costeluta stan

31
Universitatea “Dunărea de Jos” din Gala ți Facultatea de Litere Specializarea: Limba și literatura română – Limba și literatura engleză Curs op țional de limbă engleză Conf.dr. Steluța Stan Anul II, Semestrul II D.I.D.F.R.

Upload: alexandra-petrea

Post on 08-Apr-2016

21 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

DESCRIPTION

engleza

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: COSteluta Stan

Universitatea “Dunărea de Jos”din Galați

Facultatea de Litere

Specializarea:Limba și literatura română – Limba și literatura engleză

Curs opțional delimbă engleză

Conf.dr. Steluța Stan

Anul II, Semestrul II

D.I.D.F.R.

Page 2: COSteluta Stan

UDJGFaculty of Letters

Non-finite Formsof the English Verb

(An Elective Course in English Languagefor 2nd year students)

Course tutor:Associate Professor Steluta Stan, PhD

Galați2011

Page 3: COSteluta Stan

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 3

Contents

Introduction. Finite/Non-finite 4

Chapter 1. The Infinitive 5

Chapter 2. The –ing Form 18

Chapter 3. The –ing Participle 22

Chapter 4. The –ed Participle 26

Applications 29

Page 4: COSteluta Stan

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 4

Introduction. FINITE/ NON-FINITE

The forms of the English verb (the base form, the –s form, the –ing form, the–ed/en form) and the phrases they are part of are usually classified into twobroad types, based on the kind of contrast in meaning they express.

The notion of finiteness is the traditional way of classifying thedifferences. This term suggests that verbs can be ‘limited’ in some way, andthis is in fact what happens when different kinds of endings are attached tothem.

The finite forms are those which limit the verb to a particular number,tense, person, or mood. If there is a series of verbs in the verb phrase, thefinite verb is always the first, as in I was being given.

The non-finite forms (infinitive, gerund, participles) do not limit the verb inthis way. For example, when the –ing form is used, the verb can be referringto any number, tense, person, or mood, as in Seeing what happened,I/you/he…called for the police.

As the examples show, a nonfinite form stays the same in a clause,regardless of the grammatical variation taking place around it.

Page 5: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 5

Chapter 1: THE INFINITIVE

It expresses an action or a state in its general sense, without any strict reference to person,number or mood, and is considered the first basic form of a verb. The infinitive has two mainforms:

- the to-/long infinitive, and- the short/bare/plain infinitive.

*The Split InfinitiveGrammarians have identified and described a class of auxiliary adverbs, such as almost,already, always, ever, just, merely, still, utterly, etc.; they appear in front of the main verb (ifthere is no auxiliary), or after the first auxiliary (when there is one or more than one auxiliaries inthe sentence):

He still loves the Chinese civilization. You can always say that. They have already beenworking for five hours.

Things are similar in the infinitive clause/phrase. If there is no auxiliary, the adverb appears infront of TO, or between TO and the verb. The latter is called the split infinitive (infinitiv cuadverb intercalat), which, though frowned upon by conservative grammarians, is gaining groundin contemporary English. The construction is mainly used when the speaker/ writer wants tostress the action/ state expressed by the infinitive, or to avoid more ambiguous or obscureconstructions.

I want you to clearly understand that I won’t tolerate such a behaviour any longer. It isfoolish to even think of such a solution.

1.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFINITIVEIt combines the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun, with the latter’s typical syntacticfunctions.

1.1.1. Verb characteristics of the infinitivea) it has grammatical categories specific to a verb, i.e. voice, tense, aspect;b) it can combine with auxiliaries or modals to form different types of predicates;c) it may have modifiers as any other predicative mood.

a) Grammatical categories of the infinitive

VOICE/TENSE

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICEindef. aspect progr.aspect indef. aspect progr.aspect

present to take to be taking to be taken to be beingtaken

perfect to have taken to have beentaking

to have beentaken

to have beenbeing taken

Page 6: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 6

The forms of the infinitive in the passive voice, progressive aspect, are hardly ever used.

Generally speaking, depending on the context, the present tense of the verbals/non-finitesindicates time simultaneous or future with reference to the time expressed by the main verb.This also applies to the infinitive.

