correlation of engineering characteristics of
TRANSCRIPT
CORRELATION OF ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE CLAY FROM CENTRAL WEST COAST OF MALAYSIA
SURIAWATI A/P RAMAMOORTHY
A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil – Geotechnics)
Faculty of Civil Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
NOVEMBER 2007
iii
DEDICATION
For my dearest mum and dad
Ramamoorthy & Apiamah
My success is your gift and prayers…
To my beloved husband
Renganathan
Your support and courage is my success…
and to my children
Hemantkumar & Tirishaanth
To my sisters, brother and relations
Everyone and friends whom are the best…
Success of mine is success of all of yours…
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank God for giving me enough knowledge and time to
conclude this program. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to my lecturer
cum supervisor Prof. Madya Dr. Aminaton bt Marto, for the time she has allocated
and all her guidance in preparation of this thesis. I wish to acknowledge the
encouragement and advice I have received from her.
All the help rendered by the lectures and friends are appreciated. My special
thanks to Mr Balakrishnan from GCU Geotechnics Sdn Bhd and Mr Ismail Abd.
Rahman from Jabatan Kerja Raya, Malaysia for being helpful to me in gathering all
the data and information related to this study. The time spent in doing this program
gives memories that would last forever.
I am grateful to my beloved husband whom always encourages and supports
me in my studies. Thanks for his care and love.
v
ABSTRACT
Quaternary erosion induced by climatic and sea level changes have produced widespread and thick deposits of soft marine clays in the coastal areas and major river valleys on the west coast of Malaysia. These areas of poor ground condition have been attracting increasing attention as land reclamation, strengthening of the reclaimed ground and coastal development projects, which have gained momentum in recent years. A study was conducted mainly to establish the geotechnical properties of marine clay from the central west coast region of Malaysia. The data’s are obtained from four completed project sites comprising about 48 nos. of borehole. Correlations and geotechnical parameters are established to assist in the preliminary design process. From the study, it can be concluded that the marine clay from central west coast of Malaysia have high natural moisture content (w) which reaches 125%. Other physical parameters such as liquid limit (wL) is between 50 to 125%, unit weight (γ) is in the range of 13 to 18 kN/m3 and the average specific gravity (Gs) is 2.6. The strength parameters are also established; the effective friction angle (φ') is in the range of 15 to 25o and the effective cohesion (c') is 2 to 20 kPa. The undrained shear strength obtained from vane shear test shows that the value is ranging from 4 to 65 kPa. Based on the oedometer test, the compressibility parameters have been produced, such as range of void ratio (eo) is 1.5 to 3.0. Range of compressibility index obtained is 0.2 to 1.5 and for compression ratio (CR) is 0.1 to 0.4. The pre consolidation pressure (Pc') is 20 to 125 kPa and for coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) is 0.25 to 1.5m2/MN is also have been established. From the correlation derived, it shows that the undrained shear strength decreases with the increase in natural moisture content and liquidity index. The same trend also found with the effective friction angle where it is decreases with the increase in plasticity index. The correlation for effective cohesion is increases with the increase in liquidity index. From the correlation derived on compressibility parameters, it shows that compressibility index increases with natural moisture content, plasticity index, liquid limit and void ratio, whereas compression ratio is also increases with void ratio and liquid limit.
vi
ABSTRAK
Hakisan pantai banyak berlaku di pesisiran pantai Malaysia. Ini disebabkan oleh pasang surut air, angin, ombak, arus air, suhu dan juga perubahan cuaca, dimana proses geologinya telah berlaku sejak dahulu lagi. Dengan ini, mendapan kuartenari yang tebal banyak terdapat di tepi-tepi pantai di bahagian dataran barat Malaysia. Pada dekad kebelakangan ini, disebabkan perkembangan teknologi yang pesat dan pertambahan penduduk yang cepat menyebabkan masalah kekurangan tanah mula dirasai di merata tempat. Masalah ini, menyebabkan kebanyakan projek utama yang dilaksanakan mula tertumpu di kawasan mendapan tanah liat. Walau bagaimanapun, pembinaan bangunan di atas kawasan tanah liat lembut ini sering mengalami masalah kestabilan dan enapan. Oleh yang demikian, adalah sangat penting untuk para jurutera awam untuk membuat kajian lanjutan terhadap tanah liat lembut tersebut untuk mengetahui ciri-cirinya. Data untuk kajian ini diperolehi dari empat lokasi projek yang telah siap dengan 48 bilangan lubang jara. Korelasi serta parameter geoteknik bagi tanah liat lembut telah diterbitkan sebagai rujukan untuk digunakan semasa membuat rekabentuk awal. Hasil kajian terhadap tanah liat lembut dari bahagian pantai barat Malaysia, didapati kandungan lembapan (w) yang tinggi diperolehi iaitu mencapai sehingga 125%. Beberapa parameter lain yang penting juga diperolehi iaitu, nilai had cecair (wL) adalah di antara 50 hingga 125%, berat unit (γ) adalah di antara 13 hingga 18 kN/m3 dan nilai purata bagi graviti tentu (Gs) adalah 2.6. Bagi penentuan kekuatan ricih, nilai sudut rintangan ricih berkesan (φ') dan nilai kejelikitan berkesan (c') adalah masing-masing berjulat di antara 15–25o dan 2-20 kPa. Bagi nilai kekuatan ricih tak terganggu adalah di antara 4–65 kPa. Berdasarkan keputusan ujian odometer, parameter tanah seperti kebolehmampatan juga diperolehi. Nilai nisbah lompang asal (eo) adalah di antara 1.5–3.0, indeks mampatan (Cc) adalah di antara 0.2–1.5 dan nilai nisbah mampatan (CR) adalah di antara 0.1–0.4. Nilai tekanan pra pengukuhan (Pc') dan pekali kebolehmampatan isipadu (mv) yang diperolehi adalah masing-masing berjulat di antara di antara 20–125 kPa dan 0.25- 1.5m2/MN. Dari korelasi yang diterbitkan, didapati kekuatan ricih tak terganggu berkurangan apabila kandungan lembapan semulajadi dan indeks kecairan meningkat. Manakala sudut geseran dalam berkesan juga berkurangan apabila indeks keplastikan meningkat. Korelasi yang diterbitkan di antara kejelikatan berkesan dan indeks kecairan pula menunjukkan kejelikatan berkesan bertambah apabila indeks kecairan meningkat. Bagi korelasi yang diterbitkan di atas parameter kebolehmampatan, didapati indeks mampatan meningkat apabila kandugan lembapan semulajadi, indeks keplastikan, had cecair dan nilai nisbah lompang asal meningkat, manakala nisbah mampatan juga meningkat apabila had cecair dan nisbah lompang asal meningkat.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLES OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Problem 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 3
1.3 Aim and Objective of The Study 4
1.4 Scope of Study 5
1.5 Importance of Study 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 General Characteristic of Clay 6
2.2 Formation of Marine Clayey Sediments 7
2.3 Geotechnical Properties of Marine Clay 9
2.3.1 Index Properties 9
2.3.2 Strength Properties 14
2.3.3 Compressibility Properties 21
viii
2.3.3.1 Compression Index 23
2.3.3.2 Coefficient of Volume of
Compressibility 26
2.3.3.3 Compression Ratio 28
3 METHODOLOGY 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Data Collection 36
3.3 Data analysis and Results 38
3.4 Summary 40
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 42
4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Soil Profile 43
4.3 Results and Discussion 45
4.3.1 Physical and Engineering Properties 45
4.3.2 Correlations between Strength
and Physical Properties 58
4.3.3 Correlations between Compressibility
Properties and Physical Properties 62
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR
FUTURE STUDY 70
5.1 Conclusion 70
5.2 Limitations 73
5.3 Recommendations for future study 74
REFERENCES 75
ix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Physical properties of marine clay in South East Asia 12
2.2 Relationship between undrained shear strength and
consistency of clay samples (BS5930) 15
2.3 Undrained shear strength of marine clay in South East
Asia from different sources 18
2.4 Correlation on undrained shear strength with physical properties
(Huat et al. 1995) 20
2.5 Typical values of coefficient of volume compressibility
(Head, 1992) 28
2.6 Correlation between compressibility parameters with
liquid limit, natural void ratio and natural moisture content
for marine clay 30
3.1 Type of test conducted at each site 37
3.2 Type of analysis and correlation conducted 39
3.3 Accuracy of correlation by Marto (in Saiful, 2004) 40
4.1 Physical and Engineering properties (Part A) 47
x
4.2 Correlation between undrained shear strength and depth 56
