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CORRUPTIONASASYMPTOM*FelipeGómez-PalleteRivas†&PazdeTorres‡

“Realityislargelyruledbythefundamentalprincipleofimperfection”.JavierGomá.

orruptionasaphenomenonisarguablybetterknownforitseffectsratherthanforitsnature.Forcorruptiondisplayssomethingsimilartotheforceofgravity:althoughwefeelitspresencedaily,wecannotsayforcertainwhatitisabout.But

whilegravityeffectsareappealing,weareshamedandrepelledbythoseofcorruption.The environment does not seem particularly comfortable, since we want to fight apractice that triggers rejection, indeed, but also bewilderment since there is nounanimousconsentonitsnature.Whatdowemeanbycorruptionandhowshouldwecombatsuchscourge?Thesearethetwokey issuesaddressedbythecollectiveworkcoordinatedbyVíctorLapuente, senior lecturer and researcher at The Quality of Government Institute(UniversityofGoteborg).Awork that,havingbeenpublishedsomemonthsago,hasgone virtually unnoticed, what strikes me for two main reasons: in the first place,becausethisbook,asIintendtounderlinethroughoutthisreview,constitutesawell-groundedcontributiontotheSpanishbibliographyonthephenomenonofcorruption.And also, because, since its publication in June 2016, corruption has been reachingunprecedentedsoaringlevelsinSpain.Againstthisbackdrop,onewouldexpectleadersandexpertstopayheedofsuchintelligencegatheredinthisbook,yetthatdoesnotseemtobethecase.I believe this is a text,whose coordinator, I hasten to add, has proven successful inhandling and tempering the unavoidable imbalances in form and content of anycollective work. Eight authors from different fields –economy, sociology, politicalsciences, engineering and law-who voice their opinion and proposals on these twoqueries:Whatcorruptionisaboutandhowtocombatit,twokeypillarsuponwhichIhavebuiltthisessay.In the firstof its twosections, I reflecton the frame for interpretationwithinwhichcorruptionissupposedlyshaped:isittheonlypossibleframe?Ialsoponderwhatwouldhappen if, instead of understanding corruption as the cause of a mounting socialmalaise,wewere to assume the opposite premise: corruption as the symptomof aproblem.Toallthis,anotherfundamentalquestionshouldbeadded:howisreality_____________* This work was originally published in Nueva Revista de Política, Cultura y Arte de la UniversidadInternacionaldelaRioja,Number160,April2017,entitled“LucesysombrasdelacorrupciónenEspaña”(LightandshadeofcorruptioninSpain)(http://bit.ly/2osVye3).ItwassubsequentlypublishedinanewformatbytheAssociationforDemocraticQualityandCulture(http://bit.ly/2prNYDu)†PresidentofAssociationforDemocraticQualityandCulture‡VicePresidentofAssociationforDemocraticQualityandCulture

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scrutinizedwithaviewtodeterminehowmuchandwhatkindofcorruptiontakesplaceinsocietiessuchastheSpanishone?Threeconcerns,allthreeencompassingthesameconcern: how authors envisage corruption and whether there is any room formanoeuvresoastoenrichtheirviewpoints.Inthesecondsection,Icollectseveralconsiderationsaboutthesuggestedmeasuresforfighting corruption. Coming from a qualified “comprehensive” strategy, authorsadvance a number of actions on various fields, from transparency to managementmodernization,bothforpublicadministrationingeneralandthelocalone,inparticular.Asinthefirstpart,Iwillalsodelveintoconsiderationsandenquireintothelikelihoodofsomeroomforimprovementoftheirproposals,andifsohow.

hebookconveysthemostwidespreadnotionofcorruptionamongthepundits:“corruptionistheabuseofentrustedorpublicpowerforprivategain”1,2,3,4.Thisishowcorruptionisoutlinedallthroughthework.Corruptionisunderstoodasan

“extractive”phenomenon,thatdivertscommonorpublicresourcestothedomainofprivateorparticularinterests.Toputitsimply,corruptionisplacedonthepublic-privateaxis.Wheredothesedoubtsonthenatureofcorruptioncomefrom?Itisquiteobviousthat“thereisnocorruptionwithoutcorrupters”5but,regardlessofthelegalpersonalityandthefunctionofwhoeverisofferingandtheidentityofwhoisaccepting,howcomesthatthe“corrupt”labelistypicallygrantedtocivilservants,whilevoters,forinstance,arepresumedto“benefitfromcorruption”?6,7.Thisdoubt isnotdispelledwhen the following typesof corruption,by reasonof theinvolvedsubjects,areascertained8:Ontheonehand,discussionsalludetocorruptioninthepublicdomain,andontheother,asasecondcategory,corruptionintheprivatesphereisweighedasacorruptioninwhich“onlyprivateactorscometoplay”.Suchasharp distinction betweenpublic and private domains fades awaywhen, the first ofthesetwogroups–corruptioninthepublicdomain–is,initsturn,foldedintotwosortsofcorruption,thatis:politicalcorruptionperpetratedbythehigh-rankingpublicoffices,withtheusualinterventionofprivateactors!(sic)andtheadministrativecorruption,“inwhichlowormediumrankcivilservantsareinvolved”.Allthisnotonlyfailstosolvetheraiseddoubtsonthetruenatureofthisphenomenon,atleastintermsofitsqualifier(public,private?);moreover,ithappenstobethesourceofotherconcerns.Letustakealookatthis.It is apparent that the countless episodes of the so-called political corruption havecausedcitizen’supheaval,disaffectionandangertowardsthemainpoliticalinstitutions.However,thequestionarisesastowhetherthefactofhavingplacedcorruptiononthepublic-privateaxisactuallyaccountsforanincitement,atroublesomelavishsourceofestrangementjusttowardsthebadones:politicsandpoliticians.

