leadership we quickly become lost in the labyrinth: there are endless definitions, countless articles and never-ending polemics. As far as leadership studies go, it seems that more and more has been studied about less and less, to end up ironically with a group of researchers studying everything about nothing. It prompted one wit to say recently that reading the current world literature on leadership is rather like going through the Parisian telephone directory while trying to read it in Chinese!Source: Manfred Kets de Vries, Academy of Management Executive, p. 73.

Sources of Leader Power Legitimate PowerReward PowerCoercive PowerExpert PowerReferent Power

How do followers react to each source of power:

Commitment

Compliance

Resistance

Two generic diagnostic questions can be asked to assess leadership quality:

Credibility. Does this leader have credibility with those he or she works with? Do individuals trust, respect, admire, and enjoy working for this leader? Do those that work with this leader as subordinates, peers, customers, or supervisors feel a personal and emotional bond with him or her?

Capability. Does this leader have the ability to make the organization succeed? Does he or she have the ability to shape a vision, create commitment to the vision, build a plan of execution, develop capabilities, and hold people accountable for making things happen?

Dave Ulrich, The Leader of the Future, pp. 210-211.

THREE CLASSIC MODELS: A VOCABULARY OF LEADERSHIPLeadership traitsLeader behaviorContingency leadership models

LEADERSHIP TRAITSTrait models of leadership: Are leaders born or made? The great person theory

TRAITS OF SUCCESSFUL U.S. LEADERSMore initiative/assertiveness/ persistenceHigher intelligence/self confidenceGreater desire for responsibility and influenceGreater awareness of the needs of othersIntegrity / credibility

U.S. PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORSTwo major types of leadership behaviors 1. Initiating structure: task-centered leadersGive directions, establish standards

2. Focus on social and emotional needs of employees:

consideration or person-centered leaders

WHICH STYLE OF LEADER BEHAVIOR IS BEST? It all depends Contemporary views: challenge the assumption that one style of leadership behavior fits all situations

LEADER DECISION MAKING STYLESAutocratic BenevolentDemocraticConsultative or participative leadership style

Can Leadership be Learned?

Yes. Sometimes leadership ability is hidden because people were not given the opportunity or tools to lead. We cannot afford to write anyone off as not a natural leader.

Rosabeth Kanter, Harvard Business School

Leadership is an art. Anyone can become a competent artistbut it takes talent to be a great one.

Jeffery Eisenreich, President, Progress and Freedom Foundation

Natural nonleaders dont exist. Everyone has some degree of leadership capability, but it depends on whether they want to develop it.

Michael Dell, Chairman and CEO, Dell Computer

No. You cant change the fabric of personality.

Carol Bartz, President and CEO, Autodesk

Leadership traits are clearly evident in ones teens and early 20s. They can be enhanced, but some people have more leadership ability than others.

George Fisher, CEO, Eastman Kodak

Source: Glenn Rifkin, Leadership: Can it be learned?, Forbes ASAP, April 8, 1996: 100-112.

Warren Bennis, one of todays foremost authorities on leadership, makes an important distinction between leadership and management:

Leaders are people who do the right things. Managers are people who do things right. Theres a profound difference. When you think about doing the right things, your mind immediately goes toward thinking about the future, thinking about dreams, missions, visions, strategic intent, purpose. But when you think about doing things right, you think about control mechanisms. You think about how-to. Leaders ask the what and why question, not the how question.

Source: Loeb, M. September 19, 1994, Where leaders come from. Fortune: 241.

Norman R. Augustine, (retired) Chairman of Lockheed Martin, one of Americas most respected executives, recently told an interesting and humorous story: I am reminded of an article I once read in a British newspaper . . . which described a problem with the local bus service between the towns of Bagnall and Greenfields. It seemed that, to the great annoyance of customers, drivers had been passing long queues of would-be passengers with a smile and a wave of the hand. This practice was, however, clarified by a bus company official who explained, It is impossible for the drivers to keep their timetables if they must stop for passengers.Source: Address by Norman R. Augustine, at the Crummer Business School, Winter Park, Florida, October 20, 1989.