4.3 Correlation between strength and physical properties (Part B) 58
4.4 Correlation between compressibility and physical
properties (Part C) 62
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Quaternary deposits at Peninsular Malaysia and
the locations of the site (Geological map of
Peninsular Malaysia, 8th Edition, 1985) 2
1.2 Project site locations: Central Sludge Treatment Facility (CSTF)
In South Klang Valley, Express Rail Link (ERL) in
Sungai Labu Sepang, Jimah Power Station (JIMAH) in
Port Dickson and Pusat Angkasa Negara in Mukim Kelanang,
Daerah Kuala Langat 3
2.1 Cross section through coastal area in Alor Setar, Kedah of
West Malaysia (Cox, 1970) 8
2.2 Moisture content and atterberg limits of Klang Marine clay
(Chen & Tan, 2003) 10
2.3 Basic soil properties of Klang Marine Clay (Tan&Gue, 1999) 10
2.4 Atterberg limits of Marine Clay in South East Asia 13
2.5 Undrained shear strength from field vane shear test of Klang
Marine clay (Chen & Tan, 2003) 16
xii
2.6 Comparison of the undrained shear strength values measured by
different laboratory and in-situ of Singapore marine clay
(Chu, Choa & Win, 1999) 17
2.7 Relationship between effective frictional angle and
plasticity index by Bjerrum and Simons, 1960 (in Das, 2004) 21
2.8 Compressibility properties for Klang clay, of Malaysia
(Tan & Gue, 1999) 22
2.9 The relationship between compression index and
liquid limit (Tan & Gue, 2003) 24
2.10 The relationship between compression index and
natural void ratio (Tan & Gue, 2003) 25
2.11 The relationship between compression index and
natural moisture content (Tan & Gue, 2003) 26
2.12 The relationship between Compression Ratio and depth
(Chen & Tan, 2003) 29
2.13 Correlations between compression index and
liquid limit of marine clays 31
2.14 Correlation between compression index and natural void ratio
for marine clays 32
2.15 Correlation between compression index and natural moisture
content for marine clays 33
xiii
3.1 Flowchart of the study 35
4.1a Soil profile in CSTF 43
4.1b Soil Profile in JIMAH 43
4.1c Soil profile in ERL 44
4.1d Soil profile in PAN 44
4.2a Physical and Engineering properties versus depth at
Jimah Power Station (JIMAH) 48
4.2b Physical properties versus depth at Express Rail Link (ERL) 49
4.2c Engineering properties versus depth at Express Rail Link (ERL) 50
4.2d Physical properties versus depth at Sewerage
Treatment Plant (CSTF) 51
4.2e Engineering properties versus depth at Sewerage Treatment Plant
(CSTF) 52
4.2f Physical properties versus depth at Pusat Angkasa Negara (PAN) 53
4.2g Engineering properties versus depth at Pusat
Angkasa Negara (PAN) 54
4.3 Casagrande plasticity chart 55
4.4 Relationship between cohesion and depth 55
xiv
4.5 Correlation between undrained shear strength and depth 57
4.6 Typical plot of correlation between undrained shear strength
with natural moisture content and undrained shear strength
with liquidity index 59
4.7 Correlation between undrained shear strength and
natural moisture content 60
4.8 Correlation between undrained shear strength
and liquidity index 60
4.9 Correlation between effective friction angle
and plasticity index 61
4.10a Typical plot of correlation between compressibility and
Physical properties in ERL 63
4.10b Typical plot of correlation between compressibility and
Physical properties in PAN 64
4.10c Typical plot of correlation between compressibility and
Physical properties in CSTF 64
4.11 Correlation between compression index and
natural moisture content 65
4.12 Relationship between compression index and
liquid limit 66
4.13 Correlation between compression index and
initial void ratio 67
xv
4.14 Correlation between compression ratio and
liquid limit 68
4.15 Correlation between coefficient of volume compressibility
and void ratio 68
4.16 Correlation between compression index and
plasticity index 69
xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Cc - Compression index
CR - Compression ratio
c - Cohesion
c' - Effective cohesion
d - Diameter
eo - Initial void ratio
Gs - Specific gravity
h - Height
IL - Liquidity index
Ip - Plasticity index
mv - Coefficient of volume compressibility
P'c - Pre consolidation pressure
Sc - Consolidation settlement
Su - Undrained shear strength
T - Torque
w - Natural moisture content
wL - Liquid limit
wp - Plastic limit
φ' - Effective frictional angle
γ - Unit weight
σ'v - Effective overburden pressure
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Problem
In many cases, clay deposit layers which are widely distributed over the
seaside show various aspects according to the type of base rock or distribution
characteristics. Especially very soft ground composed of marine clayey deposit
which is mostly distributed over the west and south east coast part of Malaysia, is
considerably affected by the numerous factors such as components of the deposit,
particle size distribution, the shape of the particles, properties of the absorbed ion and
pore water, tidal current, temperature and so on (Yoon et al, 2006). Figure 1.1 shows
the general location of the deposits. Moreover, after the deposit process,
geotechnical characteristics of the ground show great complexity by its history, the
variation of pore water, leaching process, gas generation and many more.
2
Recently in Malaysia, the increasing attention on coastal development
projects have gained momentum as it is expected for the utilization of the soft ground
to be increased hereafter. Therefore, technical backgrounds for the effective
utilization of soft ground are to be highly demanded. For these reasons, as a
fundamental stage, the collected data have been analyzed to establish various
correlation and design parameters. The locations of the project sites considered are
superimposed on Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.1 Quaternary deposits at Peninsular Malaysia and the locations of the
site (Geological Map of Peninsular Malaysia, 8th Edition, 1985)
JIMAH PROJECT SITE
ERL PROJECT SITE
CSTF PROJECT SITE
Quaternary
PAN PROJECT SITE
3
Figure 1.2 Project site locations: Central Sludge Treatment Facility (CSTF) in
South Klang Valley, Express Rail Link (ERL) in Sungai Labu
Sepang, Jimah Power Station (JIMAH) in Port Dickson and Pusat
Angkasa Negara in Mukim Kelanang, Daerah Kuala Langat.
1.2 Statement of Problem
The solutions of many geotechnical issues on construction are very much
directly or indirectly related to the understanding of the problematic soil. Marine
clay is one of the problematic soils which are commonly found along the coastal area
of west Malaysia. Thus, it is very important to understand the characteristic and
behaviour of marine clays. However, in many situations geotechnical engineers are
often expected to provide prediction of the subsoil behaviour during and after
construction. To provide a satisfactory prediction, geological knowledge and
CSTF PROJECT SITE
PAN PROJECT SITE
JIMAH PROJECT SITE
ERL PROJECT SITE
4
understanding of subsoil are essential in order to use the reliable correlations
developed by the researcher based on the existing data.
This master project attempts to compile information’s obtained from site
investigation works for better understanding of the marine clay properties of this
area. In addition, as geotechnical engineers are often expected to provide their
estimation of soil behaviour even when there is no relevant test results are available,
this master project attempts to develop empirical correlations for estimating the
engineering characteristic of shear strength properties. Such correlations included
undrained shear strength (Su), cohesion (c) and clay effective soil friction angle (φ')
with basic properties and compressibility parameters. Compressibility parameters
are equally important in the design of land reclamation and building structures on
soft clay, therefore some of the compression parameters are also correlated, such as
compression index (Cc), coefficient of volume compressibility (mv), void ratio (eo)
and compression ratio (CR) with basic properties.
1.3 Aim and Objective of the Study
The aim of the study is to develop correlations between engineering
characteristics of marine clay taken from central west coast of Malaysia. In order to
achieve the aim of study, three objectives have been identified:
(i) To determine the characteristic of marine clay in particular the basic
properties, strength and compressive characteristics.
(ii) To obtain the correlations between strength with basic properties and
compressibility parameters of marine clay.
(iii) To obtain the correlations between compressibility parameters and
basic parameters of marine clay.
5
1.4 Scope of Study
The study are conducted based on data collection from three construction
sites, which are Central Sludge Treatment Facility (CSTF) in South Klang Valley,
Jimah Power Station (JIMAH) in Port Dickson and Express Rail Link (ERL) in
Sungai Labu Sepang. This covers only the central west coast of Malaysia.
