corporate strategy
DESCRIPTION
WHAT ARE THE MAIN PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN DESIGNING AN ORGANIZATION’S STRUCTURE TO IMPLEMENT ITS STRATEGY? WHAT SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS APPLY WHEN SEEKING INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES AND HOW ARE MANAGERS SELECTED AND MOTIVATED TO IMPLEMENT STRATEGIES?TRANSCRIPT
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QUESTION 1: WHAT ARE THE MAIN PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN DESIGNING AN
ORGANIZATION’S STRUCTURE TO IMPLEMENT ITS STRATEGY? WHAT
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS APPLY WHEN SEEKING INNONATIVE STRATEGIES
AND HOW ARE MANAGERS SELECTED AND MOTIVATED TO IMPLEMENT
STRATEGIES?
Introduction
Organization has been defined in several ways. Leavitt (1962) defines it as a specific
configuration of structure, people, task and techniques. Structure describes the form of
departments, hierarchy and committees. It influences the organization's efficiency and
effectiveness. People refer to the skills, attitudes and social interaction of the members of the
organization. Task refers to the goals of the individual and the organization. Techniques refer to
the methodical approach used to perform tasks. Organizational structure thus refers to the
institutional arrangements and mechanisms for mobilizing human, physical, financial and
information resources at all levels of the system.
Designing organizational structures
Some important considerations in designing an effective organizational structure are:
Clarity: The structure of the organization should be such that there is no confusion about
people's goals, tasks, style of functioning, reporting relationship and sources of
information.
Understanding: The structure of an organization should provide people with a clear
picture of how their work fits into the organization.
De-centralization: The design of an organization should compel discussions and decisions
at the lowest possible level.
Stability and adaptability: While the organizational structure should be adaptable to
environmental changes, it should remain steady during unfavorable conditions.
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Principles of organization structure
Modern organizational structures have evolved from several organizational theories, which have
identified certain principles as basic to any organization.
1. Specialization
Specialization facilitates division of work into units for efficient performance. According to the
classical approach, work can be performed much better if it is divided into components and
people are encouraged to specialize by components. Work can be specialized both horizontally
and vertically. Vertical specialization in a research organization refers to different kinds of work
at different levels, such as project leader, scientist, researcher, field staff, etc. Horizontally, work
is divided into departments like genetics, plant pathology, administration, accounts, etc.
Specialization enables application of specialized knowledge which betters the quality of work
and improves organizational efficiency. At the same time, it can also influence fundamental
work attitudes, relationships and communication. This may make coordination difficult and
obstruct the functioning of the organization. There are four main causal factors which could
unfavorably affect attitudes and work styles. These are differences in:
Goal orientation;
Time orientation;
Inter-personal orientation; and
The formality of structure (Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967).
2. Coordination
Coordination refers to integrating the objectives and activities of specialized departments to
realize broad strategic objectives of the organization. It includes two basic decisions pertaining
to:
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Which units or groups should be placed together; and
The patterns of relationships, information networks and communication (Anderson,
1988).
In agricultural research institutions, where most of the research is multidisciplinary but involves
specialization, coordination of different activities is important to achieve strategic objectives.
Efficient coordination can also help in resolving conflicts and disputes between scientists in a
research organization.
Hierarchy facilitates vertical coordination of various departments and their activities.
Organizational theorists have over the years developed several principles relating to the
hierarchy of authority for coordinating various activities. Some of the important principles are
discussed below:
Unity of Command: Every person in an organization should be responsible to one superior and
receive orders from that person only. Fayol (1949) considered this to be the most important
principle for efficient working and increased productivity in an organization.
The Scalar Principle: Decision making authority and the chain of command in an organization
should flow in a straight line from the highest level to the lowest. The principle evolves from the
principle of unity of command. However, this may not always be possible, particularly in large
organizations or in research institutions. Therefore Fayol (1949) felt that members in such
organizations could also communicate directly at the same level of hierarchy, with prior
intimation to their superiors.
The Responsibility and Authority Principle: For successfully performing certain tasks,
responsibility must be accompanied by proper authority. Those responsible for performance of
tasks should also have the appropriate level of influence on decision making.
Span of Control: This refers to the number of specialized activities or individuals supervised by
one person. Deciding the span of control is important for coordinating different types of
activities effectively.
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3. Departmentalization
Departmentalization is a process of horizontal clustering of different types of functions and
activities on any one level of the hierarchy. It is closely related to the classical bureaucratic
principle of specialization (Luthans, 1986). Departmentalization is conventionally based on
purpose, product, process, function, personal things and place (Gullick and Urwick, 1937).
Functional Departmentalization is the basic form of departmentalization. It refers to the grouping
of activities or jobs involving common functions. In a research organization the groupings could
be research, production, agricultural engineering, extension, rural marketing and administration.
Product Departmentalization refers to the grouping of jobs and activities that are associated with
a specific product. As organizations increase in size and diversify, functional departmentalization
may not be very effective. The organization has to be further divided into separate units to limit
the span of control of a manager to a manageable level (Luthans, 1986). In an agricultural
research institution, functional departments can be further differentiated by products and purpose
or type of research.
Departmentalization by Users is grouping of both activities and positions to make them
compatible with the special needs of some specific groups of users.
Departmentalization by Territory or Geography involves grouping of activities and positions at a
given location to take advantage of local participation in decision making. The territorial units
are under the control of a manager who is responsible for operations of the organization at that
location. In agricultural research institutions, regional research stations are set up to take
advantage of specific agro-ecological environments. Such departmentalization usually offers
economic advantage.
Departmentalization by Process or Equipment refers to jobs and activities which require a
specific type of technology, machine or production process.
Other common bases for departmentalization can be time of duty, number of employees, market,
distribution channel or services.