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Allow me answering this issue with a new question: why, in addition to settingcorruptionwithinthebattlefieldbetweencommonandparticularinterests,isnotalsodeemedtobepositionedinthe“strong-weak”axe,thatis,therichandpowerfulovertheweakandvulnerable,regardlessofthepublicorprivatenatureoftheparticipatingagents?For,inanyofthecriminalformsthatcorruptionmaytake,inanyofthem,thereisalwayssomeone who holds power so to take advantage of it and someone who, as aconsequence, is harmed. And this is true disregarding the nature of the damagedresources (public or private), the participant agents’ legal personality (publicadministration or private enterprise) and the assignment of the agents who arecommittingoffences(thatis,performingapublicjoboraprivateactivity).And,ontheother hand, this is truewhether these are capital or concomitant offences,medial,resultantonesorothers;bribery,be it improperoractive; illicitassociation, fraudormaladministration;propertydistortionor inside information. Inanyofthesecriminalforms,Ireiterate,thereisacorrupterandacorruptoneandalsothereisunquestionablysomeoneresultingbenefitedandsomeoneresultingdamaged.Asfortheproblemsensuingfromsuchaconspicuousfactas“inSpanishlawandinmostoftheEuropeanlegalsystemstherearenospecificcriminaldefinitionsofcorruption”9,itissafetosaythatasecondaxisor“frame”proposal(thepowerfulagainsttheweak)doesnotaddnorsubtractanykindofdifficulty.Ifwewere to consider corruption at the crossroads of both axis (public-private andpowerful-weak),we,citizens,wouldnotonlyenvisagecorruptionasa“politicians’issue”norwouldweviewthemasstrangers,fromtheouterspace,insteadofwhattheyreallyare:electedpeoplebyusandamongstus.Andincidentallywewouldhelptoincreasingcitizenparticipationincaringforthecommongood(“respublica”),ofwhatisofallofusandofnobody inparticular,whileat thesame time,wewouldencouragepeople tobehave in an exemplarymanner, forestalling any kind of involvement in any sort ofcorruptpractices,nomatterhowprivatetheymaybe,andregardlessoftheirqualityandquantity.Whatistheprovenanceofthatavoidancetoutterandbroadcastthepivotalprinciplethatpoliticalcorruptionisnotconceivableinahealthysociety?Isanuntainted,virtuoussocietypossible?Ifnot,why“political”isthemostusualqualifierofcorruption?Inmyopinionandtosumup,thephenomenonofcorruptionwouldbemoreacutelyenlightenedbyplacingitatthecrossroadsofbothaxis,ratherthangoingaboutitonaone-dimension basis. Another way to collaborate to this end is by looking straightforwardattheviciouscircleinwhichonefeelssometimestobetrapped:iscorruptionthecauseofourmostapparentevils,oronthecontrary,isitasymptomofourdeep-rootedproblems?

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Authorsaretouchingarawnervewhentheymakeoutthat“theendeavourofdetectingwhetherthecausalarrowgoesfromcorruptiontothenegativeeffectortheoppositeway is complicated”. Despite of this, the book includes a great deal ofmentions tocorruptionasoriginofourevils11,12,13,14,whatleadsustobelievethat,althoughthedifficultytoascertain“cause-effect”relationshipsisquiteacknowledged,corruptionisneverthelesslargelyenvisagedasafundamentalproblem.

Furthermore, theauthorsassume,asageneral trend in the book, that“individuals respond to surroundingincentives and therefore themushroomingofcorruptionisfavouredor restrained depending on theinstitutionalenvironmentinwhichtheyperformtheiractivities”15.This renders

imperativetheanalysissotopinpointwhichareasoftheindividual’senvironmentaretheonesfuellingthefireofcorruption.This is surely how, in themidst of this sort of vicious circle (corruptiondeterioratesinstitutions –we should look into the institutions fostering corruption), readers cancertainlyfeeltrapped,notknowingexactlywhereistheexitofsuchconundrum.Problem-symptom,means-ends,cause-effect,motivations-objectives,areallpairssitedattheheartofagreatnumberofdebatesofallkinds,conditionandtime.Andno,allowmetoadd,thisisnominorpoint.Itisnot,notonlywithrespecttothecurrentmatter(corruption,symptomorproblem?)butneither, for instance,regardingatopicalandtranscendental issuesuchaseconomic inequality(is itaquestionofredistributionorpre-distribution16?).Because,amongotherreasons,embracingoneoranotherpointofview(originorconsequence)willdeterminetoagreatextentthetypeofstrategyandmeasurestobeundertaken.Yetstrategiesandmeasuresarealsodefinedandundertakenrespectivelyaccordingtothecollecteddataaboutthesituation,what isconducivetothethirdand lastof theselected questions in order to illustrate the doubts that encloses the concept ofcorruption inmanydifferentways:howshouldwemeasure thisextremelycomplex,multi-facetedphenomenonnamedcorruption?ThebookputsforwardastrongempiricalfoundationonthesituationinSpain,andwhatismostinterestingandimportant,itprovideswithagreatmanyanalysisof“comparativeanatomy”betweenthestateofaffairsinourcountryandthatofothercountriesfromall five continents. It is a priceless contribution to leave behind the annoying andfrequentlyusedbypoliticiansandbusinessleaderscatchphrase,callinguponto“ourneighbouringcountries”soastopaylipservicetotheirargumentssincenoevidenceisprovided.Nevertheless,theamassedsubjectofstudyrealitydatais,infact,asetofanswerstoquestionsthroughwhichresearchersattempttocomprehendreality.Thereby,citizens