Site and laboratory tests had not been carried out thus, all the soil information
and test results were obtained from the existing soil investigation that have been done
by contractors and commercial laboratories.
The correlations reviewed and analysed in this study are limited to shear
strength and compressibility parameters, such as undrained shear strength (Su),
effective frictional angle (φ'), compression index (Cc), coefficient of volume
compressibility (mv), void ratio (eo) and compression ratio (CR).
1.5 Importance of Study
Basic knowledge and understanding of geotechnical properties of marine clay
is very important due to many projects are developed along the coastal area, where
this will overcome the problems related to settlement and also the stability.
Correlations obtained not only will be used at the study area but also at other
places with similar soil condition. This will allow the engineers to use the
correlations obtained for design purposes without having to do strength or
compressibility tests, hence will be able to save cost and also to reduce the time.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General Characteristic of Clay
The term clay is somewhat ambiguous, in that it is used to refer both to a size
and to a mineral type. The particles of most of the clay mineral species are platy, and
in a few cases they are needle shaped or tubular. It refers to the size fraction of soils
with particles of less than 0.002 mm in diameter or smaller, where the pore spaces
between clay particles are very small. Thus, water and air movement through clay
particles is significantly decreased. When clay becomes wet it swells, sticks together
(cohesion), and feels “sticky”. As wet clay dries it shrinks and cracks. Clay also
becomes dense, hard, and brittle making it difficult for plant roots to grow through
(Nagaraj and Miura, 2001).
It also refer to certain minerals, which are the result of chemical weathering
of rocks and which are usually not present as larger particles. The clay-size fractions
of most soils contain clay minerals. There are three major clay minerals, which are
kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite. Kaolinite is a principally formed as an
alteration product of feldspars, feldspathoids and muscovite as a result of weathering
under acidic conditions. Illite is a common mineral in most clays and shale and is
7
present in various amounts in tills and loess, but less common in soils. It develops
due to the weathering of feldspars, micas and ferromagnesium silicates (Cox, 1970).
Both kaolinite and illite have non-expansive lattices while for
montmorillonite is the expansive type. In other words, montmorillonite is
characterised by its ability to swell and by its notable cation exchange properties.
The basic reason why montmorillonite can readily absorb water into the interlayers
spaces in its sheet structure is simply that the bonding between them is very weak.
2.2 Formation of Marine Clayey Sediments
Quaternary deposits of marine clay cover almost the entire west coast of
Peninsular Malaysia. The quaternary period was characterized by the occurrence of
ice ages and resultant of drastic climatic changes, and by the world wide sea level
fluctuations. The marine soils are generally light grey, wet, soft silty clays which
generally vary from 15 to 30 meters thick at the coast-line to zero thickness away
from the coast. Cox (1970) gives a typical cross section on the thickness of marine
clay through coastal plain in Kedah as shown in Figure 2.1.
8
Marine clays are subject to wetting and drying cycles from tidal movements
of approximately ± 1.0 m during emergence of the land, which called as transition
zone and are then built up above mean sea level by the terrestrial deposition of silt
and clay size particles in the annual flood waters, which called as terrestrial zone.
This terrestrial build-up is neutralized by secondary consolidation of the sediments,
so that the natural surface level in most of the deltaic plains area is only 0.5 to 3.0m
above mean sea level.
Marine clayey deposit is considerably affected by the numerous factors such
as components of the deposit, particle size distribution, the shape of the particles,
properties of the absorbed ion and pore water, tidal current, temperature and etc. of
the conditions from the deposit stage. Moreover, after the deposit process,
geotechnical characteristics of the ground show great complexity by its history, the
variation of pore water, leaching process, gas generation and many more.
The seasonal flood waters also leach the salt water from the pores of the
marine clay. Studies shows leaching process decreases the concentration of salt in
CoastlineDistance from Coastline (m)
Figure 2.1 Cross section through coastal area in Alor Setar, Kedah of
West Malaysia (Cox, 1970)
9
the pore water where, this increases the shear strength, particularly in the crustal zone
and increases the plasticity by weathering the clay minerals. In general, therefore the
marine clays should have initial pore water salinities of 20 to 30 grams per litre
around the coastal margins which become progressively less away from the coast
because of the greater duration of the leaching process in these areas (Cox, 1970).
2.3 Geotechnical Properties of Marine Clay
2.3.1 Index Properties
According to Cox (1970), the clay percentage (particle size < 0.002 mm) of
the marine clay soils generally varies from 35% to 60%, the silt percentage generally
varies from 40% to 60% and the sand percentage is generally less than 10%. The
principle minerals in a deposit of clay tend to influence its index properties.
Geological age also has an influence on the engineering behaviour of a clay
deposit (Cox, 1970). In particular, the moisture and plasticity normally decrease in
value with increasing depth and the age. The basic index properties to be discussed
are Liquid Limit (wL), Plastic Limit (wp), Plasticity Index (Ip), Natural Moisture
Content (w), unit weight (γ), void ratio (eo) and specific gravity (Gs).
Typical moisture content and the Atterberg limits for marine clay from Klang
areas obtained from different researchers are shown in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3.
According to Chen and Tan (2003), the liquid limit (wL) of the marine clay is high
10
which is mostly at about 50% to 150%. This shows that, marine clays in Klang area
are highly plastic and the plasticity index (Ip) varies from 20% to 80%. From Figure
2.3, it shows that the moisture content of the marine clay, located near to the ground
level is higher than the liquid limit.
Figure 2.2 Moisture content and Atterberg Limits of Klang Marine Clay
(Chen & Tan, 2003)
Figure 2.3 Basic Soil Properties of Klang Marine Clay (Tan & Gue, 1999)
11
The unit weight, (γ) of a soil is the ratio of the total weight to the volume.
According to Chen & Tan (2003), the unit weight of the soft clay from Klang areas is
mostly in the range of 14 to 16 kN/m3. Their study also indicates that the unit weight
is constant from the ground surface to about 30m depth. However, from Tan & Gue,
1999 shown in Figure 2.3, the range of unit weight, γ is between 13 to 16 kN/m3 for
0–15m depth and between 13.5 to 19 kN/m3 for 15 to 30m depth.
A study by Abdullah and Chandra (1987) shows that unit weight of soft clay
at east coast of Peninsular Malaysia is high, which is ranging from 16.3 to 17.1
kN/m3 compared to west coast which is 14.6 to 15.7 kN/m3.
Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of unit weight of soil (weight of soil
divided by volume of soils) to unit weight of water or of unit mass of soil (mass of
soil divided by volume of soil) to unit mass of water. The general range of value of
specific gravity, Gs for clay type of soil is normally 2.75 to 2.9 (Das, 2004). Table
2.1 lists the physical properties of marine clay in South East Asia.
12
Table 2.1: Physical properties of Marine Clay in South East Asia
Location Natural MoistureContent, w(%)
Unit Weight,γ (kN/m3)
Specific Gravity, Gs
Liquid Limit, wL (%)
Plastic Limit, wp (%)
Plasticity Index, Ip
References
NORTH WEST COAST , PENINSULAR MALAYSIA South of Sg Petani Butterworth SE Coast of Penang Island
15-112
22-101
34-89
- - -
- - -
37-97
19-126
28-150
15-44
23-56
22-47
20-62
13-49
20-81
Huat et al. (1995)
CENTRAL WEST COAST, PENINSULAR MALAYSIA Klang
50-100
100-140
20-175
14-16
13.2-16.8
14.6-15
-
2.45-2.65
2.53-2.6
50-150
106-142
-
30-70
26-42 -
20-80 - -
Chen & Tan (2003) Saiful (2003) Abdullah & Chandra (1987)
Singapore Arts Centre
30-60
- 2.78 60-80 10-20 50-60 Tan, Poon & Lee (2003)
Osaka Basin, Japan
20-100 - - 69-110 20-30 40-80 Tanaka, Ritoh & Omukai (2002)
13
Figure 2.4 Atterberg Limits of Marine Clay in South East Asia
Figure 2.4 shows the graph form in term of ranges of the physical properties
of marine clay in South East Asia as indicated in Table 2.1. Several conclusions can
be made concerning the Atterberg Limits of the marine clay minerals.