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4. De-centralization and Centralization
De-centralization refers to decision making at lower levels in the hierarchy of authority. In
contrast, decision making in a centralized type of organizational structure is at higher levels. The
degree of centralization and de-centralization depends on the number of levels of hierarchy,
degree of coordination, specialization and span of control. According to Luthans (1986),
centralization and de-centralization could be according to:
Geographical or territorial concentration or dispersion of operations;
Functions
Extent of concentration or delegation of decision making powers.
Every organizational structure contains both centralization and de-centralization, but to varying
degrees. The extent of this can be determined by identifying how much of the decision making is
concentrated at the top and how much is delegated to lower levels. Modern organizational
structures show a strong tendency towards de-centralization.
5. Line and Staff Relationships
Line authority refers to the scalar chain, or to the superior-subordinate linkages, that extend
throughout the hierarchy (Koontz, O'Donnell and Weihrich, 1980). Line employees are
responsible for achieving the basic or strategic objectives of the organization, while staff plays a
supporting role to line employees and provides services. The relationship between line and staff
is crucial in organizational structure, design and efficiency. It is also an important aid to
information processing and coordination.
In an agricultural research organization, scientists and researchers form the line. Administrative
employees are considered staff, and their main function is to support and provide help to
scientists to achieve organizational goals
It is the responsibility of the manager to make proper and effective use of staff through their
supportive functions. The staff may be specialized, general or organizational (Anderson, 1988).
Specialized staff conducts technical work that is beyond the time or knowledge capacity of top
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management, such as conducting market research and forecasting. General staff consists of staff
assistants to whom managers assign work. Organization staff (such as centralized personnel,
accounting and public relations staff) provides services to the organization as a whole. Their role
is to integrate different operations across departments.
Line and staff personnel have different functions, goals, cultures and backgrounds.
Consequently, they could frequently face conflict situations. A manager has to use his skills in
resolving such conflicts.
Special considerations when seeking innovation strategy
First, an innovation strategy needs to be truly inspiring and should describe a desirable future
state for the company. This is a high bar as it rules out a single-minded focus on incremental
add-ons to the business. Rather, it requires the organization to aim higher.The innovation
strategy should be derived from the corporate strategy to clearly define how the organization sees
opportunities for growth and makes explicit choices about the role of innovation. However,
Opportunities and possibilities formulated in an innovation strategy should actually provide input
and shape the overall corporate strategy.
Second, the innovation strategy needs to be ambitious in terms of providing the basis to break
away from the competition, beat the competition, and create new spaces. Too many innovation
strategies tend to be “me too” (and mostly incremental). Even if executed according to plan, they
fail to deliver the truly sustainable competitive advantages that can only be derived by
performing above the overall market growth level and exceeding average profit margins.
Again, the innovation strategy should aim higher and help the company outpace anybody else in
a contested space. If the so-called strategy does not seek to push those boundaries, the strategy in
all practicality is probably just a product roadmap of business extensions, not an innovation
strategy.
Third, the process of developing the strategy needs to be open.Open means bringing the outside
in and working under the assumption that people may have insights that do not exist within a
particular company’s boundaries. It is often hard for companies to open up and avoid merely
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settling. At the same time, this should not be mistaken as an excuse for failing to come up with a
great innovation strategy based on internal ideas and conviction. Being open is just a great way
to raise the bar in terms of ambition and to more quickly get to more mature plans. By the way,
as opening up the innovation pipeline is not just a matter of mindset, new technologies play an
important role in making openness commercially feasible.
Fourth, an innovation strategy must also be specific to the time in which it is developed, as it is
grounded in the reality of a company’s environment, and it reflects the available capabilities,
technologies and gaps that may need to be filled. It is important to describe with great precision
which specific innovation initiatives should be pursued, and where to invest and compete.
Finally, an innovation strategy needs to be adaptive and to evolve over time, i.e. incorporate
learning, allow adjustments to the desired course and maybe even allow an organization to cut its
losses if required. This typically does not fit with the classic annual corporate planning cycle. An
innovation strategy and the respective execution should be capable of adapting the moment there
are new insights, even if that requires moving in multiple directions to raise the aspiration you
had at the beginning. Innovation sometimes requires more time than originally estimated.
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QUESTION 2: DOES A SMALL COMPANY NEED A FORMAL STRATEGIC PLAN?
WHY AND WHY NOT?
Introduction
Many small companies are aware of strategic planning but have a notion that it is only useful for
larger businesses or organizations. Most entrepreneurs have their ideas and plans in their heads
and since they are the ones running the business, they often feel there is no need to waste time
putting it to paper. That kind of thinking can bring a small business down. Planning is essential
to the success of small businesses. Small businesses need to recognize that in order to reach their
desired level of success it is necessary to create a plan.
Strategic planning
According to Wikipedia, strategic planning is an organization’s process of defining its strategy or
direction and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy. In order to
determine the future direction of the organization, it is necessary to understand its current
position and possible avenues through which it can pursue particular courses of action.
Strategic planning is also an organizational management activity that is used to set priorities,
focus energy and resources, strengthen operations, ensure that employees and other stakeholders
are working towards common goals, establish agreement around intended outcomes/results and
assesses and adjust the organization’s direct response to a changing environment.
A strategic plan however is a document used to communicate with the organizational goals, the
needed actions to achieve those goals and all of the other elements developed during the
planning exercise.
Key components of strategic planning
The key components of 'strategic planning' include an understanding of an entity's vision,
mission, values and strategies.
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Vision: outlines what the organization wants to be, or how it wants the world in which it operates
to be (an "idealized" view of the world). It is a long-term view and concentrates on the future. It
can be emotive and is a source of inspiration. For example, a charity working with the poor
might have a vision statement which reads "A World without Poverty."
Mission: defines the fundamental purpose of an organization or an enterprise, succinctly
describing why it exists and what it does to achieve its vision. For example, the charity above
might have a mission statement as "providing jobs for the homeless and unemployed".