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areasked,forinstance,aboutthe“votingpopularityofmayors”butnotaboutthebasicbeliefstypifyingthedailyworkinacityhall,althoughthiscouldbeperfectlyaskedintheseorsimilarterms:“Doyouthinkthatfocusoncontinuousimprovement inworkproceedingsandprocessestakespartintheorganizationalcultureofyourtownhall?”Intheinitialchapterofthework,entitled“Wheredowecomefromandwherearewegoing to in terms of corruption”, a loop is devised in which everything is trapped,exemplifyingallwhathasbeensaiduntilhere:assumingthatcorruptionis“theabuseofentrustedorpublicpowerforprivategain”,givesrisetomaintainingthat“corruptionisinherenttopublicpolicy(respublica)”Theparableofanictiologistwhoexploredtheoceanwitha2inches’meshnettingisattributedtoSirArthurEddington,renownedBritishastrophysicistofthe20thcentury.Basedonhiscatch,theoceanresearchercametotheconclusionthattherearenofishesofinferiorsizethanthose2inches.Thisisquitethefeelingthatreaderscouldgetfromaconceptualizationofcorruptiongroundedonsomeempiricaldatathat,suchasthepropoundedones,areinevitablyconditionedbyhowrealityisdissected.Therefore,Ibelieveweshouldreadthesuggestedlistedmeasurestakingthismentionedprecaution.AmenuofproposalsthatofcourseIesteembyallmeansof incalculablevalueinitself.Andespeciallyifwecompareitwiththecurrenthastyrecipes,bloomingeverywhereandinalldirections.Allandeachoneofthosemeasurespresentedbytheauthorsofthiscollectiveworksparktheimaginationandencourageustothinkuphowtoimprovethem.Tothisend,thesecondpartofthisreviewdisclosessomecriticismsandsuggestionsaboutthem:Howtocombatcorruption?

uthors,as Ialreadymentionedat thebeginningof the text,have“striven fordrawing the cornerstones of a comprehensive strategy for the battle againstcorruption, by going through the existing comparative studies from different

angles:publicadministrationingeneral,localadministrationinparticular,financingofpoliticalparties,transparency,punishingmeasures,massmediaandvotingsystem”17.Yet, such strategy, albeit comprehensive, overarching and global, is –inmy view– asuperficial and shallow strategy. Since breadth and depth are indeed two differentdimensions.Thankstotheconductedempiricalstudies,wecurrentlyhavearoughnotionabouthowcorruptionisperceived,acceptedandexperiencedbycitizensofdifferentcountries18.Buthowdoescorruptionoriginate?Wherearetheultimatereasonssheddinglightoncorruptbehaviours?Iinsist:whosebasicdysfunctionsiscorruptionasymptom?InthiscollectiveworkcoordinatedbyVíctorLapuente, the target tobeat is theproblemofcorruption.Buttheplacewhereauthorslookfortheultimateoriginofcorruptionisthesurfaceofactors,bothcorruptersandcorruptones.Andthefactofnotdaringtogofurtheranddeeperiswhatleavesthatsenseofsuperficialprint,whichistraceableinseveralpassagesofthebook.

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About individuals, it isarguedthatthey“respondtothesurrounding incentives”andabout the organizational culture, it is defined as “the set of rules moderating themembers’behaviourofaninstitution”19.Tomyunderstanding,thisimpliestoforgothepursuitofmoresubstantial,in-depthexplanations,withregardstobothindividualsandinstitutions.Forindividualsarefarmorethanagentsdrivenbyincentives.Individualsactandbehaveguidedbyasetofmotivations,fromexternaltointrinsicones,withoutforgettingthetranscendentalones20, justtomentiononeofthenumberlesstheoriesdevelopedonhuman behaviour within formal organizations. And also, because his/her dishonestbehaviourinhis/herownprofit(self-servingdishonesty),causingasaresultadamagedthird,isnotcontinualbutvariabledependingupontheopportunities21.Thus,inessence,theimageorideathereadermaycreateofapersonascorruptisoutstandinglysimple.Somethingcloselyakintoanintangiblebystander,onlykeepingawatchfuleyetomoneyortopowerorfavours,alwaysreactinginthesamevein,regardlessofthetimevariable,similarlyatthebeginningandattheequatorofhis/hercareer,whatevermaybethesetofhis/hermotivationalvariables,his/herpersonalityprofileorhis/hercharactertraits.Andastotheinstitutionalissuestackledbythebookasexplanationtocorruption(rules,regulations, behaviours, organizational structures, plans, work processes, strategies,goals, activities, etc.) they are nothing but “superficial expressions” of what theorganizationaltheoryregardsasthereallinchpinofanyorganizationalculture22,thatis,thatensembleofbasicpresumptionsfromwhich,inEdgarSchein’sownwords,“stemdeclared and adopted artefacts and values”, some of them having been swiftlymentionedaboveintobrackets.

Justbecausethesetofindividuals’motivations (over and above “theincentives”) as well as theircharacterandpersonalityarehardto quantify does not necessarilymeanthatnoneof themexistnorthat they have no decisiveinfluence on human behaviour.