(1) According to Mitchell (1993), for any clay, the range of liquid limit values is
greater than the range in plastic limit values and it is true for this case.
(2) As observed from Figure 2.4, marine clays possess medium to extremely high
plasticity with liquid limits ranging from minimum of 20% to max of 150%.
14
2.3.2 Strength Properties
The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the
soil, hence determination of strength parameter for marine clay is very important and
somehow difficult job in geotechnical engineering. Low shear strength and high
compressibility of these soils confined them in problematic category. Undrained
shear strength (Su), cohesion (c) and frictional angle (φ) are the important parameters
of the strength properties, which will be used during the preliminary or conceptual
design decisions. These are the parameters which will be discussed in detail.
Undrained shear strength is a soil parameter, which is essential for the
analysis of embankment stability and bearing capacity of foundation in saturated
clay. The most common form of analysis used in a stability problems in soft clay is
the φ = 0 analysis, which is known as total stress analysis (Cox, 1970), which is
applicable immediately after the load is applied.
Several methods can be used to determine the undrained shear strength, such
as shear box test, triaxial test and vane shear test. The results of laboratory tests are
usually subjected to uncertainties primarily due to inevitable sample disturbance
particularly for soft clay. The results of field test conducted by vane shear test and
triaxial test will be presented. Undrained shear strength, Su conducted by vane shear
test is interpreted as below:
Su = 2T (2.1)
πd3 (h/d + 1/3)
where,
T = maximum torque
d = overall diameter of vane
h = vane height
15
A summary of the test results of undrained shear strength of clay samples,
according BS 5930 is presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Relationship between undrained shear strength and consistency of
clay samples (BS 5930)
Consistency Undrained Shear Strength, Su
(kN/m2)
Very Soft Less than 20
Soft 20 – 40
Soft to firm 40 – 50
Firm 50 – 75
Firm to stiff 75 – 100
Stiff 100 -150
Very stiff or hard Greater than 150
According to Chen and Tan (2003), the undrained shear strength, Su from
vane shear test of Klang marine increased with depth, where the following
correlation could be adopted for a preliminary assessment:
Su = 0.25 σ′v (2.2)
where, σ′v is the effective overburden pressure.
16
Figure 2.5 Undrained Shear Strength from Field Vane Shear Test of Klang
Marine Clay (Chen & Tan, 2003)
The undrained shear strength (Su), of Klang Clay, is as shown in Figure 2.5.
There are two strengths that are obtained, which is undisturbed strength and
remolded strength. In vane shear test, a rod with a four blade vane is pushed into the
ground and rotated generally at a slow rate of 6o to 12o per minute. Every 15 – 30
sec the torque force is measured, once maximum torque has been reached, the vane
will be rotated rapidly to induce shear failure. After shearing, the slow rotation rate
is resumed to determine the remolded shear strength. Both strengths are useful for
evaluating the sensitivity of the soil.
Figure 2.6 shows the value of undrained shear strength for marine clay in
Singapore, which measured by different laboratory and in-situ tests. For Su value
which, measured by in-situ vane shear test (FV) is ranging from 18 to 80 kPa for the
depth of 0 to 25 meter.
17
Figure 2.6 Comparison of the Undrained Shear Strength values measured by
different laboratory and in-situ test of Singapore Marine Clay
(Chu, Choa & Win, 1999)
Table 2.3 shows the undrained shear strength data of marine clay in South
East Asia. The undrained shear strength is ranging from 0 to 85 kpa.
18
Table 2.3: Undrained Shear Strength of Marine Clay in South East Asia from
different sources
Location Undrained Shear
Strength, Su (kN/m2)
References
NORTH COAST , PENINSULAR MALAYSIA South of Sg Petani Butterworth SE Coast of Penang Island
7.5 – 60
7 -35
0 - 48
Huat et al. (1995)
WEST COAST, PENINSULAR MALAYSIA Klang
5 -85
Huat et al. (1995)
NORTH COAST, PENINSULAR MALAYSIA S. Coast of Johor
2.5 -69
Huat et al. (1995)
Soft Bangkok Clay, in
Rangsit, Thailand
Changi, Singapore at 5m
10 – 40
20
Brand et al. (1972)
Choa (2002)
19
Table 2.4 shows some of published empirical correlations for undrained shear
strength which can be used to estimate the characteristic of soil layers, when there is
no relevant test results are available. There are two basic index properties are used to
establish expressions to obtain the undrained shear strength such as, natural moisture
content (w) and liquidity index (IL).
The liquidity index of a soil is defined as:
IL = (2.3)
where,
w = in situ moisture content
wp = plastic limit
wL = liquid limit
w - wp
wL - wp
20
Table 2.4: Correlation on Undrained Shear Strength with Physical Properties
(Huat et al. 1995)
Correlation Applicability as stated in references
Su = 0.35(152.63 – w)
Su = 0.06(439.67 – w)
Su = 0.13(199.02 – w)
Marine Clay, South of Sg. Petani,Malaysia
Marine Clay, Butterworth, Malaysia
South Coast of Johor, Malaysia
Su = 48.86 – 26.04IL
Su = 22.52 – 2.20IL
Su = 20.78 – 3.25IL
Marine Clay, South of Sg. Petani, Malaysia
Marine Clay, Butterworth, Malaysia
South Coast of Johor, Malaysia
Cohesion (c), is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soil. It is
affected by the mutual attraction of particles due to molecular forces and the
presence of moisture. Hence, the cohesive force in a particular soil will vary with its
moisture content. Cohesion is very high in clay but little or no significance in silt
and sand.
Internal friction is the resistance to sliding within the soil mass. Gravel and
sand impart of high internal friction, and the internal friction of a soil increases with
sand and gravel content. Clay has low internal friction that varies with the moisture
content (Das, 2004). The angle of internal friction is the angle whose tangent is the
ratio between the resistance offered to sliding along any plane in the soil and the
component of the applied force acting normal to that plane. Values are given in
degrees.
21
Various laboratory tests have been conducted to determine the shearing
strength and the angle of friction of soils, such as shear box test, the triaxial
compression test and the unconfined compression test. According to Bjerrum and
Simons, 1960 (in Das, 2004), in general the effective friction angle (φ’) decreases
with the increase in plasticity index (Ip). Figure 2.7 shows the non linear relationship
between φ’ and Ip.
Figure 2.7: Relationship between Effective Frictional Angle and
Plasticity Index by Bjerrum and Simons, 1960
(in Das, 2004)
2.3.3 Compressibility Properties
There are two main geotechnical problems in soft clay engineering which is
settlement and stability. However, many practicing engineers tend to forget about
the importance of settlement problem. Therefore, more effort should be emphasized
in the interpretation of compressibility parameters for settlement analysis.
22
The compressibility of marine clay is usually measured using oedometer test,
which conducted on undisturb soil samples in laboratory. The coefficients which are
derived from this test are compression index (Cc), coefficient of volume
compressibility (mv) and void ratio (e). Preconsolidation pressure (P′c) and
compression ratio (CR) could be obtained for calculation of consolidation settlement.
Examples of compressibility parameters of marine clay, in particular the
Klang Clay, are presented in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8 Compressibility Properties for Klang Clay, of Malaysia
(Tan & Gue, 1999)
23
2.3.3.1 Compression Index
The compression index (Cc) for field settlement caused by consolidation can
be determined by graphic construction, which is e-log p′ curve, after obtaining
laboratory test results for the void ratio and pressure (p). The compression index is
the slope of the straight line portion of the e–log p′ plot and it is dimensionless.
For a layer of normally consolidated clay of thickness H, initial void ratio
(eo), compression index (Cc), and initial over burden pressure (σ′o), the settlement
(Sc), under an applied load ∆σ may be expressed as:
Sc =
Since liquid limit are the measure of water attracted to these clay particles,
correlation between liquid limit and soil compression index is necessary to be
conducted. Terzaghi and Peck (1967) suggested empirical expressions for the
compression index. For undisturbed clays:
Cc =0.009(wL – 10) (2.5)
For remolded clays:
Cc =0.007(wL – 10) (2.6)
H H log σ′o + ∆σ σ'o
(2.4) Cc 1 + eo
24
Figure 2.9 shows the relationship between Compression Index and Liquid
Limit for marine clay in Klang area by Tan & Gue (2003) and the empirical
expressions for the compression index is:
Cc= 0.02wL – 0.87 or (2.7)
Cc = 0.02(wL – 43.5) (2.8)
Figure 2.9 The Relationship between Compression Index and Liquid Limit
(Tan & Gue, 2003)
As compression index, Cc is influenced by the sensitivity of natural clay, it
can generally be related to void ratio and sensitivity (Leroueil et al., 1983). Figure
2.10 shows the relationship between Cc and eo for marine clay in Klang area by Tan
& Gue (2003) and represented by the equation below:-
Cc = 0.61eo -0.17 (2.9)
25
Figure 2.11 shows the relationship between Cc and natural moisture content,
w for marine clay in Klang area by Tan & Gue (2003) and represented by the
equation below:-
Cc = 0.02w -0.37 (2.10)
Study done by Chen & Tan (2003), shows that the Cc value for marine clay in
Klang area, are in the range of 0.3 to about 2.5.