I’m trying to understand you. (simultaneous in the present)He invited me to come in. (simultaneous in the past)They will ask you to make a contribution to the project. (simultaneous inthe future)

The perfect indefinite infinitive expresses time prior to that of the main verb, so the relationshipbetween the two is one of anteriority. It indicates actions completed before a certain moment oraction in the past, present or future.

- anteriority to a present action: I am really glad to have put an end to this story.- anteriority to a past action: He proved to have read the whole novel.- anteriority to a future action: When I wake up I’ll be happy to have forgotten this nightmare.

Note that when the perfect indefinite infinitive follows:

- a present modal verb, it expresses a past action:

She must have felt really lonely in London if she came back so soon. They may have told meabout it, but I’ve forgotten.

- a past modal verb, it expresses an action that did not take place:

You could have told me about it, (but you didn’t). You should have accepted the offer; it’s apity you didn’t.

b) The infinitive as part of different types of predicates

simple verb predicates (different auxiliaries and an infinitive)

Did you watch the football match yesterday? He will tell you the whole story.

modal/aspectual compound verbal predicates

Jane could climb trees when she was a child.You ought to have helped them.They continued to talk for two more hours.Look! It’s just beginning to rain.

Note that aspectual verbs are frequently followed by the gerund in spoken English, but not whenthey are in the progressive aspect; in this case, the infinitive is preferred to avoid the annoyingrepetition of –ing forms.

As part of a predicate, the infinitive can have different types of objects or modifiers: D(irect) O(bject): I am delighted to see you again. I(ndirect) O(bject): I told you to give him the telegramme.

Page 7: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 7

Adverbial Modifier Of Time: I promised to be back in a few days. Adverbial Modifier Of Place: I don’t think they used to live here. Adverbial Modifier Of Manner: Sheila asked me to walk faster.

1.1.2. Noun characteristics of the infinitiveThe I(nfinitive) P(hrase) is often the subject of a sentence, especially when the subjectcomplement is also an infinitive:

To know her is to love her.To know all is to forgive all.Not to have invited them would have offended them.To speak English fluently is difficult for undergraduates.

As a subject, the infinitive alternates with the gerund. It is impossible to formulate hard-and-fastrules of choice between the two forms, but it is often suggested that the gerund is of a moregeneral, abstract, character than the infinitive, which refers to something restricted to aparticular moment.

In a sentence, the infinitive can have the syntactic functions of a noun:

1) subject:

To drink a cup of coffee in the morning is very refreshing.To forget is more than natural.

Note that in current speech, it is more frequent to anticipate the subject expressed by aninfinitive with anticipatory/preparatory IT, or replace it by gerunds or verbal nouns:

It is very refreshing to drink a cup of coffee in the morning.It seems strange to me to take everything for granted.It takes patience to get used to living with someone.It doesn’t cost anything to be polite.

Note that if the infinitive has a subject of its own, that one is usually introduced by for:

It’s difficult for me to find a solution to this problem.

2) attribute, when the infinitive determines a noun or an indefinite pronoun, following them as apostmodifier:

She is not the woman to forget that.There is nothing to be done in this matter.He doubted my ability to do it.

The infinitive may also postmodify nouns denoting time, place and manner:

I had no time to do it.It will take some time to complete.It’s a nice place to live in.Is this the best way to do it?

Page 8: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 8

The infinitive often retains the preposition used in the construction V+O:

He is not a man to trifle with.There is nothing to worry about.

3) subject complement, when the infinitive follows a link verb, especially to be:

To sympathize is to understand.The most important thing is for us to reach an agreement before the deadline.

4) prepositional object, when the infinitive construction starts out as a prepositional objectafter certain verbs and adjectives:

apply for, bother about, care for, consent to, fail in, hesitate about, insist on, long for, persistin, plead for, proceed with, etc.; able, afraid, angry, anxious, careful, certain, concerned,content, eager, fit, glad, pleased, prepared, proud, ready, sorry, welcome, willing, etc.

Note that the preposition of the verb is omitted if it immediately precedes the infinitiveclause/phrase:

What we decided on was for him to speak on our behalf.(but: We decided for him to speak on our behalf).Don’t trouble to look for my glasses.