Likewise,thedifficultyrelatedtoassessing(owingtotheinvisibilityandpre-conscienceofsuchendeavour)thedeepestleveloftheorganizationalcultureofinstitutions(basicbeliefsandnotonly“rules”)doesnotjustifyitsabsencewhendevisingandfine-tuningmeasuresagainstcorruptbehaviours.Thecomprehensivestrategyisoneofthemajorandmostpreciouscontributionsofthisbook.Myproposalintermsofhowtoimproveitconsists,ultimately,ingaininggreaterdepthinthesetwofronts.Elusiveasthesetwoventuresmayseem,therearewaystograpplewiththem.Thecomprehensiveandconcurrentlysuperficialstrategyhasleftitsimprintthroughoutseveralpassagesof thecollectivework: from financingofpoliticalparties23 throughtransparency(envisagedfromtherear-viewmirror)tothepreventive(deterrenttoa

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certain point) character of the proposedmeasures, or (moderate)modernization ofpublicmanagement.Isuggesttotakeacloselookatthisandotherconnectedissues.From the “publicmanagement” stance, thebookbrings forwardwell aimednods towhatcanbenamed,bycontrast,“privatemanagement”,onwhichseveralreflectionsaretobeemphasized.Administration, regarded as social science, explores human organizations, andconsidered as set of techniques, facilitates efficient and effective resourcesmanagement for goods manufacturing and services provision. And this is trueirrespective of the institutional architecture that draws a distinction betweenorganizations,inotherwords,regardlessofthevision,mission,valuesandgoalseachonemaypursue.Unlessotherwiseagreed,thecrossbreedingofknowledge,wisdomsandtechniquesbetweenthepublicandprivatespherescouldandshouldgo,inmyview,farbeyondthanwhatthebookadvocates,notonlyforthePublicAdministrationdomain(chapter2)butalsofortheLocalAdministrationone(chapter3).

Asforthefirstoneofthose,itis reasonedthat“inorder tocombat corruption and topursuegoodgovernance,weshould change tack and, onthe one hand, provide ourAdministration with moreprofessionalism (“keepingapart politicians from civilservants in their careers”,that is to say, admitting lesspoliticians in public office),and on the other, bring in aboosted flexibility, or if youwill,areducedbureaucratiza-tion,byincreasingthedegreeof the staffing managementautonomy,asisthecasewithNewZealand24.Inmyview,suchapproachisasoptimalasillustrativeistheoutstandingGraphic2.7“Thefourworldsofpublicmanage-ment”25 representing a veryeducational summary of theproposal. However, it isworth wondering how this

graphicwouldhaveresultedhadthex-axisnotonlyrepresentedthedelegationdegreein human resourcesmanagement but also appraised, for instance, the existence or

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absenceofQualityCirclesinAdministrationsoftheevaluateddifferentcountries,orthepracticeofanyotherofmanyhabits,customsandconventions,dailycoinedandusedintheprivatemanagementarea.Bridgingthedividebetweenthesetwoworldsstrikesmeundeniablyasanimperativeandurgenttask.Fortheprivatepracticehasaneedforcategoriesfrompoliticalandsocialsciences,justasthelatterhasaneedforpracticesandconceptsdevelopedintheprivate organizations domain (both for and non-profit). The same could be rightlyclaimedwhensteppingdownarungsoastogodownfromPublicAdministrationtothechapterdevoted to corruptionand localadministrations.Here too,all thosepointedissuescanbeeasilytrackeddown.The analysis and classification that are introduced in “Other sorts of municipaladministrators/agents”26, namely, strong mayor, council manager and committeeleaderare,byallmeans,remarkable.Buttheclosingpoliticalconclusionofthechapterdoesnotriseabovethemeresurface.Forthe“fundamentalframeofreferencesoastounderstandwhy corruptioncould takeplace (at the timeof the real-estatebubble)”entailsthefollowingangles:1.Monocracy(localgovernanceruledbyonesingleparty),2.Lackofcheckandbalances,and3.Lackofuncouplingofincentivesbetweenelectedofficialsandtechnicalstaff.Issuesinoverallthat,albeittrue,solidanddecisive,belongtowhatScheincalls“artefacts” in theorganizationalcultureof townhalls (as formalinstitutions)aswellasthecomprisedterritories,physicalandculturalspaces.Andasfarasprivateagentsareconcerned,theyarecaricaturizedastheonesinchargeofputtingthemoney on (or under) the table since “theywere predisposed or inclined to getcorrupted”.HavingbeentheerstwhilePresidentW.WilsonorthephilosopherMaxWeberthefirstonesto“upholdwhatisanathemaformany:theseparationbetweenthepoliticalandadministrative spheres”, now is the right time to overcome another gap: the onedetachingthebusinessorganizationalunderlyingcauseandthepolitical-administrativethinkingandpractice.Thebookdoesnotechothenecessityforbothworldstointerminglingwitheachother,twologicsthatshouldsetasidetheirtraditionalmutualdistrustintheirinteractions.Anenvironmentofsuspicion,ifnotresentment,thatispalpablenotonlyintheuniversityarenabutalsointhecampus’outdoors.ForitisevidenttheprevailingdistrustbetweenprofessorsofFacultiesandschools,aswellasbetweenprivatesectorprofessionalsandthosedevotedtopoliticalactionandpublicoffice.Overcomingsuchenvironmentofmutualmistrust,bymeansofbuildinglongingbridgesbetweenthosetwobanks,excludingtheirnaturaldifferencesintheirrespectivevisionsand missions (public service and profit-oriented), is an endeavour that should beundertaken regardless of whether other more advanced countries are also or notengagedondealingwithit.Because regarding organizationalmodernization of public administrations –from thepoliticalpinnacletothecivilservicebaseline–,inordertomakeaU-turnandleadSpain