Figure 2.10 The Relationship between Compression Index and
Natural Void Ratio (Tan & Gue, 2003)
26
Figure 2.11 The Relationship between Compression Index and Natural
Moisture Content (Tan & Gue, 2003)
2.3.3.2 Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv), decreases in unit volume for
each unit increase in pressure. The decrease in volume of the sample is caused by
the reduction in the void ratio with pressure. In the oedometer, the reduction is
proportional to the decrease in the thickness. The coefficient of compressibility can
therefore be expressed in terms of thickness. The unit of mv is the inverse of pressure
(m2/MN). The volume change can be expressed in terms of either void ratio or
specimen thickness.
mv = ∆e (2.11)
∆p(1+eo)
where, ∆p is the applied load and eo is the initial void ratio.
27
By using the equation (11), the settlement (Sc) of a sub-layer of soil thickness
(H) can be computed as (Das,2004):
Sc sublayer = mv.∆p.H (2.12)
and the total settlement of the layer:
Sc = Σmv.∆p.∆H (2.13)
Study done by Head (1992) gives some typical values of the coefficient of
volume compressibility for different types of clay as shown in Table 2.5. According
to Saiful (2003) the range of mv of clay soil from Peninsular Malaysia is
0.056m2/MN to 2.084m2/MN, where it is categorised under low to very high
compressibility type of clay.
According to Hussein (1995), the range of mv for the west and east coast of
Peninsular Malaysia is 0.08m2/MN to 4.7m2/MN. Saiful (2003) also proposed the
following relationship for coefficient of volume compressibility, mv with initial void
ratio, eo for clay in Peninsular Malaysia:
mv = 0.5742eo – 0.4084 (2.14)
28
Table 2.5: Typical Values of Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
(Head, 1992)
Description of
compressibility
Coefficient of volume
compressibility, mv
(m2/MN)
Clay types
Very high Above 1.5 Very organic alluvial clays and peats
High 0.3 – 1.5 Normally consolidated alluvial clays (e.g.
estuarine clays)
Medium 0.1 – 0.3 Fluvio-glacial clays, Lake clays, Upper
‘blue’ and weathered ‘brown’ London Clay
Low 0.05 – 0.1 Boulder Clay
Very Stiff or hard ‘blue’ London Clay
Very Low Below 0.05 Heavily overconsolidated ‘boulder clays’
Stiff weathered rocks
2.3.3.3 Compression Ratio
Compression Ratio, CR can be computed as:
CR = (2.15)
where, Cc is the compression index and eo is the initial void ratio.
Figure 2.12 shows the relationship between depth and compression ratio for
marine clay in Klang area by Chen & Tan (2003). The CR value varies from 0.25 to
0.5. It also shows that the CR values are decreasing with depth. According to Cox,
Cc 1 + eo
29
1970 the value of compression ratio is generally increases with both the liquid limit
(wL) and natural moisture content (w) of the soil. Chen & Tan (2003) also proposed
the following relationship for compression ratio, CR with depth for marine clay in
Klang area:
CR = 0.45 – 0.007* Depth (2.16)
Figure 2.12 The Relationship between Compression Ratio and Depth
(Chen & Tan, 2003)
Table 2.6 shows some of published empirical correlations for compressibility
properties which can be used to estimate the characteristic of soil layers, when there
is no relevant test results are available. There are three basic index properties are
used to establish expressions to obtain the compressibility properties such as, natural
moisture content (w), void ratio (eo) and liquid limit (wL).
30
Table 2.6: Correlation between Compressibility Parameters with Liquid Limit,
Natural Void Ratio and Natural Moisture Content for marine clay
Correlation Applicability as stated in
references
Reference
Cc=0.02wL-0.87
Cc =0.015(wL – 10)
Cc=0.005(wL+71.8)
Cc=0.007(wL-7)
Cc=0.009(wL-10)
Marine Clay, Klang M’sia
Marine Clay, Klang M’sia
Marine Clay, Klang M’sia
Remolded Clay
NC Clay
Tan & Gue (2003)
Chen & Tan (2003)
Huat et al. (1995)
Skempton (1994)
Terzhagi & Peck (1967)
Cc=0.55(eo-0.4)
Cc=0.61eo-0.17
Cc=0.62(eo-0.34)
Cc=0.61(eo-0.35)
Cc=0.43(eo-0.20)
Cc = 0.54(eo-0.15)
Cc = 0.344(eo+0.51)
Cc = 0.1882 + 0.3097eo
Marine Clay, Klang M’sia
Marine Clay, Klang M’sia
Marine Clay, South of Sg.
Petani M’sia
Marine Clay, Butterworth
M’sia
South Coast of Johor,
M’sia
Marine Clay of Singapore
Marine Clay of Singapore
Soft Bangkok Clay
Chen & Tan (2003)
Tan & Gue (2003)
Huat et al. (1995)
Huat et al. (1995)
Huat et al. (1995)
Dames & Moore (1983)
Tan (1983)
Sivandran (1979)
Cc=0.02w-0.37
Cc=0.016(w-12.56)
Cc=0.015(w-11)
Cc=0.010(w-3.3)
Marine Clay, Klang M’sia
Marine Clay, South of Sg.
Petani M’sia
Marine Clay, Butterworth
South Coast of Johor,
M’sia
Tan & Gue (2003)
Huat et al. (1995)
Huat et al.(1995)
Huat et al. (1995)
31
The correlation obtained from Table 2.6, is plotted as shown in Figure 2.13 to Figure
2.15 for comparison purposes.
Figure 2.13 Correlations between Compression Index and Liquid Limit of
Marine Clays
Figure 2.13 shows a general trend indicating that the compression index value
is increasing with liquid limit, wL. It is also showing that apart from the correlation
given by Terzhagi & Peck (1967), Skempton (1948) and Huat et al. (1995), all other
soils tend to show larger Cc for a given wL.
32
Figure 2.14 Correlation between Compression Index and Natural Void Ratio
for Marine Clays
Figure 2.14 shows the correlation between compression index (Cc) and
natural void ratio (eo). The value varies significantly from site to site.
33
Figure 2.15 Correlation between Compression Index and Natural Moisture
Content for Marine Clays
Figure 2.15 shows the correlation between compression index, (Cc) and
natural moisture content, w. It shows that the value of compressibility index of all
the soils is increases with the increase of natural moisture content.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The main part of the study is the data collection and the analyses from the
field and laboratory test results. The scope of studies is limited to undrained shear
strength and compressibility parameters of marine clay.
The soil data are acquired from a few locations of completed construction site
at central west coast of Malaysia. There are 4 main project sites that are Central
Sludge Treatment Facility (CSTF), Jimah Power Station (JIMAH) in Port Dickson,
Express Rail Link (ERL), in Sungai Labu, Sepang and Building ‘Pusat Angkasa
Negara (PAN) in Mukim Kelanang, Daerah Kuala Langat. Comprehensive and
detail planning is essential for the smooth running of the study.
The methodology of the study has been summarized in a flowchart as shown
in Figure 3.1.
35
Figure 3.1 Flowchart of the study
Laboratory Test Results
Field Test Results
Collate Data
Data Analysis
Review of Existing Correlations with
New Data
Tabulation of Shear Strength &
Compressibility Values Based on Soil Index
Properties
Develop a Correlation for Malaysia Marine
Clay Characteristic by best-fit line/regression
Shear Strength Properties Soil Compressibility Properties
Compiled Published Correlations
36
3.2 Data Collection
The collected data for the study are in the form of raw data from subsurface
investigation reports. The soil data are acquired from a few locations of completed
construction site at Central West Coast of Malaysia. There are four main project
sites, which are:
1. Central Sludge Treatment Facility (CSTF)
The project, which is called as “Sewage Treatment Plant Project in
Malaysia” is managed by “Jabatan Perkhidmatan Pembentungan”, where
the sewage treatment system has been upgraded.