Values: beliefs that are shared among the stakeholders of an organization. Values drive
an organization's culture and priorities and provide a framework in which decisions are
made. For example, "Knowledge and skills are the keys to success" or "give man bread and
feed him for a day, but teach him to farm and feed him for life". These example maxims may
set the priorities of self-sufficiency over shelter.
Strategy: defines as a means to the end and these ends concerns the purpose and objectives of
the organization. They are the things that businesses do, the path they follow, and the
decisions they take, in order to reach certain points and levels of success. A strategy is
sometimes called a roadmap - which is the path chosen to plow towards the end vision. The
most important part of implementing the strategy is ensuring the company is going in the
right direction - defined as towards the end vision.
Why small businesses need a formal strategic plan
A strategic plan helps the various people and work units within an organization to align
themselves with common goals. But perhaps most importantly, the strategic planning process
provides managers, owners and entrepreneurs the necessary framework for developing sound
business strategy.
Also managers and business owners need a well-developed strategic plan in order to effectively
establish expectations for their employees. Without a plan, expectations are developed in a void
and there is little or no alignment with common goals and strategies. A good strategic plan looks
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out 2 to 5 years and describes clearly what market, product/service; pricing, marketing and other
strategies will be followed.
Another reason is that, during tough economic times, the need for a solid strategic direction and
plan is even more pronounced because the margin for error generally becomes much smaller for
most businesses. When the economy turns down, the absence of a well-designed and effectively
implemented strategic plan will often be felt in a dramatic manner. Because sound goals,
objectives, strategies, and tactics have not been integral to the daily operations, the business will
not be well positioned to withstand the hits delivered by a struggling economy. Conversely,
organizations with solid plans that are being implemented effectively stand a far better chance of
surviving tough economic times. Why? Because sound strategic direction provided by a strategic
plan lays a strong foundation that will support a business during these economic downturns.
More so, all employees need to understand the guiding principles of the business and what
everyone should be aiming to achieve. A strategic plan that is well developed, properly
communicated, and carefully implemented can launch struggling or underperforming businesses
to new heights.
Furthermore, with a strategic plan in place, day-to-day decision making and problem solving will
be directly related to long-range and short-term goals. Planning reduces stress by making
decisions easier. When choices are made within the context of a strategic framework, the
organization’s direction is clearly defined. If there is no strategic framework, the future of the
organization is in the hands of whoever is making choices. Strategic decision making and
problem solving assure that the organization’s vision will be achieved.
Why small businesses do not need a strategic plan
Strategic planning is inappropriate for small companies because:
The strategic planning process is one which is very daunting and requires various data to arrive a
comprehensive strategic plan. Most small business owners have no time and or the resources to
invest in days of planning.
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Also, developing a strategic plan requires senior managers to make time and spend days in
meetings to formulate. This comes at a big cost for small businesses because most of the top
team members usually lead their sales and marketing efforts and taking them off the road to sit in
meetings for days formulating a strategic plan has immediate negative impact on revenues.
More so, the payoff of strategic planning is often measured in millions of dollars rather than
hundreds of dollars, so it makes no financial sense for small businesses to over invest in the
effort.
Furthermore, small business must continually adjust their strategy so the strategies they develop
during a strategic planning session are usually short-lived. Most small businesses win because
they are more nimble, quicker to seize unexpected opportunities than their larger competitors.
Long term planning can slow them down and kill this advantage.
Conclusion
Despite the fact the one can somehow argue for the fact the small businesses might not
necessarily need a strategic plan due to the cost and time involved in developing one I will
conclude by saying that every business really needs a strategic plan no matter how small the
business is. This is because the plan will keep the business focus and the objectives developed
from the plan can serve as a guide for performance to be measured and monitored.
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QUESTION 3: IN WHAT STRATEGIC CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD A LEADER BE
DOMINANT AND IN WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD A LEADER WORK WITH
A SHARED VISION? GIVE EXAMPLES TO SUPPORT YOUR VIEWS AND SHOW
HOW OTHER FACTORS CAN ALSO INFLUENCE LEADERSHIP STYLE.
Introduction
Taking a team from ordinary to extraordinary means understanding and embracing the difference
between management and leadership. Managers are facilitators of their team members’ success.
They ensure that their people have everything they need to be productive and successful; that
they’re well trained, happy and have minimal roadblocks in their path; that they’re being
groomed for the next level; that they are recognized for great performance and coached through
their challenges.
Conversely, a leader can be anyone on the team who has a particular talent, who is creatively
thinking out of the box and has a great idea, who has experience in a certain aspect of the
business or project that can prove useful to the manager and the team. A leader leads based on
strengths.
A dominant leader is a leader who is in charge and has total authority and control over decision
making. By virtue of their position and job responsibilities, they not only control the efforts of
the team, but monitor them for completion –often under close scrutiny. It is the most common
form of leadership. This style is reminiscent of the earliest tribes and empires. Obviously, our
historical movement toward democracy brings a negative connotation to autocracy, but in some
situations, it is the most appropriate type of leadership. That, of course, doesn’t mean a blank
check to ignore the wellbeing of his subordinate.
Circumstances where a leader should be dominant
A dominant leadership is characterized by a clear line of authority that gives the leader the power
of delegation and the power to control the subordinates’ level of participation in decision making
process.
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The dominant leadership style is best used in situations where control is necessary, often where
there is little margin for error. When conditions are dangerous, rigid rules can keep people out of
harm’s way. Many times, the subordinate staff is inexperienced or unfamiliar with the type of
work and heavy oversight is necessary.
Rigid organizations often use this style. It has been known to be very paternalistic, and in highly-
professional, independent minded teams, it can lead to resentment and strained morale.
Good fits for dominant Leadership:
Military
Manufacturing
Construction
It’s easy to see the immediate goal of this type of leadership: use your expertise to get the job
done. Make sure that everyone is exactly where they need to be and doing their job, while the
important tasks are handled quickly and correctly.