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towardsthequadrantwherecountriessuch as Denmark, New Zealand,SwitzerlandorFinlandareplaced,weshould, at the very least, avoid twohurdles: 1. Ignoring those countrieswhoareinthelead,wayaheadofus,and 2. Dampening our aspirations byonly finding inspiration in them. The

bookwinsgiftedlyoverthefirstone27,butfailsresoundinglytooutdothesecond.Insection“Corruption:fromcombattoprevention”advocatingfortheneedtobearinmind achieved improvements in other countries, a firm commitment is declared infavourofthe“samephilosophyasinmedicine:preventionisbetterthancure”.Againstthisbackground,Ifindmissingsomegenuinepreventivemeasures,inparticular,two.Iplacethefirstonestandingat thethresholdof institutions,bothpublicandprivateones.Itisaboutstaffselectionprocesses.Theauthorsofthepreviouslyquotedwork21onhowhumanbrainadaptstodishonestactionsforitsownbenefit,concludethattheirscientificfindings“mayhaveimplicationsforpolicymakersindesigningdeterrentstohaltdeceit”.Forinordertoapplyforajob,notonlyknowledge,butalsootherissues–asmuchormoreimportantones–shouldbeacknowledged,takenintoaccountandheldinhighregard28.Howdoesithappenthat,whilecorruptionremainsoneofourmostworryingissues,whenitcomestodecidingrecruitmentwithinanorganization,littleornoneattentionispaidtothismatter?As for the secondmeasure, I place it not at the threshold but at the very inside ofinstitutions.Forcorruptionenvisionedassymptomis,amongotherthings,afalloutoforganizationalmalpractices,thosebeing–asIhavebeenrepeatedlystressing-tokensofthebasicpresumptionslocatedatthecoreitselfoftheorganizationalculture.Inordertogetthegripswithcorruptionatitsroot,itiscriticaltosetfootinthedecision-makinglevel that is prior to actions, namely,where the potential offender prepares his/hercrime.Andoncethere,toapplytheABCofadministrationprinciplesandtechniques,rangingfromcollaborativeitemizingoftargetsandobjectives,totheagreedassignmentofactivitiestobeperformed,goingthroughthesettingofquantitativeandqualitativeindicators,thatwillallowandensurethemonitoringandcontrolofthesuggestedplans.Again,thisistheABC;somethingthatseemslikecomingfromadifferentworldsinceitisnothabituallypracticedinourworld.Theyare,afterall,fundamentalprinciplessoasto,ontheonehand,manageeffectivelyandefficientlyresourcesandachievethesetgoals,andontheother,toturnwordsintoactionintermsoftheongoingmodernizationofinstitutions.Bothmeasures(improvementofstaffselectionprocesses,inparticular,andbetteringofparticipationanddecisionmakingprocesses,ingeneral)aresubstantiallypreventive,since they grapple with corruption at its roots by considering it (in this case) as asymptomoforganizationaldysfunctions,andoverallofculturalones.Alongwiththem,I wholeheartedly endorse the preventive philosophy of the book. A collective workpositionedattheexactoppositeofthosewhofocuson“feverinsteadofinfection”,and

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henceprescribeanalgesicsinsteadofantibiotics,confiningthemselvestocatchingtheculprits without any prospect of fighting the battle at the offices where those areforged29.Asthetitleitselfreveals,“Transparencyandcorruptionprevention”,chapter6followsthesamepath–preventionisbetterthancure-andtherefore,itgrantstransparencyacorresponding“instrumentalnature”30,inwordsofprofessorJiménezAsensio.Thecallfora“transparencyculture”31,theunbiasedbriefing(bothpositiveandtobeimproveditems)onlegalregulationaswellasontheTransparencyPortal32,togetherwiththeoutlinedempirical results33aresomeof theclearsuccessesenclosed inthischapter.Yet,movingfurther,theusualandsharedconceptoftransparencythatechoesthiscollectiveworkdeserves,Ibelieve,thefollowingunfavourableremark.Transparencyshouldhavebeenintroducedwithinitscontext,conditionsorlimitationssince,bynotdoingit,itishardforthereadertoimagineituprightorinstandingposition.Muchlikethekiteremainingupintheairthanksto–andnotinspiteof–thethreadthatholds ittoground,so istheconceptof limitlesstransparency,thatendsuptumblingdown,sincesuchlimitlessnatureisneitherpossible,norcredibleordesirable.Besides,transparencyasantidotetocorruptionisneitherthebestremedy34norahelponsolvingproblemsarisingfromitsconceptualization,giventhefactthatthischapterplainlyembracesthenotionofaunidimensionalcorruption,exclusivelyplacedatthepublic-privateaxis.Theconceptandpracticeoftransparencyvindicatedinthisbookonlytakesintoaccounthalfoftheproblem,oneofthetwofacesofgodJanus:theonethatissolelylookingataccomplished facts or on their way to be committed. This raises the unavoidablequestion:whereisthetransparencyofintentions,oftheongoingimprovementplans,ofpubliccommitmenttoinnovateandenhanceinstitutionspermanently?Inanutshell,whereisthefuture?Transparencyisrequired,butwhenconfinedtosatisfyingcitizens’curiosityortoembarrassinginstitutionsforwhattheydoortheydidinthedark,thenandparadoxicallytransparencyconcealstherootofproblems35.When society blatantly deviates from the balance zone, future becomes highlyunpredictable.Andastrueissuchuncertaintyasisthisothertruth:futureisthefruitsofouractionsand,inturn,ouractionsarethefruitsofourpurposes.Whydowehidethem? Why don´t we make them public? Why don´t we commit ourselves tosystematicallyandperiodicallyrevealourintentionsandpurposesforbettermentofourinstitutions,toexplaintheareasandtheextentofwhatweaimtoachieve?Some features standout in the transparencydiscourse,and inparticular, in theonereferred to political parties’ transparency36, features that I deem relevant so to bementioned.Inshort,wearefacingaprimarilynormativistandauditingdiscourse.Normativismorthefar-fetchedtendencytosetrulesandregulationsistheubiquitousand inescapable spirit permeating the entire discourse of transparency. Expressions