2. Jimah Power Station (JIMAH)
Jimah Power Station was build to meet the demand on the power supply
in central west of Malaysia.
3. Express Rail Link Kuala Lumpur and Kuala Lumpur International Airport
(ERL)
This project was conducted to ease the transportation problem from Kuala
Lumpur to Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA).
4. Pusat Angkasa Negara (PAN). The project was constructed on Lot 2233,
Mukim Kelanang, Daerah Ulu Langat, Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Type of data collected from this project is both from field and laboratory test.
Table 3.1 lists the type of test conducted and number of boreholes obtained at each
project site, where from field test only vane shear test data is used for analysis and
from laboratory test there are four types of data is obtained:
a. Index tests were performed on the selected samples in order to obtain water
content, atterberg limit, specific gravity and bulk density
37
b. One dimensional consolidation test or oedometer test in order to obtain
compressibility and consolidation parameters.
c. Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test (UU).
d. Consolidated undrained triaxial test (CIU).
Table 3.1: Type of Test Conducted at Each Site
Location Type of test conducted at each
site
No. of borehole
test obtained.
a. Central Sludge
Treatment Facility
(CSTF)
b. Pusat Angkasa
Negara (PAN)
i. Vane shear test
ii. Index tests
iii. One dimensional
consolidation test or
oedometer test
iv. Unconsolidated
undrained triaxial test
(UU).
v. Consolidated
undrained triaxial test
(CIU).
9
10
c. Jimah Power Station
(JIMAH)
i. Vane shear test
ii. Index tests
20
e. Express Rail Link
Kuala Lumpur and
Kuala Lumpur
International Airport
(ERL)
i. Vane shear test
ii. Index tests
iii. One dimensional
consolidation test or
oedometer test
iv. Consolidation
undrained test
(CIU)
9
38
3.3 Data Analysis and Results
The collected data are sorted and compiled according to the locations where
the soil samples are taken. Statistical analysis are conducted on the available data
from the soil investigation reports and are used to plot the necessary graph to achieve
the aim of the study, which is to determine the characteristics of marine clay in
particular the basic properties, strength and compressive characteristics. In an effort
to obtain correlation between strength with basic properties and compressibility
parameters and also to obtain the correlations between compressibility parameters
and basic parameters of marine clay, the regression analysis were performed on the
data. Comparison results are reported and discussed in the study to evaluate the
appropriateness of the correlations for the marine type of soil in Malaysia.
The data which were analyzed are divided into three parts as explained in
Chapter 1:
Part A: Graphs are plotted to determine the characteristics of marine clay, where
basic properties, strength and compressive data are plotted against the depth.
Part B: Graphs are plotted to obtain the correlations between strength with basic
properties and compressibility parameters.
Part C: Graphs are plotted to obtain the correlations between compressibility
parameters and basic parameters.
Table 3.2 indicates the type of analysis and correlations which are discussed
in Chapter 4.
39
Table 3.2: Type of Analysis and Correlation Conducted
Part Type of Analysis and Correlations
A
1. Natural Moisture Content vs. Depth
2. Liquid Limit vs. Depth
3. Plastic Limit vs. Depth
4. Plasticity Index vs. Depth
5. Bulk Density vs. Depth
6. Specific Gravity vs. Depth
7. Void Ratio vs. Depth
8. Undrained Shear Strength vs. Depth
9. Effective Frictional Angle vs. Depth
10. Compression Index vs. Depth
11. Compression Ratio vs. Depth
12. Pre Consolidation Pressure vs. Depth
13. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility v. Depth
B
1. Undrained Shear Strength vs. Natural Moisture Content
2. Undrained Shear Strength vs. Liquidity Index
3. Effective Friction Angle vs. Plasticity Index
C
1. Compression Index vs. Natural Moisture
Content
2. Compression Index vs. Liquid Limit
3. Compression Index vs. Void Ratio
4. Compression Ratio vs. Void Ratio
5. Compression Ratio vs. Liquid Limit
6. Plasticity Index vs. Liquid Limit
7. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility vs. Void Ratio
8. Void Ratio vs. Natural Moisture Content
40
Microsoft Excel program are used to carry out the evaluation and analysis.
The correlations produced are in the form of graphical and empirical equation. In a
general sense, correlation is a synonym for relationship: two variables are correlated
if certain values of one tend to go with certain values of the other. The accuracy of
the correlation obtained will be measured using the correlation coefficient (R2) as
given by Marto (in Saiful, 2004). The level of measurement of correlation
coefficient is indicated in Table 3.3. A linear association is one that can be described
by a straight line.
Table 3.3: Accuracy of correlation by Marto (in Saiful, 2004)
R2 Type of Correlation
< 0.25 Poor
0.25 – 0.55 Fair
0.56 – 0.8 Good
> 0.8 Excellent
3.4 Summary
The final stage of the study was to draw conclusion based on the results of the
analysis. It is understood that from previous study there has been good correlations
have been established for key engineering properties namely strength with basic
properties and correlations between compressibility parameters and basic parameters.
The results obtained were verified in this stage by comparing with the existing results
for the marine clay in Malaysia.
The result that was established from the analysis was carefully studied based
on the objectives. The accuracy of the results obtained was checked.
41
If there seem to be deviation between the results, then the causes were
identified. Suggestions were included to improve the quality of the data obtained for
better results in the future.
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents numerous soil data obtained from both field and
laboratory test from the four project sites in central west coast of Malaysia. These
data were analysed to establish different correlations and statistical design
parameters and presented in a form of useful for geotechnical calculations. The
accuracy of the correlation obtained are measured using the correlation coefficient
(R2) as given by Marto (in Saiful, 2004). These are then compared with relevant
correlations which is similar marine clays from around the coastal plains of other
countries.
43
4.2 Soil Profile
Profiles of soil sample are shown in Figure 4.1a, 4.1b, 4.1c and 4.1d for each
project site. It is shown that the total depth of the very soft and soft marine clay in
CSTF is 19 meter, where the first 1.5 meter is covered by organic silty clay or known
as peat. It is also shown that the soft silty clay is overlay the medium dense silty
clay, which located on top of silty sand at 30.5 meter.
Figure 4.1a: Soil Profile in CSTF Figure 4.1b: Soil Profile in JIMAH
Soil profile in JIMAH shows that the total thickness of very soft to soft silty
is 16 meter. The soft silty clay is overlay the medium dense silty clay, which located
on top of silty sand at 25 meter.
44
Soil profile in ERL shows that the very soft silty clay is covered up to depth
of 13 meter. The very soft silty clay is overlay a layer of silty sand, which located
on top of Kenny Hill Formation of at 20 meter.
Figure 4.1c: Soil Profile in ERL Figure 4.1d: Soil Profile in PAN
Total thickness of very soft marine clay in PAN is 13 meter, where according
to Figure 4.1d the first 3 meter is covered by very soft decayed organic matter. The
very soft clay is overlying the soft to medium stiff greenish grey marine clay, which
located on sandy clay at 20 meter.
The behaviour of the soft marine clay is influenced generally by the parent
material, depositional processes, erosion, redeposition, consolidation and fluctuations
in ground water levels.
45
4.3 Results and Discussion
4.3.1 Physical and Engineering Properties
The study on the geotechnical properties revealed that the average thickness
of very soft to soft clay is 15.5 meter and the average thickness of medium dense
silty clay is 8 meter. Below this clay layer, there is a horizon of sand layer exists.
Physical and engineering properties of the marine clayey soils from all four
areas are summarised in Table 4.1 and it based on the available laboratory and in-situ
data. Figure 4.2a to 4.2g shows the plotted graph of physical and engineering
properties versus depth from all four areas. The natural moisture content (w) is
generally high and mostly 35% to 125 % and also shows a decreasing trend with
depth. From the study, it is found that the natural moisture content is generally close
to the liquid limit. The liquid limit (wL) is quite high, which is generally at about
50% to 125%. It is very common that the moisture content of the soft marine clay
especially near to the ground level will be higher than the liquid limit and it is true
for this case.