In many ways this is the oldest leadership style, dating back to the early empires. It’s very
intuitive to tell people what needs to be done by when.
It is difficult balancing the use of authority with the morale of the team. Too much direct scrutiny
will make your subordinates miserable, and being too heavy handed will squelch all group input.
Being an effective autocratic leader means being very intentional about when and how demands
are made of the team.
Here are some things to keep in mind to be an effective when acting as a dominant leader:
Respect your Subordinates: It’s easy to end up as rigid as the rules you are trying to enforce.
It’s important that you stay fair and acknowledge that everyone brings something to the table,
even if they don’t call the shots. Making subordinates realize they are respected keeps moral
up and resentment low; every functional team is built on a foundation of mutual respect.
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Explain the rules: Your people know they have to follow procedure, but it helps them do a
better job if they know why.
Be consistent: If your role in the team is to enforce the company line, you have to make sure
you do so consistently and fairly. It’s easy to respect someone objective, but hard to trust
someone who applies policy differently in similar circumstances.
Educate before you enforce: Having everyone understand your expectations up front will mean
less surprises down the road. Being above board from the outset prevents a lot of
miscommunications and misunderstandings.
Listen, even if you don’t change: We all want to feel like our opinions are appreciated, even if
they aren’t going to lead to immediate change and being a leader means that your team will
want to bring their opinions to you. It’s important to be clear that they are heard, no matter the
outcome.
Circumstance where a leader should work with a shared-vision
This leadership style is a very open and collegial style of running a team. Ideas move freely
amongst the group and are discussed openly. Everyone is given a seat at the table, and discussion
is relatively free-flowing.
This style is needed in dynamic and rapidly changing environments where very little can be
taken as a constant. In these fast moving organizations, every option for improvement has to be
considered to keep the group from falling out of date.
The democratic leadership style means facilitating the conversation, encouraging people to share
their ideas, and then synthesizing all the available information into the best possible decision.
The democratic leader must also be able to communicate that decision back to the group to bring
unity the plan is chosen.
When situations change frequently, democratic leadership offers a great deal of flexibility to
adapt to better ways of doing things. Unfortunately, it is also somewhat slow to make a decision
in this structure, so while it may embrace newer and better methods; it might not do so very
quickly.
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Democratic leadership style can bring the best out of an experienced and professional team. It
capitalizes on their skills and talents by letting them share their views, rather than simply
expecting them to conform.
If a decision is very complex and broad, it is important to have the different areas of expertise
represented and contributing input – this is where democratic leader shines.
Good fits for Democratic Leadership:
Creative groups (advertising, design): ideas need to flow in creative environments to find
create new concepts and designs.
Consulting: when paid to explore problems and find solutions, your role will be to explore the
possibilities in depth, and that means there has to be a great deal of exploration and open
discussion.
Much of the Service industry: new ideas allow for more flexibility to changing customer
demands.
Education: few places need to be open to different ideas than education, both by educators and
their students.
How to be effective with this position:
Keep communication open: If the marketplace of ideas is going to be open for business,
everyone needs to feel comfortable enough to put their ideas on the table. The democratic
leadership style thrives when all the considerations are laid out for everyone to examine.
Focus the discussion: It’s hard to keep unstructured discussion productive. It’s the
leader’s job to balance being open to ideas and keeping everything on-topic. If the
conversation begins to stray, remind everyone of the goal on hand and then steer it back. Make
sure to take note of off-topic comments and try to return to them when they are pertinent.
Be ready to commit: In the democratic leadership style, you get presented with so many
possibilities and suggestions that it can be overwhelming and difficult to commit. But as the
leader, when the time comes, you have to choose and do so with conviction. The team depends
on the clear and unambiguous mandates to be committed.
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Respect the ideas: You and your team might not agree with every idea, and that’s ok. It is
important, however, that you create a healthy environment where those ideas are entertained
and considered --not maligned-- or the flow of ideas will slow to a trickle.
Explain, but don’t apologize: You want the advocates of the solutions that were not
selected to understand that their thoughts were considered and had validity, but that ultimately
you had strong reasons to go a different direction. It’s important that the decision be
communicated, but you should not apologize for deciding on what you think.
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QUESTION 4: IF EMERGENT APPROACHES TO CORPORATE STRATEGY HAVE
ANY SIGNIFICANCE, WHY DO COMPANIES INSIST ON DEFINING AND
STICKING RIGIDLY TO PRESCRIPTIVE CORPORATE OBJECTIVES
A strategy is a set of guiding principles that, when communicated and adopted in the
organization generates a desired pattern of decision making. A strategy is therefore about how
people throughout the organization should make decisions and allocate resources in order to
accomplish key objectives.
Strategy is a series of plans and decisions developed to enable a company to reach goals and
settle objectives. All organizations have a set of objectives that they are aiming to achieve and
this is the case whether the organization is small, large, profit seeking or not. Virtually every
organization will have a set of objectives that will require some form of strategic planning in
order to achieve.
Business strategy implicitly or explicitly draws on deliberate strategy, which means clear and
fully formed intentions for where a business should go and how to get there. Most businesses
accept and act on this by establishing very structured two-, three- and even five-year plans to
expand market share or distribution. In some cases, discrete decisions made by numerous, mid-
level employees unintentionally move an entire organization in a new direction, which results in
an emergent strategy.
Emergent strategies are characterized by patterns of actions within a business that occur without
a clear relationship to, or even in spite of, the stated goals or mission of the business. The pattern
typically becomes apparent only after the fact, but businesses often adopt the change as the new
business strategy. A simple example of this might be a comic book shop owner setting a strategy
for dominating comic book sales in given city. The manager, however, notes that profits from
tabletop gaming products far exceed that of the comics and shifts resources to beef up gaming
inventory. Profits rise and owner recasts the strategy to become the dominant gaming shop in a
given city.