5) direct object. Infinitives often function as DOs with simple transitive verbs (arrange, attempt,decline, endeavour, learn, manage, omit, refuse), with verbs of liking/disliking and intention(desire, dislike, expect, hate, intend, like, mean, prefer, want, wish), with verbs of mentalperception, with verbs of linguistic communication (ask, claim, conclude, threaten).Some of the verbs followed by an infinitive as direct object can also be followed by a THATclause:

He claimed to be an expert in such matters. He claimed that he was an expert in suchmatters.

Note that we distinguish between groups of verbs that can have as object only an infinitive,only a gerund, both an infinitive and a gerund, with/without changes in meaning (see the sub-chapter “Gerund/ Infinitive”)

6) adverbial modifier of purpose. The idea of purpose may be emphasized by in order or soas:

We went to the hospital to make sure she was all right.He opened the door for her to go out.

Page 9: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 9

1.2. GERUND vs. INFINITIVEAs already mentioned above, some verbs may be used with both the infinitive and thegerund, sometimes depending on the meaning to be expressed.

a) after the following verbs, either the infinitive or the gerund may be used without anydifference in meaning:

begin, start, continue, cease

+ infinitive = involuntary action+ gerund = deliberate action

He started/began speaking when he saw me.He started to speak louder without even realizing it.Due to the thick fog, the planes ceased/stopped taking off.The British Empire ceased to exist.

Note that verbs of knowing/understanding are followed by an infinitive.

- when BEGIN/START are used in the continuous tenses, the infinitive is preferred toavoid the repetition of –ing forms;

- SET ABOUT (=begin) + gerundAs soon as the floods went down, we set about repairing the damage.

- START OUT (=take steps as intending) + infinitiveHe started out to write another novel.

attempt, intend, can’t bear + infinitive (more usual)The prisoners attempted to escape but failed.What do you intend to do today?

need, want (=need), require + gerund (much more frequent in spoken English)/ +to be –en/V3My shoes need mending/to be mended.

advise, allow, permit, recommend + infinitive (if the person concerned ismentioned)/ + gerund (if the person concerned is not mentioned)Please allow me to introduce myself.He does not allow smoking/He does not allow you to smoke.

b) after verbs expressing like/ dislike and preference, the gerund is used for generalstatements, whereas the infinitive is preferred in statements about a particular situation.

He likes jogging in the morning.He doesn’t like to jog today, on such a cold weather.

*like + infinitive (= think wise/right); like + gerund (= enjoy)I like to go to the dentist twice a year (I think it’s wise); that doesn’t mean I like doing it (Ienjoy it).**like + infinitive (=perfective action); like + gerund (=imperfective action)He likes to smoke a cigarette and then go for a walk.

Page 10: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 10

He likes smoking a cigarette by the fireplace.***like + infinitive (=refers to the subject of the sentence); like + gerund (= may also referto some other agent)I don’t like to trifle with serious matters (myself).I don’t like trifling with serious matters (either myself or when somebody else does it)

c) the following verbs have different meanings, according to whether they take an infinitiveor a gerund:

remember, regret + infinitive – refers to the future;+ gerund - refers to the past.

I must remember to buy some food.I remember seeing her when she was a child.I regret to say that I have no news for you.I regret not having seen this film.

forget + infinitive = fail to remember;+ gerund = lose the memory of.

I forgot to post those letters you gave me.I forgot posting them. (I did it, but did not remember that I did it.)

stop + infinitive = halt;+ gerund = cease.

We stopped talking because we realized that bothered the others.We stopped to talk since we hadn’t seen each other for a very long time.

mean + infinitive = intend/have in view;+ gerund = involve/have as a consequence.

I didn’t mean to offend Jane; that was not my intention.I won’t give up this idea even it means waiting my whole life.

try +infinitive = make an attempt;+ gerund = test/make an experiment.

Try to answer/Try and answer all the questions if you want to score high.Have you ever tried driving in Bucharest during the rush hours?

go on + infinitive = do/say next, proceed;+ gerund = continue.

He went on to talk about the influence of the media in Romania(the subject was introduced for the first time).He went on talking about the influence of the media in Romania(he continued doing the same thing, i.e. talking about the influence…).