Three Key Interrelated Strategic Leadership ActivitiesSetting a DirectionDesigning theOrganizationInstilling a CultureEmphasizing Excellence and EthicsSource: Dess and Miller, Strategic Management, 1993 (McGraw-Hill, New York), page 321.

Peter Drucker on Leadership: All the effective leaders I have encountered--both those I worked with and those I merely watched--knew four simple things:1. The only definition of a leader is someone who has followers. Some people are thinkers. Some are prophets. Both roles are important and badly needed. But without followers, there can be no leaders.2. An effective leader is not someone who is loved or admired. He or she is someone whose followers do the right things. Popularity is not leadership. Results are.3. Leaders are highly visible. They therefore set examples.4. Leadership is not rank, privileges, titles, or money. It is responsibility.Source: Forward in The Leader of the Future (Jossey-Bass: San Francisco), page xii.

Creating Culture

Most successful organizations are strongly oriented toward a single dominant value which becomes, in a sense, the root of their competitive advantage. For example, consider:Federal Express commitment to customer service where the companys two ambitious quality goals are straightforward and ambitious: 100 percent customer satisfaction after every interaction and 100 percent service performance on every package handled. 3Ms quest for innovation which is promoted by several policies to help the company regularly achieve their corporate-wide 30 percent rule. This requires each division to produce 30 percent of their sales from products developed within the most recent four-year period. (Incidentally, this figure is far more aggressive than the earlier 25 percent/five year criterion.) And, for 1998, a new criterion has been introduced: ten percent of sales for the year must be from products developed in 1998.Wal-Marts domination of the mass merchandise industry through its emphasis on efficiency. Central to this strategy is their highly successful cross-docking strategy with its emphasis on logistics and information systems which has redefined the nature of competition in their segment of the retail industry.Sources: Anonymous. Blueprints for Service Quality. 2nd Edition. 1994 American Management Association: New York: 48., Personal communication Ms. Katherine Hagmeier, Program Manager, External Communications, March 26, 1998.

Building Esprit de Corps John Correnti, recently named CEO of Nucor, fosters the esprit de corps and openness of his companys culture through his actions. To combat the evils of bureaucracy and insulated, distant top level managers, he insists on visiting every plant at least twice a year to:shake everyones hand and shoot the breeze. I want them to know if they have a problem, they can pick up the phone or write a letter and communicate with someone who is not a nameless, faceless stranger whos pulling the strings.Source: Rodengen, J.L. 1997. The Legend of Nucor Corporation. Write Stuff Enterprises: Fort Lauderdale, Florida: vii.

In 1982 Nucor survived a severe downturn without laying off a single employee. According to former CEO Iverson: In a downturn, hourly workers may earn 20 to 25 percent less than in good times. Department heads earn 30 to 45 percent less, while compensation to corporate officers may drop as much as 60 to 70 percent. I think in 1980 I earned $430,000. In 1982, I earned $108,000.Source: Rodengen, J.L. 1977. The Legend of Nucor Corporation. Write Stuff Enterprises: Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

Providing straightforward and honest communication with employees. Consider Lew Platts (former CEO of Hewlett Packard) insight:its obvious that a lot of (employees) havent been communicated with very frankly. They havent been told the real story; somebody has sugar-coated the bad news or somebody has fed them a line of b.s. because they didnt think employees could understand or accept the truth. Our people really want us to be truthful with them, and I think truth in communications is something we need to emphasize.Source: Anonymous. Quoteworthy. May-June 1993. Measure: 31 (An internal HP Publication).