In most cases, emergent strategies arise from individuals in an organization responding directly
to market forces. Their decisions reflect shifts in consumer tastes, order sizes and practices of
competitor businesses. In essence, the advantage of emergent strategy is that it leads a business
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to provide what the market actually wants, rather than what the owner or executive thinks or
believes the market wants. Effective emergent strategy does require that the organization
maintain the flexibility, particularly at the owner or executive level, to embrace the new strategy.
Advantages of emergent strategy
Consistent with actual practice in organizations
Considers people issues such as motivation
Allows experimentation about the strategy to take place
Opportunity for inclusion of culture and politics of organization
Flexibility to respond to market changes
Criticisms of emergent strategy approach
There is a danger of “strategic drift” as objectives is not clear
It is more difficult to assess performance as targets are less well defined
Impracticable to expect board members to allow business to function without objectives.
Group resources need to be allocated between demands of competing operating
companies.
Removes aspects of rational thinking from decision making.
Management control becomes unclear as actions to be undertaken are not planned in
advance.
By nature, emergent strategy occurs as part of ongoing organizational activity. While a business
could forgo a deliberate strategy and rely on an emergent strategy to develop, the odds of such
order manifesting from pure, unstructured business activities remains slim. As such, emergent
strategy does not offer a genuine alternative to more traditional deliberate strategy, especially for
new businesses operating on narrow margins. At best, it serves to complement and serve as a
corrective measure for deliberative strategy.
Despite the significance of the emergence approach to corporate strategy, some companies do
insist on defining and sticking rigidly to prescriptive corporate objectives because of the reasons
discussed below.
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Prescriptive strategic planning is the term given to a strategy whereby the objectives of the
strategy are defined in advance and the main elements are designed and developed prior to the
strategy implementation (Lynch, 2003).
Businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives because clear
objectives provide focus on the Business. A business is lost without goals and that is what
corporate objectives are. Goals provide the clearest way to measure the success of the company.
A company with clear established goals will know how well the company is doing at different
stages to meet the overall objective of the company and provide focus. By stating or defining the
company's goals in specific, measurable ways, it gives direction to the company's efforts and
allows every person in the company the chance to work towards those goals. It is the main
function of the business objectives to provide direction to the company to guide them towards
whatever goal has been specified for whatever time period has been listed in the objective.
Also, businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives because
objectives can be translated into targets against which performance can be measured and
monitored. These set targets monitored and measured ensures the organization does not veer off
course and at each point in time can assess how well the organization is performing and what
sets to take to ensure the organization performs better to achieve the overall corporate vision.
More so, businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives because
resources can be allocated to specific objectives and efficiency can be judged. Because resources
are usually scarce or never enough organizations have to plan on how to allocate these scarce
resources to specific objectives to enable the business reach its full potential.
Furthermore, businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives because
of cohesion. Business objectives allow everyone to be a cohesive unit and be on the same page.
If the business objectives are written out and clear, then everyone will know what the goals are
and be able to pursue them to the greater extent. Business objectives are a great tool for
communication with the company and a way to make sure everyone is working together.
In addition, some businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives
because it gives complex information, defines and focuses business objectives, establishes
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controls, and sets targets that performance can be measured. This approach makes it possible to
organize complex activities and exercise a greater degree of control over different business units.
For example, Tesco's planning process resulted in well-defined long-term goals and clear
boundaries for its UK core business, retail service, non-food and international sectors.
Last but not the least, businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives
because the approach is logical and rational. The approach views strategy formulation and
implementation as a logical, rational and systematic process. After analysis of the business and
its environment, strategists set well-defined corporate and business objectives, formulate, select
and implement strategies that will allow objectives to be achieved.
Conclusion
For most companies that use strategy to help manage and improve their company’s performance,
strategy is a periodic deliberate planning process that is loosely tied to its day-to-day business
and resource allocation processes. The basic premise of using strategy within a company is that
the effective allocation of resources to the right areas of the company for the correct purposes
will yield a stronger competitive position and provide overall better returns.
The increasing pace of change in the business landscape, driven by the rapid cycling of consumer
interests and technical innovation, suggest that tolerance for emergent strategy may need to
become inherent for all businesses. Business owners and executives do need to remain cautious
about reading emergent strategy into patterns of behavior. Shifts in the strategic position of the
business due to mid-level decisions may come about as the result of poor or uninformed
decision-making at that level.
However, businesses do insist on defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives because, the
approach is logical, objectives allow the business to be cohesive. Also, businesses do insist on
defining and sticking to rigid corporate objectives because objectives can be translated into
targets against which performance can be measured and monitored.
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QUESTION 5: WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH USING ALLIANCES AND JOINT
VENTURES IN INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT? HOW MIGHT
THEY BE OVERCOME?
Introduction
Joint ventures and strategic alliances are a proven tactic for management to secure faster and
lower risk growth. The alternatives are to grow organically (100% control but generally slower
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growth); or with acquisitions (faster growth but demanding on capital and challenging to
integrate post-acquisition and secure the forecast benefits).
Strategic alliances can be effective ways to diffuse new technologies rapidly to enter new
market, to bypass governmental restrictions expeditiously and to learn quickly from the leading
firms in the industry. However, strategic alliances are not simple or easy to create, develop and
support. Strategic alliance projects often fail because of tactical errors made by management.
Joint ventures and strategic alliances allow faster growth by accessing markets and technology,
and sharing and controlling risks. The main catalysts for the growth in such alliances are: the
increasing internationalization of markets; the growing importance of innovation management
(with rapid technology transfer and shorter product lives); and, the increasing costs of R&D
(with the complexity of technology and convergence of it).
With such benefits, there are also potential downsides. 40% of joint ventures result in divorce
within three years – which is not necessarily a sign of failure. But, when joint ventures are not
properly managed over their life time, then the exit costs can be huge.