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suchas“tobandonations/gifts,totypifycrimesoroffences,topublishmandatorilyorto control severely”, insteadof to ensure amore transparent future, cast downourhopesandprospectsoftransparency.Because, Iwould liketobringtotheforeonceagain,althoughrules,laws,regulationsareimperativeandindispensable,intheabsenceofmeasuresstemmingfromtheunderlyingcultureofinstitutions,theyarenothingbutbreadfortoday,hungerfortomorrow.For,asauthorsthemselvesexhortus,“ataintlessregulationfromthetechnicalstandpointdoesnotsecuretheadjustmentofpartiesanddonors’realbehaviourtoprinciplesofanethicfinancingpolicy.Whatevertheapplicablelawmaybe,partiesanddonorscanalwaysfindalternativechannelssotobypassitwithcompletedisregard”37,38.Likewise, it is noticeable the emphasis onmeasures that extensively reckon on theexistenceofexternalauthoritiestoorganizationswhosebehaviourissubjecttocontrol.Externalauthoritieswhichareholdingdifferentlevelofformalization,fromregulatoryagenciestoinitiativesderivedfromcivilsociety.Theseexternalauthoritiesaredevotedtoauditingthebehaviourofinstitutions,eitheruponlegalmandate,suchastheAuditCourt, or on their own decision, as is the case, for example, of TransparencyInternational. The first ones evaluate outcomes, mainly economical, having beenpublished by organizations, while the second ones carry out research, interviews,opinionpollsandsurveyssoastofindouttheopinionthatorganizationshaveaboutthemselvesondifferenttopics.Theybothapplycanons,guidelinesandstandards,eitherofficialorinternallydevelopedones,anddependingonthecorrelationbetweensuchstandardsandthedataprovidedorobtainedbytheauditedorganizations,theselatterwillturnupmoreorlessfavouredintheresultingphotograph.

All this is required; yet, only this,without further action, is just amechanism that ends upoverriding, or at least, notencouraging the “vital spur” toorganizations so as to ensure,sovereignly,ontheirowninitiative,the voluntary and unfalteringcommitment towards citizens tounabatedly evolve and steadily

improve39.Havingallthisinmind,itisworthponderingifprevailingassessmentson,forinstance, the level of transparency or electoral pledges against corruption40 aresomethingmorethanamereprescriptionsoastothwartchangesintheorganizationalcultureoftheconcernedinstitutions.Insum,thisisachieflynormativistandauditinglineofthinkingbasedupontwopillarsthat,inturn,deservetobe-evenifonlybriefly-mentioned,because,albeitself-evident,theyareofno lesser importance. I refertocredibilityofauditingauthoritiesandthe“massive will of citizens” on these issues. Whoever audits transparency must beunrelentingly transparent and self-critical to the point of exhaustion41,must leadbyexampleandshowinterestinandinquireontheopinionthatorganizationssubjecttoitsmonitoringmayhaveaboutitsworkingmethodsandprocesses.Andallthiswhile

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bearinginmindthatitsinitiativesshouldbealsounderpinnedbypublicopinion42,43,butnotexclusively.Inallthis,massmediaplayavitalandpivotalrole.Thisisobviousbutnotasmuchasitcouldbeinferredfromthechiefforce-idea,essentiallydescribedinchapters7and8,namely:thegreaterthequantityofinformationthatmediaaddresstocitizensis,thebetterthelatterwillassess(thatis,theywillrewardorpunish)thepartiesongroundsof their negligible or highly corrupt practices. For simply accepting this cause-effectrelationship implies muddling up information (provided by media) and education,ultimatelyculture,servingcitizenstointerpretit44.Furthermore,itisworthrecallingatthispointthatthereisnoshortageofinformation.Actually,notonlyontheinternet,butalsointhephysicalworld,weareincreasinglyinneedofassistanceofinformationexperts acting as “Sherpas, making us available the preselection, analysis andinterpretationguidelinesagainsttheoverwhelming,unceasing informationavalanchethatisfloodingus”45.Theclosingremarks46attheendofthechapterentitled“Politics,moneyandcorruption”givesmeagoodopportunityforsummarizingallsaiduntilhereinthefollowingterms.Toagreaterorlesserextent,thecollectedpointsbytheauthorsindicateatransparencyoffacts,primarilyineconomicterms,ratherthanatransparencyoffutureplanswithregardtoanongoinginstitutionalinnovation;theyrefermoretosupervisionmeasuresfromexternalagentsratherthanvoluntaryinitiativesonpubliccommitment;theyspeaktoomuchaboutsanctionsorpunishmentofperpetratedcrimesandtoolittleabouthowtothwartthematsource,andallthiseventuallyshroudedbyarathernormativistspiritinsteadofoneentrenchedinapainstakingdissectionofthewideassortmentofhumanmotivationsaswell as theorganizational cultureofour institutions.Anapproach, insum,likelytoleadustopresumeorconcludethatsuchhegemoniclineofthinkingontransparencymaywellbepanderingtothestatusquomaintenance.Spainisacountrythat,initsprocesstoleaveourtimeoftransitionbehind,isgenuinelystrivingtodevelopandconsolidateitsinstitutionsanddemocraticpractices.Thisisourcurrentchallenge:howtomakeprogressthroughthepathtowardstheclubofcountrieswith ‘olddemocraticandquitewell foundedgovernments’47notasanend,butasameanstocontinuepursuingtheultimateaim,whichisnootherthanagreatersocialequality. What is the role played by political institutions in this challenge? And bybureaucratic institutions?Howdoesthephenomenonofcorruption impingeonbothdomains?The collective work, whose review is nearing to completion, sets forth valuableproposals for both spheres, as a result of a comprehensive, intelligent, yet shallowstrategy.TherecommendationsthatIhavedaredtobringforwardaremainlyintendedto the bureaucraticmachinery, knowing for a fact that, as authors wisely recollect,“thereisnowordinthepoliticaldictionarylesssultrythanbureaucracy.Justnamingitboreseveryonetodeath”.Inanyevent,Ibelievethatcountriesfounderdueto,notonly,andevennotmainly,thefailureoftheirpolitical institutions,butalsoandchiefly,owingtothefailureoftheir