Dr. William Coyne, 3Ms Senior Vice President for Research and Development on the value of 3Ms 15 percent rule:We want to institutionalize a bit of rebellion in our labs. We cant have all our people off totally on their ownwe do believe in disciplinebut at the same time 3M management encourages a healthy disrespect for 3M management. This is not the sort of thing we publicize in our annual report, but the stories we tell with relish are frequently about 3Mers who have circumvented their supervisors and succeeded.One of the boldest of these incidents concerns a young researcher named Lew Lehr. Lehr was a key developer of 3Ms first surgical drapes, and he remained convinced of their potential even when they faltered initially in the marketplace. And he remained convinced even after his superiors told him that they were tired of losing money on the product and wanted to drop it. Lehr agreed to kill the project just as soon as the inventory was used up. But in the spirit of Dick Drew (an earlier 3M innovator), he neglected to tell the factory until hed built up a substantial inventory. And while that inventory was being used up, he finagled a contract from the U.S. military a key account that 3M wanted to keep happy. The company didnt want to renege on the contract, so production started up again.Eventually, the product took hold and became both a solid performer and the first in a long line of health care products a $2 billion business for 3M today. And Lew Lehr was not punished for his persistence. To the contrary, he worked his way up through the ranks and eventually became Chairman of the Board.Source: Speech by Dr. William E. Coyne titled Building on a Tradition of Innovation for the 5th UK Innovation lecture on March 5, 1996.

Northwestern Mutual Life Insurances, traditions, emphasis on communication and education, and thriftiness Most companies reward agents by whisking them away to far-flung resorts. To say we dont is an understatement. For more than a hundred years, weve held our annual meeting each summer in Milwaukee. Agents bring their familiesand even pay their own way. Thats rightI said they pay their own way to Milwaukee, Wisconsin! More than 9,000 agents and family members attended the meeting last July. They enjoyed a number of social eventsbut education and communication was the main focus of the meetingas it always is. We call it uniqueand it is. But our industry colleagues probably just call us cheap. I remember talking to a woman at an industry meeting. She was telling me where her company takes their agentsat company expense. Spain, Italy, the Bahamas. An acquaintance of mine overheard and said...Jim, tell her where you take Northwestern agents. So I said, The Milwaukee Zoo because thats where we hold our opening party. As she stood there speechless I added, but we only make them pay for half of their food and drink. I dont think I made a convert to our values and traditions.Source: Speech by James D. Ericson, Fortune Magazine, Corporate Communications Seminar on March 13, 1993.

Jack Welch (CEO, GE) on Boundarylessness Boundaryless behavior is the soul of todays GE...Simply put, people seem compelled to build layers and walls between themselves and others, and that human tendency tends to be magnified in large, old institutions like ours. These walls cramp people, inhibit creativity, waste time, restrict vision, smother dreams and, above all, slow things down. The removal of those walls means we involve suppliers as participants in our design and manufacturing processes rather than treat them and vendors, left to cool their heels in waiting rooms. It means having major launch customers like British Airways, Tokyo Electric Power or CSX in the room and involved in the design of a new jet engine, a revolutionary gas turbine or new AC locomotive, or a panel of doctors helping us develop a new ultrasound system. Internally, boundaryless behavior means piercing the walls of 100-year old fiefdoms and empires called finance, engineering, manufacturing, marketing, and gathering teams from all those functions in one room, with one shared coffee pot, one shared vision and one consuming passionto design the worlds best jet engine, or ultrasound machine, or refrigerator.Source: GE 1993 Annual Report, p. 2.