For example, after ten years of operating in China with its local partner, the French company
Danone accepted an exit settlement of 21% below its book value as payment by its local partner
of $450m for the 51% majority ownership of their joint venture. The divorce took place because
Danone accused its joint venture partner (Wahaha) of setting up at least 96 parallel companies,
with production and sales networks that competed with the joint venture. Danone also believed
its local partner was in breach of confidentiality agreements. While Danone ‘controlled’ the joint
venture at board level, the Chinese partner had almost total day-to-day control.
It is essential that companies enter into strategic alliances arrangements with a comprehensive
plan outlining detailed expectations, requirements and expected benefits.
Problems associated with using joint ventures and strategic alliance
Lack of trust
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Building trust is the most important and yet most difficult aspect of a successful alliance. Only
people can trust each other, not the company. Therefore, alliances need to be formed to enhance
trust between individuals. Many alliances fail due to the lack of trust causing unsolved problems,
lack of understanding and despondent relationships. In many alliance cases one company will
point the failure finger at the partnering company. Shifting the blame does not solve the problem
but increases the tension between the partnering companies and often leads to alliance ruin.
Lack of coordination between management teams
Action taken by subordinates that are not congruent with top-level management can prove
particularly disruptive, especially in instances where companies remain competitors in spite of
their strategic alliance. If it were to happen that one company would go off on its own and do its
own marketing and sell its own product while in alliance with another company it would for sure
be grounds for the two to break up, and they would most likely end up in a legal battle which
could take years to solve if it were settled at all.
Lack of clear goals and objectives
Many strategic alliances are formed for the wrong reasons. Some companies enter into alliances
to combat industry competitors. The alliance may put the companies in the spotlight causing
more competition. Many strategic alliances, although entered into for all the right reasons do not
work. Dissimilar objectives, inability to share risks and the lack of trust lead to an early alliance
demise.
Clash of cultures
Cultural clash is probably one of the biggest problems that companies in alliances face. These
problems consist of language, egos and different attitudes to business can all make the going
rough. The first thing that can cause problems is language barrier that a company might face.
Also different cultures operate in different ways. When the partnering companies do not manage
culture well it can also cause problems for the alliance.
Difference in operating procedures and attitudes among partners
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Other problems that occur between companies in trade alliances are different attitudes among the
companies, one may deliver its goods or services behind schedule or do a bad job producing their
goods and service which may lead to distrust among the two companies. When problems like this
occur it usually makes the other company angry and this could lead to a takeover. An example is
Publicis Communication and Foote, Cone and Belding (FCB) case. The deal was designed to fill
strategic needs of each. An alliance in Europe would finally give FCB the international reach it
needed while Publicis could use FCB’s experience in North and South America to serve its
multinational clients. The venture officially ended earlier after bitter and expensive divorce
proceedings. True North Communications Inc., the holding company for Foote Cone and the
world’s no.8 agency group is fighting off a $28-a-share hostile takeover attempt by its ex-partner
Publicis which still owns 18.5 percent (Melcher and Edmundson, 1997)
Future local or global competitor
One partner for example might be using the alliance to test a market and prepare the launch of a
wholly owned subsidiary. By declining to cooperate with others in the area of its core
competency, a company can reduce the likelihood of creating a competitor that would threaten
its main area of business.
Performance risk
Performance risk is the probability that an alliance may fail even when partner firms commit
themselves fully to the alliance. The sources of performance risk according to a study by Das and
Tend (1999) include environmental factors such as government policy changes, war and
economic recession; market factors such as fierce competition and demand fluctuations; internal
factors such as lack of competence in critical areas or sheer bad luck.
How to overcome the problems associated with strategic alliance
Senior management commitment
The commitment of the senior management of all companies involved in a strategic alliance is a
key factor in the alliances ultimate success. Indeed for alliances to be truly strategic, they must
have a significant impact on the companies’ overall strategic plans and must therefore be
formulated, implemented, managed and monitored with a full commitment of senior
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management. Without senior management commitment, alliances’ will not receive the resources
they need. Senior management commitment to alliances’ is important not only to ensure the
alliances receive the necessary resources but also to convince others throughout the organization
of the importance of the alliance.
Clearly defined, shared goals and objectives
In forming a strategic alliance the question must be asked: ‘how integrated will the alliance be
with the parent company? Some alliance are highly integrated with one or more of the parent
organization and share such resources as manufacturing facilities, management staff and support
functions . Top management must articulate a clear link between where it expects the industry ‘s
future profits pools will be, how to capture a large share of those and where if at all alliance fit in
the plan (Ernst and Stern 1996).
Developing key objectives and goals that reflect what both parties expect to gain is critical. Be
sure that expectations are realistic in light of the resources both parties are willing to put forth,
and make adjustments as needed. Nothing sours an alliance faster than the notion that one party
is giving everything while the other is getting a free ride. Strategic alliances have to foster an
environment in which both parties gain something; otherwise, they're not partnerships.
Build on Trust
Strategic alliances are built on trust, dedication and mutual interests. They require the respect and
interaction of people in each organization. And, like good personal relationships, they require
effort to build. Once they're in place, however, you can count on them.
Each party has to feel that he or she is giving something and getting something in return. If you
haven't taken the time to think through how both sides will benefit, don't pursue an alliance at
this time.
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Evaluate Potential Partners
Even when you get a referral from a trusted advisor, researching a prospective partner is crucial.
You must feel comfortable with the strategies and tactics of any company you’re considering an
alliance with. Find out about the business' key strengths, market position and if possible financial
status. Once you’ve narrowed the field on paper, the detailed analysis begins. It's critical that you
look objectively at management styles, work ethics and values, and identity where potential
clashes could occur. Key questions to ask:
How are decisions made?
How controlling is management of its employees?
At what pace do employees work?
How competitive or aggressive is the company?