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bureaucratic institutions48. Such opinion, that enjoys the growing support fromacademicsaswellasfromwomenandmenofaction49,50,andthatIreckoninlinewiththeauthorsofCorruptioninSpain,shouldnotremainasemptyphrases.Theproposalsincludedinthisbookareactuallyanexcellentplanofaction.AndIovertlysupportthem,whileatthesametimeIhighlighttheneedforrefrainingourselvesfromouroldandproverbialevils:asacaseinpoint,entrustingeverythingtoinaugurations,wipingtheslateclean,startingalloverfromscratch.Forit isfarbettertoenduringlyimprovetheintelligenceofourbureaucraticsystems,ratherthantodedicateourselvestodevisingnewradicalsystems,howeverintelligentthesemightbe.Weknowhowandwhatfortotakeaction.Andalso,why:forallthat,because“realityislargelyruledbythefundamentalprincipleofimperfection”51. ___________________ 1Lapuente,V.(coord.),2016.LacorrupciónenEspaña.Unpaseoporelladooscurodelademocraciayelgobierno(CorruptioninSpain.Astrollthroughthedarksideofdemocracyandgovernment).AlianzaEditorial,Madrid,page.16.http://amzn.to/2e8rjIo.2Op.cit.,page111,“TheEUreportoncorruptionoutlinescorruptionas“abuseofpowerinordertoobtainprivategains”.3Op.cit.,page115,“Corruptionconsistsinthedenaturalizationofinstitutionalaimsinordertoserveindividuals’particularinterests(…)apathologicalwaytofulfilpublicservicepowers”.4Op.cit.,page148,“useofpublicofficeforprivatebenefit”5Op.cit.,page108.6Op.cit.,page168,“toleranceofthissortofscandalsattheballotboxes(couldpossibly)occurbecausecitizenshavealikingforthemorattheveryleasttheydon´tmindmuchaboutpoliticians’corruption,(…)especiallywhenitcomestosituationsinwhichcorruptiongivesrise,atleastintheshortrun,tobenefitsnotonlyforthepoliticianbutalsoforashareofvoters”.7Op.cit.,page193,“…inthosecasesinwhichcitizenscouldsomehowbenefitfromcorruptpractices,mayorssufferednovotingpunishment”.8Op.cit.,page115ff.9Op.cit.,page108.10Op.cit.,page16.11Op.cit.,page15“Corruptionactsasacancerthathampersthewell-functioningofinstitutions”.12Op.cit.,page16,“Corruptiontarnishespublicinstitutionsinmanyways”.13Op.cit.,graph1.1,page17,“Perniciousresultstiedtocorruption”:Badeconomy;Socialproblems;Poorerhealth;Unhappinessanddiscontent”.14Op.cit.,graph1.10,page34,“Inyoureyes,whatisthechiefproblemcurrentlyprevailinginSpain?”15Op.cit.,page62.16Estefanía,J.,2016.Henceforth,whatistobedone.“Pre-distributionisthesetofpoliciesthat,ratherthanfocusingonmitigatinginequality,strivesforproducinglessinequalityinadvance:itisabouthowtotackletheunderlyingcausesofindividualinequityandnotonlytointendtocurbitsconsequences”.ElPaís,Monday,October24th,2016http://bit.ly/2oLATET17Op.cit.,pages201-203.18Op.cit.,page26-32.19Op.cit.,page204.20PérezLópez,J.A.,1985,Humanmotivations,IESE.TechnicalnoteFHN-161.Lasted.Feb21st,2007.21Garret,N.etal,2016,pages1727-1735,Thebrainadaptstodishonesty.NatureNeuroscience,Vol19,Number12,December2016.Online:October24th,2016http://go.nature.com/2o3EDmi.Researchwork,resultedfromacollaborativeeffortbetweentheDepartmentofExperimentalPsychologyofUCL(UniversityCollegeofLondon)andtheFukuaSchoolofBusiness(DukeUniversity,NC,USA)whosemottoisRethinkingtheboundariesofbusinessschool.