The liquid limit takes an important role on defining soil properties. Range of
liquid limit values is also greater than the range of plastic limit as published by
Mitchell (1993), where marine clays possess medium to extremely high plasticity.
From the plasticity chart shown in Figure 4.3 it shows the scattering pattern for all
location of collected data, the majority of the data scattered for JIMAH and PAN is
in the area of CH or classified under clay with high plasticity. For ERL the data’s
are scattered below the A-Line, which is under MH or silty with high plasticity and
also at CL or clay with low plasticity. Lesser data are obtained for CSTF and it’s
scattered along the A-Line.
46
From Table 4.1, in general it shows that the unit weight is mostly in the range
of 13 to 18 kN/m3. It also appears that the unit weight is constant from the ground
surface to about 15 meter depth. The average specific gravity (Gs) for all four sites is
shown as 2.6.
Range of effective frictional angle (φ’) obtained from consolidation
undrained test is 15o to 25o. It is categorized under normally consolidated saturated
clays by Das (2004).
Typical range of effective cohesion, c' obtained from the consolidated
undrained test (CU) analysis is 2 to 20 kPa and range of cohesion, c (kPa) obtained
from the unconsolidated undrained test is 3 to 10 kPa. The relationship between
cohesion and depth is shown in Figure 4.4. The undrained shear strength (Su) of the
clays was determined by in-situ vane shear tests. According to Table 2.2 the
undrained shear strength is classified as very soft to firm, where the Su value ranging
from minimum 4 to 65 kPa. Table 4.2 shows the correlation obtained between Su
and depth for the four project sites.
47
Table 4.1: Physical and Engineering Properties (Part A)
Location ( Depth )
CSTF ( 0 – 20 m )
ERL ( 0 -14 m )
JIMAH ( 0 -16 m )
PAN ( 0 -16 m )
Physical Properties Natural Moisture Content, w (%)
75 -125 50 -100 35 – 75 50 - 100
Liquid Limit, wL (%)
75 – 125 50 -100 50 -100 50 - 100
Plastic Limit, wp (%)
35 - 40 20 -50 20 -40 30 - 40
Plasticity Index, Ip
50 – 100 40 -70 20 -60 20 – 50
Unit Weight, γ (kN/m3)
13 – 15 13 -17 14 -18 -
Specific Gravity, Gs
2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6
Engineering Properties
Undrained Shear Strength, Su (kPa)
5 – 12.5 4 – 15 5 -50 5 - 65
Effective Frictional Angle, φ’
15 -20 20 -25 - 15 - 20
Void Ratio, eo
1.75 – 2.5 1.5 – 3 - 1.5 -3.0
Compression Index, Cc
0.8 -1.2 0.2 -1.5 - 0.5 - 1.5
Compression Ratio, CR
0.2 -0.4 0.1 -0.4 - 0.2 -0.35
Pre Consolidation Pressure, Pc (kPa)
50 - 125 20 - 80 - 20 – 80
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv (m2/MN)
- 0.25 -1.5 - -
48
Figure 4.2a: Physical and Engineering Properties versus Depth at Jimah Power
Station (JIMAH)
49
Figure 4.2b: Physical Properties versus Depth at Express Rail Link (ERL)
50
Figure 4.2c: Engineering Properties versus Depth at Express Rail Link (ERL)
51
Figure 4.2d: Physical Properties versus Depth at Sewerage Treatment Plant
(CSTF)
52
Figure 4.2e: Engineering Properties versus Depth at Sewerage Treatment Plant
(CSTF)
53
Figure 4.2f: Physical Properties versus Depth at Pusat Angkasa Negara (PAN)
54
Figure 4.2g: Engineering Properties versus Depth at Pusat Angkasa Negara
(PAN)
55
Figure 4.3: Casagrande Plasticity Chart
Figure 4.4: Relationship between Cohesion and Depth
56
Table 4.2: Correlation between Undrained Shear Strength and Depth
Location Correlation R2
Jimah Power Station
(JIMAH)
Su = 6.28d – 22.6 0.605
Sewage Treatment Plant
(CSTF)
Su = 0.83d + 3.03 0.838
Express Rail Link (ERL)
Su = 1.393d – 0.691 0.637
Pusat Angkasa Negara
(PAN)
Su = 5.85d – 4.42 0.699
According to Table 4.2, the accuracy of correlations obtained is classified in
the range of good. Undrained shear strength generally increasing with depth. For
most soft clays, it is found that the undrained shear strength is proportionally to
effective overburden pressure and this is expected in this research since the shear
strength is basically a frictional phenomenon and depends on the confining pressure.
The correlation shown in Table 4.2 is plotted as shown in Figure 4.5 for
comparison purposes. Superimposed also on the figure are the relevant data of Chen
& Tan (2003) for marine clay in Klang. It shows that the correlation given by Chen
& Tan is very close to correlation obtained in ERL. For a given depth, it gives
higher undrained shear strength for PAN and JIMAH and lower undrained shear
strength for ERL and CSTF. From the plasticity chart it indicates that the data
scattered for JIMAH and PAN is in the area of CH or classified under clay with high
plasticity, where studies by Cox, 1970 shows that high plasticity by weathering the
clay minerals will increase the undrained shear strength.
57
Figure 4.5: Correlation between Undrained Shear Strength and Depth
Below is the compressibility properties of marine clay, which normally
measured using oedometer test conducted on undisturb samples obtained from the
site investigations. Compressibility parameters are very useful in settlement
analysis, therefore, more effort should be emphasized in the interpretation of these
parameters.
Range of void ratio (eo) obtained from the analysis is 1.5 to 3.0. The value of
Cc can vary widely, depending on the soil. Range of Cc value obtained from the
analysis is 0.2 to 1.5. The Compression Ratio (CR) values vary from 0.1 to 0.4 and it
seems that the CR values are decreasing with depth. The pre consolidation pressure,
P′c (kPa) is the maximum past effective overburden pressure to which the soil
specimen has been subjected. Range of P'c obtained from the analysis is 20 to 125
kPa. The range of coefficient of volume compressibility, mv obtained from the
analysis is 0.25 to 1.5 m2/MN. According to Table 2.5 as given by Head, 1992
shows that the clay can be classified as normally consolidated clays and with high
compressibility.
58
4.3.2 Correlations between Strength and Physical Properties
Typical correlations between strength properties and physical properties are
summarized in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Correlation between Strength and Physical Properties (Part B)
Correlation Coefficient of
Determination, R2
Location
Su = 0.31(100.28-w) 0.558 JIMAH
Su = 0.576(146.3-w) 0.545 PAN
Su = 23.37 – 23.24IL 0.696 JIMAH
Su = 105.68 – 55.41IL 0.690 PAN
A typical plot of correlation between undrained shear strength versus natural
moisture content and undrained shear strength versus liquidity index on each area
are shown in Figure 4.6. Correlation between undrained shear strength and natural
water content, which shown in Table 4.3 is plotted and presented in Figure 4.7 for
comparison purposes. Superimposed also on the figure are the relevant data of Huat
et al. (1995) for marine clay in north and south part of Malaysia and of Tan & Lee
(1977) for Singapore marine clay. In general the trend of soil strength decrease with
increase in water content is similar for all soils considered and PAN gives the highest
undrained shear strength for given natural moisture content.
Relationship between undrained shear strength and liquidity index, which
establish in Table 4.3 is plotted and shown in Figure 4.8 for comparison purpose.
Superimposed also on the figure are the relevant data of Huat et al. (1995) for marine
clay in north and south part of Malaysia.
59
(a) Location: Jimah Power Station
(b) Location : Pusat Angkasa Negara
Figure 4.6: Typical Plot of Correlation between Undrained Shear Strength
with Natural Moisture Content and Undrained Shear Strength
with Liquidity Index
60
Figure 4.7: Correlation between Undrained Shear Strength and Natural
Moisture Content
Figure 4.8: Correlation between Undrained Shear Strength and
Liquidity Index
61
A typical correlation between effective friction angle (φ’) and plasticity index
(Ip) is shown in Figure 4.9, where the value of φ’ decreases with the increase in Ip.
From the graph it shows that due to scattered data, it is unable to obtain an accurate
correlation between effective friction angle and plasticity index. Similar results were
also provided by Bjerrum & Simons, 1960 and Kenney, 1959 (in Das, 2004).