Answering these questions honestly leads to a better match. Some companies, for instance, are
known for their tight rein on employees or the long hours they keep; if your work style isn't
similar to theirs, you could be headed for problems. It's also smart to get references from people
who have worked with your potential strategic partner. This will also help overcome the problem
where a partner can later become a local or global competitor.
Develop a Good Communications Process
Clear communication is important to creating an enduring partnership. Disappointments and
misunderstandings can be avoided by establishing an effective process for working with your
partner. The relationship must be developed to the point where both parties can be honest when
evaluating progress and offering recommendations for improvement – both of which should be
done on a regular basis. For example: you might want to exchange weekly sales reports. And by
learning and understanding the culture of the partners involved, they can communicate better.
Define Roles and Responsibilities
Assess each company's strengths, and define responsibilities accordingly – especially in the area
of management. Many alliances fail because of poor management relationships, so document
clearly what's expected. Be specific: decide how many people will be involved in the alliance
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from each company and what their specific roles will be. Each party has to dedicate resources to
the relationship, and both parties need someone within their organization who will champion the
cause. Also consider all the accounting, tax and legal ramifications of the alliance. Form a game
plan for how the alliance will operate from the beginning to the end of the relationship
Conclusion
Strategic alliances and Joint ventures are important tools for attaining and maintaining
competitive advantage. In addition, strategic alliances concept is growing in appeal to
organizations because of the cost savings achieved in executing operations. Though strategic
alliances can pay off, no business should form partnership just because alliances are trendy.
Companies sometimes enter into alliances without thoroughly analyzing their options. This is the
primary reason why alliances fail so it is imperative that companies make sure that an alliance is
the best option for their needs.
Alliances entered into with comprehensive plan outline, detailed expectations, requirements and
an expected benefit is likely to succeed.
QUESTION 6: WHY IS IT SOMETIMES DIFFICULT FOR AN ORGANIZATION TO
ACT UPON THE CHANGES THAT IT SEES TAKING PLACE IN THE
ENVIRONMENT? WHAT CAN IT DO TO OVERCOME SUCH PROBLEMS? GIVE
EXAMPLES TO SUPPORT YOUR VIEWS.
Organizational change occurs when a company makes a transition from its current state to some
desired future state. Managing organizational change is the process of planning and
implementing change in organizations in such a way as to minimize employee resistance and
cost to the organization, while also maximizing the effectiveness of the change effort.
Today’s business environment requires companies to undergo changes almost constantly if they
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are to remain competitive. Factors such as globalization of markets and rapidly evolving
technology force businesses to respond in order to survive. Such changes may be relatively
minor as in the case of installing a new software program or quite major as in the case of
refocusing an overall marketing strategy. Organizations must change because their environments
change.
How to overcome change problems in an organization
Build new relationships.
A crucial first step in any change process is to build relationships. It means forming
relationships, organizing, and claiming collective responsibility for a given issue or situation.
This can range from highly organized management meetings to a few teams getting together to
discuss their concerns. In some cases, building new relationships may only be possible by
fundamentally changing relationships that are already in place. The key is to develop a sense of
group identity as well as a sense of agency. Being associated with, and committed to, others
gives people a feeling that they are equal to their problems. It is therefore an essential
prerequisite to bringing about desired changes.
Discuss and deliberate.
All effective change strategies hinge on discussion and deliberation. At a minimum, discussion
allows the issues to be named and framed. It also helps individuals develop a shared perspective.
As Robert Theobald points out, "most fundamental change activities break down because those
involved in them do not take the time to gain a shared model of reality." At a more fundamental
level, dialogue allows for what physicist David Bohme calls a "higher social intelligence." One
of the chief obstacles to change, he says, is that "we've organized our societies by algorithms —
that is, by sets of rules by which we try to affect each other like parts of a machine. The result is
that we can't talk with each other about things that are really important." Dialogue helps to
eliminate false divisions among people, builds common ground, and allows for the emergence of
a more systemic perspective.
Develop shared visions and goals.
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Setting new directions for the future is one of the most powerful ways of effecting change. When
people come together in such a way that their individual visions can start to interact, a creative
tension is established that gives focus, direction, and context to changes as they occur. Some
techniques for developing common visions include futures commissions, search conferences, and
visioning meetings in which participants develop "best case" scenarios and articulate common
goals. This process is very different from such perfunctory strategies as writing "vision"
statements. It often involves a great deal of reflection, listening, and mutual understanding.
Foster social capital.
Robert Putnam and others have used the term "social capital" to denote the networks and norms
of trust and reciprocity that characterize healthy social orders. The term suggests that capital can
be measured in social as well as economic terms, that relationships have an inherent value. Scott
Fosler, author of The Public/Private Partnership, has studied the nature of community
collaboration in cities across the United States. "If you look back at what it was that was key in
the development of civic and political institutions," he says, "it was trust that was based on
personal relationships." Building networks and relationships within and between individuals and
groups is not something that can be done overnight, but it is no doubt one of the most effective
change strategies available to communities and organizations.
Ensure broad participation and diversity.
Fundamental change is impossible without the participation of everybody with a stake in the
problem or issue. Without the full participation of all concerned, perspectives will be missing
and there is a good chance that some of the issues involved will go unaddressed. Another aspect
of this is the inherent value of diversity. Research in anthropology, sociology, and biology shows
that homogeneity fosters stability, while diversity invariably produces change. It follows that
planned change is best achieved by promoting diversity.
Determine leadership roles.
There are many types of leaders, from presidents and mayors to teachers, neighborhood activists,
and even parents. But no matter what form they take they lend cohesion to a group and act as
spark-plugs for change. Their vision, drive and personal commitment can be keys to galvanizing
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a group into action. Leaders are also able to champion and protect those within groups who are
most willing to risk change.
Identify outside resources.
Fundamental change tends to be difficult and painful and always involves uncertainty and risk.
Since most communities and organizations that embark on the journey need outside help from
foundations, consultants, civic organizations, trade associations, government departments, etc.
they need to develop linkages to outside sources of capital and information. These linkages not
only facilitate the process of change they often provide opportunities for lateral learning and
growth.