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22Schein,E.H,1986,Organizationalcultureandleadership.Jossey-Basshttp://bit.ly/18xwWYC,SanFrancisco.EditioninSpanish:PlazayJanéshttp://bit.ly/2pgmqSE.Firstedition,January1988,Barcelona.“Ishallterm“culture”toabasicassumptionsmodel–invented,discovered,ordevelopedonesbyagivengroupastheylearnhowtoconfronttheirproblemsofexternaladaptationandinternalintegration-,thathavebroughttobearenoughinfluencesoastobeconsideredasvalidones,andconsequently,tobetaughttothenewmembersastherightwaytoperceive,thinkandfeelthoseproblems”(pages25-26;intheoriginaledition,pages8-9).Theinterestedreaderingraphicdepictionofsuchdefinitionmayfindofparticularvaluethe“Illustration1.Levelsofcultureandtheirinteraction”:Level1,artefactsandcreations;Level2,Values;Level3,underlyingbasicassumptions(page30;page14initsoriginaledition)23 Op. cit., page 94. “the conscience parties might have developed” is the only reference made toorganizationalcultureofpoliticalparties.24Op.cit.,pages57-58.Inthiscountry,therearenopublicemployeeswithanequivalentcivilservantstatustotheSpanishone,mostofthembeing“mostlyworkforceandsubjecttothesamesafeguardsanduncertaintiesthantheirprivatesectorcounterparts”.25Op.cit.,page58.26Op.cit.,page66ff.27Op.cit.,page202,“Onlybycomparingourselveswiththosecountries(withavirtuallynegligiblecorruption),wecanunderstandthenatureofourcorruptionproblemandhowtogettogripswithit”.28López-Medel,J.,2017.Criticalreflectiononjudges’selectionprocess.SpanishLawyersWeb,January12th,2017,http://bit.ly/2pCf2y3.29Gómez-Pallete,F.,2015.Avindicationforpoliticalaction.PrologueofVíctorSampedro.EpilogueofJoséLuisGonzálezQuirós.Ed.AssociationfortheDemocraticQualityandCulture.Charleston,SC,USA.http://amzn.to/2oOMgdy.30JiménezAsensio,R.2016,Introduction:Integrityandtransparency,imperativesofagoodgovernance.BlogTheinstitutionaloutlook,August2016http://bit.ly/2pCe9W7.31Op.cit.,page149.“Citizenseducationbecomescentralwhenitcomestothecultureoftransparency,sotheycanlearnfromchildhoodtoadequatelyvaluetheimportanceoftransparencyandhowperverse,notjustnegative,corruptionis”.32Op.cit.,page154-157.33Op.cit.,Table6.1.Evaluationofthetransparencylevelofpoliticalparties(page159)andTable6.2Evaluationoftheelectoralcommitmentlevelagainstcorruption(summary)(page160).34Op.cit.,“Transparencyisthebestantidoteagainstcorruption”,page148.Apartfromthefactthattheproverbialalert“mysubjectisthemostimportantoneofthedegree”-hardlyevercomesasagoodteachingstatement,predicatingitassuchisbarelyreconcilablewithacomprehensivestrategy,asisindeedthecaseofthestrategycharacterizingtheentirework.35AssociationfortheDemocraticQualityandCulture,2013.“Quality,rightlyunderstood(4).BlogoftheAssociation,August23rdhttp://bit.ly/1aikttP.36Op.cit.,page157-163.37Op.cit.,page104.38Op.cit.,page203.“Corruptentrepreneurs,bothfromtheprivateandpublicsector,swiftlyadapttonewgamerules”.39BBCCorporatePressOfficeRelease.Headline:“BBClaunchesanambitiousnewdiversityandinclusionstrategy”.Thecontentofthenoterevealswhy,howandwhatfortheBBC,theUnitedKingdompublicradio,televisionandinternetservice,hasvoluntaryandpubliclycommittedtoimprovethepresence(withintheoverallstaff,leadershippositionsandamongstradioandtelevisionhosts)ofdifferentcollectivesandsocialgroups(women,handicapped,blackandAsiaticpeople,andLGTB)towhichdegree(%),andaccordingtowhichdeadlines(2017and2018goals).Thisisprobablyoneofthebestandmostrecentcasesofinstitutionalimprovementinthebureaucraticsphereofapublicbody.AcasehoweverthathasgonepracticallyignoredinSpain.BBC.com,MediaCentre,LatestNews,Lastupdated:April28th,2016.http://bbc.in/1UiLQaJ.LastqueryonWednesday,January18th,2017,12:29.40Op.cit.,Tables6.1.and6.2.,page159-160.41SabadellCityCouncilhasbeenevenawardedontwooccasionsforits“transparency”.ABC,November27th,2012http://bit.ly/1vIODsf.42Op.cit.,page161

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43LizcanoÁlvarez,J.,2017.Pendingissuesoncorruption.“Partiesareblatantlyignoringtheundisputablepeopledeterminationtohavethemdevotedtocombatabusivebehavioursonaconsensualbasis”.ElPaís,Friday,January13th,2017http://bit.ly/2jp6Z4u.44Op.cit.,page185,Informationoncorruptionmatterstovotingresults.Outofthesixfactorsweighingforacorruptionscandaltohaveanelectoralimpact,onlythefirstoneofthemisrelatedtotheinformationavailability:(i)thatcitizenshavefullknowledgeoffacts,(ii)thatcitizensnegativelyassessthosefacts,(iii)thatcitizensareabletoassignresponsibilities,(iv)thattheyperceivescandalassomethingofutmostimportance,(v)thattheyenvisageanalternativeand(vi)thattheirattitudesandbehaviorarecoherent.45Amiguet,L.,2017.InterviewtoMoisésNaïm.Backcover.LaVanguardia,January14th,2017http://bit.ly/2jMdRrU.46Op.cit.,pages102-104.47Dahl,R.A.,2012.OnDemocracy.PrologueofFernandoVallespín.Planeta,Barcelona.Page2.http://bit.ly/2pCgrob.48Jiménez,D.,2015.Theingenuous(andpending)revolutionofpolitics.NoticiasPositivas,June3rd,2015.Interviewreplicatedintheblog“The4thpowerinthenet”,Publico.es,June4th,2015.http://bit.ly/2osjFbX.49Innerarity,D.,2017.Outlastingbadgoverningclass.ElPaís,WednesdayJanuary4th,2017http://bit.ly/2iAS3Ad.50JiménezAsensio,R.2016.Thecurbsofpower.MarcialPons.Madridhttp://bit.ly/2aXSFAO.51Gomá,J.2016.“Utopia”letjusticeberendered,lettheworldcavein.ABCculturalsupplement,November26th,2016http://bit.ly/2gBPwnJ.