The Role of Incentive Systems

Lantech, a small manufacturer of packaging material in Louisville, provides an instructive and colorful example of dysfunctional incentive systems.Lantech is a privately-owned company with 325 employees and revenues of approximately $65 million. In a bid to spur productivity, each of the firms five manufacturing divisions was given a bonus based on its profits which could amount to up to 10 percent of each workers pay. Problems arose because the divisions were so highly interdependent that it was difficult to sort out what division was entitled to what profits. For example, the division that built standard machines and the one that added custom features to those machines depended on each other for parts, engineering expertise, and so on. Inevitably, the groups clashed, each one tried to assign costs to the other as well as claim credit for revenues.According to Pat Lancaster, Chairman, By the early Nineties, I was spending 95 percent of my time on conflict resolution instead of on how to serve our customers. His son, Jim, CEO, added that the incentive system led to so much secrecy, politicking, and sucking noise that you wouldnt believe it. Things got so bad that some employees argued over who would be charged for the toilet paper in the common restroom. This motivated one aspiring bean counter to suggest that toilet paper costs should reflect the sexual makeup of the division, based on the shaky theory that one gender uses more than the other!Not surprisingly, the divisional performance pay program was scrapped and now Lantech uses a profit-sharing system in which all employees receive bonuses based on salary. Furious passions have subsided; performance is up. Concludes Pat Lancaster: Incentive pay is toxic because it is so open to favoritism and manipulation.Sources: Nulty, P. November 13, 1995. Incentive pay can be crippling. Fortune: 235; and Anonymous. February 1997. The downside of division-focussed incentive pay plans, Pay for Performance Report:4..

How Hull Trading Company allocates its bonus pool: Hull Trading Company is one of Americas largest independent trading firms which has experienced dramatic growth. Started by Blair Hull in 1985 with four people and $1 million, it has grown to 100 people with $80 million of capital. Hull generates its profits by using sophisticated technology and mathematical modeling to place bets on complex securities such as options on stock indexes such as the S&P 500, futures contracts on these index options, and options of individual stocks.

Hull stresses teamwork as a core value. For example, to respond quickly to market turbulence, the firm has created a Fast Market Team that kicks into gear when markets dramatically change. Employees normally close to Headquarters programmers, accountants, lawyers rush to the pits to help clear trades. To stay operationally fit, the team even conducts fire drills.To keep everyone pulling in the same direction, the company distributes its multimillion dollar bonus pool through an electoral process involving the entire firm. Clearly, its business democracy at work the more votes you get the bigger your bonus with an important dose of meritocracy built in. Its easy to determine who has the most credibility around here, claims Hull. They are the people with the most votes.Source: Kane, K. December-January, 1997. Risky Business, Sound thinking. Fast Company: 85-90.

How Federal Express targets the intangibles of customer service and extraordinary effortThe Bravo Zulu program---the Navy signal for well doneuses modest cash awards and gift certificates to reward employees, on the spot, for outstanding efforts and achievement.The Golden Falcon award, which includes ten shares of stock and a congratulatory phone call or visit from a top executive, is triggered directly by a letter or phone call from a customer praising an employees performance.Source: Anonymous, Blueprints for Service Quality, Second edition. 1994. AMA Publications: New York: 30-31.

Empowerment

Henry Ford I on EmpowermentWhy is it that I need to hire the whole person when all I need is a pair of hands?

Charles Handy on empowerment: organizations used to be designed to make sure that mistakes never happened. That turned out to be quite expensive in terms of controls, very inhibiting, and uncreative. No mistakes also meant no experiments Individuals or groups have to be trusted to deliver until it is clear that they cannot do so. The task of the leader is to make sure that the individuals or groups are competent to exercise the responsibility that is given to them, understand the goals of the organization, and are committed to them.Source: The Leader of the Future, p. 5.

This amusing story was shared by Charles Handy, author of The Age of Unreason and The Age of Paradox as well as one of todays most respected business visionaries. The other day, a courier could not find my familys remote cottage. He called his base on his radio, and the base called us to ask directions. He was just around the corner, but his base managed to omit a vital part of the directions. So he called them again, and they called us again. Then the courier repeated the cycle a third time to ask whether we had a dangerous dog. When he eventually arrived, we asked whether it would not have been simpler and less aggravating to everyone if he had called us directly from the roadside telephone booth where he had been parked. I cant do that, he said, because thy wont refund any money I spend. But its only pennies! I exclaimed. I know, he said, but that only shows how little they trust us!Source: Handy, C. May June 1995. Trust and the virtual organization. Harvard Business Review, 73: 40-50.