Set clear boundaries.
When planning for specific kinds of change, it is important to operate within clearly defined
boundaries for both psychological and practical reasons. Boundaries provide frameworks for
measuring change and give focus and direction to one's efforts. They also provide a sense of
what is feasible. On a practical level, clearly defined goals allow one to make realistic plans.
Draw on the examples of others.
Change takes place in an infinite variety of ways and there is no single strategy that will work for
every individual or group. Still, those seeking to effect change may take comfort and inspiration
from the examples of others. Not only does this provide mentors from whom they can learn, it
offers them conviction that their goal is attainable.
Adopt a change mindset.
Nothing precipitates change like a crisis. Necessity, after all, is the mother of invention. The
question is whether it is possible to adopt a crisis-perspective without a crisis, or at least a
mindset that is constantly attuned to change. Many innovators and change agents insist that it is
possible. What is required, they say, is a shift of perception from seeing change as dis-
equilibrium to seeing it as a constant. Strategizing for change ultimately comes down to whether
individuals are motivated to change, learn, and grow.
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QUESTION 7: IF STRATEGIC CHANGE IS IMPORTANT, WHY DO SOME PEOPLE
FIND IT DIFFICULT TO ACCEPT AND WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF THIS
FOR THE CHANGE PROCESS? HOW CAN THESE DIFFICULTIES BE OVERCOME
GIVEN THE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED.
Introduction
Organizational change is often stimulated by a major external force, for example, substantial cuts
in funding, decreased market opportunity and dramatic increases in services. Typically,
organizations undertake technical, structural or strategic shifts in the organization to evolve to a
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different level in their life cycle, for example changing from a highly reactive organization to a
more stable proactive environment
Education and the media are transforming the expectations of the workforce, so that many
employees are seeking different rewards from work and different kinds of relationships from
those at work.
To manage within the changing environment, a company must adapt, and adaptation means
change. An organization cannot just replicate yesterday’s practices and expect to achieve the
success it has had in the past. Yesterday’s assumptions and practices may no longer be valid and
may no longer work. Consequently, if an organization wants to maintain its competitive
advantage, deliver on strategic objectives, attract and retain the brightest minds, it must respond
to new circumstances in a proactive, measured and agile manner.
Despite the need for organizations to change in order to survive in business, people tend not to
take kindly to change in any form.
Why people resist change
There are several reasons why changes might be resisted and certain circumstances where the
implementation of change will have to be planned carefully and the needs of the people
considered.
Resistance is likely to be forthcoming where there are perceived flaws or weaknesses in
the proposal. Change decisions may be by the strategic leader and then delegated for
implementation. Managers who are closer to the market may have some justified
reservations if they have not been consulted during the formulation process.
Some resistance can also be expected where people have worked out ways of doing
things which are beneficial to them in terms of their objectives and preferences. They
may see change as a threat. Similarly when people have mastered tasks and feel in control
of their jobs and responsibilities, they are likely to feel relatively safe and secure
personally.
The organization itself or particular managers may resist external pressures if the change
involves considerable expense, investment in new equipment and the associated risks.
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This issue can be exacerbated where there has previously been substantial investment in
plant and equipment which technically is still satisfactory. Although demand may be
falling there may be a reluctance to sell or close.
More so, it is not unusual for people to have some fear of the unknown and to feel
comfortable with situations, policies and procedures that they know. Awareness and
understanding is therefore an important aspect of change.
Furthermore, where particular policies, behavior patterns and the ways of doing have
been established and accepted for a long time and in effect have become part of the
culture of the organization, change will require careful implementation. The need for the
change may not be accepted readily.
Overcoming resistance to change
Effective change occurs when managers and employees modify their behaviors in a desired way
and when the important changes are lasting rather than temporary. Below are some ways of
overcoming resistance to change.
Education and communication
Communication the logic of a change can reduce employee resistance on two levels. First, it
fights the effects of the misinformation and poor communication; if employees receive the full
facts and clear up misunderstanding, resistance should subside. Second, communication can help
‘see’ the need for change by packaging it properly.
Participation
It’s difficult to resist a change decision in which we have participated. Assuming participants
have expertise to make a meaningful contribution; their involvement can reduce resistance,
obtain commitment and increase the quality of the change decision. However, against these
advantages are the negatives: potential for a poor solution and great consumption of time.
Building support and commitment
When employees’ fear and anxiety are high, counseling and therapy, new-skills training or a
short paid leave of absence may facilitate adjustment. When managers or employees have low
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emotional commitment to change, they favor the status quo and resist it. So firing up employees
can also help them emotionally commit to the change rather than embrace the status quo.
Negotiation and agreement
Negotiation and agreement are normally linked to incentives and rewards. Where the resistance
stems from a perceived loss as a result of the proposed change, this can be useful particularly
where the resisting force is powerful. However, offering rewards every time changes in behavior
are desired is likely to prove impractical.
Manipulation and cooptation
Manipulation refers to covert influence attempts. Twisting facts to make them more attractive,
withholding information and creating false rumors to get employees to accept changes are all
examples of manipulation. If management threatens to close a manufacturing plant whose
employees are resisting an across-the –board pay cut, and if the threat is actually not true,
management is using manipulation. Cooptation on the other hand, combines manipulation and
participation. It seeks to ‘buy off’ the leaders of a resistance group by giving them a key role,
seeking their advice not to find a better solution but to get their endorsement.
Conclusion
The role of a manager in clarifying direction is even more important during times of change. It is
the role of the direct supervisor to translate the change around the team into clear identifiable
outcomes and expectations for individual roles. These outcomes need to be managed and
supported throughout the change process. If anything, managers need to communicate more and
meet more frequently with their team members during times of change to ensure staff member’s
efforts stay focused and constructive towards the new change vision.
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