Figure 4.9: Correlation between Effective Friction Angle and
Plasticity Index
62
4.3.3 Correlations between Compressibility Properties and Physical Properties
Typical correlations between compressibility properties and physical
properties are summarized in Table 4.4 and plotted in Figure 4.10a to 4.10c.
Table 4.4: Correlation between Compressibility and Physical Properties
(Part C)
Correlation Coefficient of
Determination, R2
Location
Cc = 0.013w – 0.181 0.635 ERL
Cc = 0.008w + 0.224 0.687 PAN
Cc = 0.012wL – 0.091 0.63 ERL
Cc = 0.005wL + 0.398 0.618 PAN
Cc = 0.007Ip + 0.456 0.47 ERL
Cc = 0.0105Ip + 0.156 0.41 CSTF
Cc = 0.497eo – 0.194 0.677 ERL
Cc = 0.515eo – 0.176 0.724 PAN
CR = 0.071eo + 0.098 0.627 ERL
CR = 0.071eo + 0.119 0.719 PAN
CR = 0.002wL + 0.108 0.493 ERL
mv = 0.498eo - 0.109 0.659 ERL
Referring to Table 4.4, the correlation between compression index (Cc) and
natural moisture content (w) is plotted and presented in Figure 4.11 for comparison
purposes. Superimposed also on the figure are the relevant data of Huat et al. (1995)
for marine clay in north and south part of Malaysia and Soft Bangkok Clay of
Sivandran, 1979 (in Saiful, 2004). In general the Cc values are increasing linearly
with increase in natural moisture content. It also shows that the correlation
obtained for PAN is very close to Bangkok Clay.
63
Figure 4.10a: Typical Plot of Correlations between Compressibility and
Physical Properties in ERL
64
Figure 4.10b: Typical Plot of Correlations between Compressibility and
Physical Properties in PAN
Figure 4.10c: Typical Plot of Correlations between Compressibility and
Physical Properties in CSTF
65
Figure 4.11: Correlation between Compression Index and Natural
Moisture Content
Correlation between compression index (Cc) and liquid limit (wL) were also
established for the marine clay and presented in Figure 4.12. Superimposed also on
the figure are the relevant data of Skempton, 1944 and Terzaghi & Peck, 1967 for
undisturb clay, Huat et al. 1995, Chen & Tan, 2003 and Tan & Gue, 2003 for soft
clay in Klang for comparison purposes. It appears that all other soils tend to show
larger Cc for a given wL compared with the classical Terzaghi & Peck and Skempton
relation.
66
Figure 4.12: Relationship between Compression Index and
Liquid Limit
Relationship of compression index (Cc) versus initial void ratio (eo) were
established and plotted in Figure 4.13. Superimposed also on the figure are the
relevant data of Huat et al. 1995, Tan & Gue, 2003 and Bangkok soft clay by
Adikari, 1977 and Sivandran, 1979 ( in Saiful, 2004) for comparison purposes. From
the graph it shows that clay in PAN and ERL gives a lower Cc value for a given eo.
67
Figure 4.13: Correlation between Compression Index and
Initial Void Ratio
Figure 4.14 shows the plotted graph for correlation on compression ratio
(CR) and liquid limit (wL). Superimpose also on the figure is the relevant data of
Huat et al. 1995 for comparison purposes. In general the trend of compression ratio
increases with increase in liquid limit is similar.
Relationship of coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) versus initial void
ratio (eo) were established and plotted in Figure 4.15. Superimposed also on the
figure are the relevant data of Saiful, 2004 for comparison purposes. From the graph
it shows that value of mv increase linearly with eo.
68
Figure 4.14: Correlation between Compression Ratio and
Liquid Limit
Figure 4.15: Correlation between Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
and Void Ratio
69
Figure 4.16 shows the plotted graph for correlation on compression index
(Cc) and plasticity index (Ip). Superimpose also on the figure is the relevant data of
Huat et al. 1995 for comparison purposes. In all cases compression index is observed
to increase with the increase in plasticity index.
Figure 4.16: Correlation between Compression Index and
Plasticity Index
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE STUDY
5.1 Conclusion
The results obtained from the analysis enable to provide a satisfactory
prediction of physical and engineering properties of marine clay when there is no
relevant test results are available for the same area of project site or other areas of
similar subsurface conditions. This will also enhance the geological knowledge and
the understanding on subsoil of marine clay in central west coast of Malaysia. The
following conclusion can be drawn from the study performed above:
1) The study on the geotechnical properties revealed that the average
thickness of very soft to soft clay are 15.5 meter, the average
thickness of medium dense silty clay is 8 meter. Below the clay layer,
there is a horizon of sand layer exists. Apparently, this profile can be
comparable with the typical soil profile in Peninsular Malaysia.
71
2) The natural moisture content (w) is generally high and mostly 35% to
125% and also shows a decreasing trend with depth. Liquid limit
(wL) is also shows high, which is generally 50% to 125%. From the
study, it is found that the w is generally close to wL and it is very
common that the moisture content of the soft marine clay is higher at
especially near to the ground level than the liquid limit. According to
the plasticity chart it shows that the majority of the data scattered for
JIMAH and PAN is in the area of CH or classified under clay with
high plasticity. For ERL the data’s are scattered below the A-Line,
which is under MH or silty with high plasticity and also at CL or clay
with low plasticity. Lesser data are obtained for CSTF and it is
scattered along the A-Line.
3) It is found that the unit weight is mostly in the range of 13 to 18
kN/m3 and the average specific gravity (Gs) obtained from the
analysis is 2.6.
4) Range of effective frictional angle (φ’) obtained is 15o to 25o and it is
categorized under normally consolidated saturated clays. The range
of effective cohesion, c' obtained is 2 to 20 kPa.
5) The undrained shear strength (Su) of the clays was determined by in-
situ vane shear tests, where the Su value ranging from 4 to 65 kPa.
The result also shows that the Su value for PAN and JIMAH is
higher than ERL and CSTF, this is because of PAN and JIMAH is
classified under high plasticity (CH) in the Casagrande Plasticity
Chart, which gives higher undrained shear strength. High plasticity
causes by weathering on the clay minerals will increase the undrained
shear strength.
72
Undrained shear strength generally increasing with depth, for
most soft clays the Su is proportionally to effective overburden
pressure.
6) Two types of correlations which related to Su have been established,
they are undrained shear strength with natural moisture content (w)
and liquidity index (Ip). Both correlations show that the value of
undrained shear strength is decreasing with higher value of natural
moisture content and liquidity index.
7) A non-linear correlation between effective friction angle (φ’) and
plasticity index (Ip) has been established, where the value of φ’
decreases with the increase in Ip.
8) As compressibility parameters are very useful in settlement analysis
some of the parameters which related to compressibility have been
established. Oedometer test provide reliable Cc, where the average
value obtained is 0.2 to 1.5 and also shows constant values with depth.
Correlation between compression index with some of the physical
properties have been also established. The result shows that the value
of Cc is increased with the increase in natural moisture content,
plasticity index, liquid limit and void ratio.
9) The compression ratio values are ranging from 0.1 to 0.4. An
approximate linear correlation is obtained between compression
ratio with void ratio and liquid limit. It will be useful for estimating
the compression ratio for settlement assessment when there is no
consolidation test is conducted.
73
10) Range of preconsolidation pressure, Pc’ obtained from the analysis is
20 to 125 kPa and the range of coefficient of volume compressibility,
mv obtained is 0.25 to 1.5m2/MN. A linear correlation between
coefficient of volume compressibility and void ratio is also
established from the study.
5.2 Limitations
In order to get better results on the correlation of engineering characteristics
of marine clay from central west coast of Malaysia, the limitations of this study are
listed out as a guideline for future studies:
1) Correlations carried out are limited at each particular project site, rather
than showing the results of combining data from all four project sites.
This is because data obtained from each project site is taken at different
depth.
2) The reading of the depth is not based on the ‘REDUCED LEVEL’.
3) Limited shear strength data is obtained.
74
5.3 Recommendations for future study
As this study focuses on the correlation between shear strength properties
with physical and compressibility properties, in future to obtain more shear strength
data, for better comparison purposes.
As not many studies are conducted on stress path analysis in Malaysia, in
future to do stress path analysis on Malaysian marine clay, in order to enhance
knowledge in critical stress path.
75
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