Empowerment: A CautionRick Teerlink at Harley-Davidson has worked to create a stronger organization through training and organizing his work force. He said, If you empower dummies, you get dumb decisions faster. His view is that capable organizations come from more talented and more committed employees.Dave Ulrich, The Leader of the Future, pp. 210-211.

Emergent Leaders Leadership will then increasingly be an emergent function rather than a property of people appointed to formal roles. Whereas today the process of appointing leaders is a critical function of boards of directors, electorates, government agencies, and so on, we can imagine that, in the future, appointed leaders will not play the key leadership roles but will be perpetual diagnosticians who will be able to empower different people at different times and to let emergent leadership flourish.Source: Edgar H. Schein, The Leader of the Future, p. 68.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Two basic forms of leadershipTransactionalTransformational

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIPArticulates a visionBreaks from the status quoProvide goals and a planGives meanings/purpose to goalsTake risks/motivated to leadBuilds a power baseDemonstrates high ethical/moral standards

All progress is made by the unreasonable man, since the reasonable man will always stick with the status quo.

Mark Twain

Source: Anne Fisher, February 17, 1997. Are Gen Xers arrogant or just misunderstood? Fortune, pp. 139-40.

WEATHERUPS SUCCESSFUL TRANSFORMATION AT PEPSICO He was looking aheadfocusing on the future. Sensing trouble on the horizon, he moved quickly and created a sense of urgency with his model trains and stories of customer pain. He developed a vision and a plan for organizational transformation, and communicated it effectively through speeches, meetings, and employee training. He challenged the organization with stretch goals, empowered workers at every level, and motivated them to achieve the objectives. Finally, he institutionalized the changes and made them an integral part of the organizations culture and business model with changes in organization structure, policies, and procedures.

Tom Kasten, Vice President of Levi Strauss has a very direct approach to initiating change.You create a compelling picture of the risks of not changing. We let our people hear directly from customers. We videotaped interviews with customers and played excerpts. One big customer said, We trust many of your competitors implicitly. We sample their deliveries. We open all Levis deliveries. Another said, Your lead times are the worst. If you werent Levis, youd be gone. It was powerful. I wish we had done more of it.Source: Sheff, D. June-July, 1996. Levis changes everything. Fast Company: 65-74.

Paul ONeill, CEO of Alcoa from 1987 - 1999, invites commitment and employee involvement in his vision of the new Alcoa:

As we make the journey together, the operable words and phrases are trust, candor, quantum-leap improvement, vision, values, and communication, communication, communication, and communication.

When I was a young man I worked in Alaska for a construction company and my boss was a grizzled old-style construction superintendenthis approach to everything [was] exuberant, excited, energetic, knowing he could make a differencethrilled about life and his own ability to create things of value.

If next week your job and your role feels differently to you, Ill consider that good newsIf you find yourself excited and ready to really move out with this new structure weve provided, Ill consider that my old superintendent has been reincarnated a hundred times over!!! We have the potential to be one of the great companies in the world, measured by any standard. We have more than 63,000 of the best people around the world who share that goal. Lets provide the leadership to take us there. TOGETHER, WE CAN DO IT!

Source: Remarks by Paul H. ONeill at the Alcoa Organizational Meeting, Pittsburgh Hilton Hotel, August 9, 1991

Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders areself-confident and have a strong conviction in the moral righteousness of their beliefs. They strive to create an aura of competence and success and communicate high expectations for and confidence in their followers.

Charismatic leaders are frequently able to:Shape a vision of the future with which employees / followers identifyShape a value system for which everyone standsTrust subordinates and earn their complete trust in return

The charismatic leader has a vision that creates excitement among the followers.

The charismatic leader is an eloquent speaker which helps to communicate the vision and motivate the followers.

Socialized and Personalized CharismaSocialized Charisma:Articulate visions that serve the interests of the collectiveGovern in an egalitarian, non-self-aggrandizing mannerActively empower and develop followersWork through legitimate, established channels of authority to accomplish goals

Personalized Charisma:AuthoritarianDemand unquestioning obedience from followersNarcissisticHold goals that reflect their own self-interestsFollowers needs are played on as a means to achieve the leaders interestsDisregard rights and needs of othersDisregard legitimate, established channels of authority

According to Jay Conger, a noted authority on charismatic leadership:Such leaders possess an ability to introduce quantum change in an organizationCharismatic leaders go through four stages:sensing opportunity and formulating a visionarticulating the visionbuilding trust in the visionachieving the vision

People who have these characteristics inspire in their followers:trustconfidenceunquestioning acceptancewilling obedienceemotional involvementaffection for the leaderhigher performance

Martin Luther KingBorn in 1929Grew up middle classGraduated high school at the age of 15Earned Ph.D. from Boston UniversityStudied Gandhis concept of non-violent resistance while earning seminary degree

Commitment. Workers will share the leader's point of view and enthusiastically carry out instructions.

Compliance. Workers will obey orders and carry out instructions, although they may personally disagree with instructions and will not necessarily be enthusiastic.

Resistance. Workers will deliberately try to avoid carrying out instructions and attempt to disobey orders.

Now place the sources of power and worker response on OH at some time and match them up.

Coercion leads to resistance: I asked my boss why we didnt just mandate procard and they said that it wouldnt work - everyone would resist and it would all sound good, etc. They were right. I had to sell the program or the accountants and everyone else would come up with a million good reasons why procard was bad for the company.Expert power leads to commitment: In Apollo 13, the guy says that he has been studying it for an hour and power is the problem. He is the expert and everyone is committed after that (since they all share the same vision of get them home.)5Several different ways of looking at leadership.

Personal characteristics make a leader

what they do makes a leader

the things that make a leader depend on the situation

6Did case studies of great leaders and hoped to find commonalities

Studies show a correlation between personal traits and leadership but not that strong.

We can acquire some of this stuff7Imagine how hard it would be to campaign for president

Studies of CEOs and generals found that they are both smarter than the average (generals a bit smarter than CEOs but CEOs somewhat more creative)/To overcome setbacks - lose election and run and win next time also to make decisions in uncertainty. The most important decisions are in uncertainty. Should we bomb Kosovo/Serbia or not.

Credibility - trust is important because people wont follow unless they trust the leader. Do the actions match the words. We have a real problem in Kosovo now. Repeated UN/U.S. condemnations of violations of no fly zones, uncooperation in finding chem/bio weapons, Iraq sent tanks into Kurd safe havens... in Bosnia, Iraq. Who will follow Clinton/the U.S. when we talk tough the next time? North Korea says it will only accept cash in return for not exporting ballistic missile technology - they see lack of resolve and the capitalize. The world is a more dangerous place because of it. If France had stood up to Hitler when he took back the Rhineland, then we would have avoided WWII. Neville Chamberlain - this is a man we can do business with (is that the quote?) peace in our time. Hitler: my enemies are worms...

8Focus on speed, quality, task completion9Focus on efforts to ensure group harmony, work satisfaction, peoples feelings, level of stress

Reality - leaders are seldom all the way over on one end of the scale - they are somewhere in between1110The task or person centered stuff drives how leaders make decisions.

Autocratic - centralized decision makingpeople may only perform well when boss is therepeople dont really like autocratic leadership Benevolent - autocratic with a few more rewards but still a good amount of punishment - benevolent dictator

Democratic - bring others into decisionsempowered subordinates may perform well when leader is absentpeople tend to prefer this type of leadership

However, type can depend on situation:untrained emp. - task centered autocrattime pressure - task centered autocrat - emergency room nurse

Consultive/participative - in between the two

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