Page 11: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 11

1.3. USES OF THE SHORT INFINITIVEa) in combination with auxiliary verbs to form compound tenses (the interrogative and negative

of the present, past and future tenses, the indicative, conditional, subjunctive and imperativemoods):Do you understand what I’m saying?He would leave sooner if he could find tickets.They will be waiting for you as long as it’s needed.

b) after modal verbs, with the exception of those followed by a to-infinitive (be to, ought to haveto). Note that when DARE and NEED are used as regular verbs, they will take a to-infinitive.Under the circumstances, he should do as he is told.The project could be worked out in a specialized institute.He wouldn’t dare (to) say so to my face (but He dared me to tell him the truth).You need not worry so much, everything will be just fine (but I need to go now).

c) after the verb to bid (bade-bidden/bid), but only with the simple forms, not with thecompound ones, or with such verbs as forbid, followed by the long infinitive.His parents bade him find a job as their financial situation was rather difficult.He has not bid us to start work yet.He says the new law forbids us to smoke in public areas.

d) after the verbs TO LET and TO HELP, the latter one in spoken English not in WrittenEnglish.The children wouldn’t let me go.Would you help me find a reliable traveling agency?

e) after the verbs to make and to have, when they act as causatives, and are in the activevoice.The news made her cry for joy.I promise I’ll have him answer for his carelessness.

f) after verbs expressing physical perception, such as feel, hear, see, observe, perceive,watch.I felt him start when his name was uttered.You heard her speak on the subject.She saw him come earlier.

Note that the passive voice of the verbs in c), d), e), f) is followed by the to-infinitive.She was heard to call your name, so she must have needed you badly.I was never made to do something I didn’t want to.Note also that this infinitive is part of a complex subject (the infinitival construction thenominative with the infinitive), having the syntactic function of subject complement.

g) after such modal expressions as had better/best/rather/sooner, would rather/sooner,better/rather/sooner/more than, cannot but, do nothing but.She would rather stay in tonight, cause she doesn’t feel like going out.I had better go now, it’s getting late and the streets are not secure.He would sooner speak than do something.Rather than suffer, I would tell him how I feel.

Page 12: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 12

1.4. USES OF THE LONG INFINITIVEa) after the modal verbs ought, have, be, and also after such modal expressions as be(un)able/anxious/bound

The letter ought to reach them within a fortnight. I am really anxious to learn the truth if youwill tell it to me. To my mind she is bound to succeed in her attempt.

b) after nouns, such as pity, folly, madness, time, mistakeIt would be sheer madness to give up everything you have and just leave.- adjectives, such as (un)usual, difficult, easy, necessary, safe.

You must admit openly that it is not so easy to part from someone you love.- certain verbs, as require, take, need (when used as a regular verb)

I think you should all know it will take us a lot of time and energy to set things right again.

Note that the IP is introduced by preparatory/anticipatory IT, and has the syntactic function of asubject.

c) after nouns, such as man, person, girl, womanShe just is not the woman to act on the spur of the moment.- ordinal numbers: first, second, lastEven if you find it hard to believe, I was the first to reach the top of the mountain.- adjectives in the superlativeAs far as we know, dr. Hill is the first to (have) performed such an operation.

d) after intransitive verbs, such as care, hesitate, trouble, come, proceed, botherI must admit I just hesitated to take a definite decision on the matter at issue.Nobody bothered to ask me what I wanted.- transitive verbs, such as remind/assist/condemn somebody, want, learn, offer, refuse,

decideWe assisted him to get the job done.They couldn’t refuse to participate in the conference.

e) after some transitive/ intransitive verbs, when the infinitive may also be introduced by inorder, so as

We stopped in order/so as to take a little rest.f) in correlation with too…, enough…, so…as

She is too angry to admit she was wrong.To my disappointment, he was not wise enough not to go there again looking for trouble.Would you be so kind as to help me with this?

g) in parenthetical/incidental constructions, having no syntactic relation with the rest of thesentence: so to say/speak, to speak/tell the truth, to be honest/more precise, to put it bluntly

To put it bluntly, I don’t trust him any more than you do.It was, to say the least, very careless of him.

h) in special complex constructions, called infinitive/infinitival constructions, theNominative with the infinitive, the Accusative with the infinitive, the infinitive with for-to, all ofwhich are to be dealt with in the following chapter.

Page 13: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 13

1.5. INFINITIVE/INFINITIVAL CONSTRUCTIONSThese constructions are considered to be of a predicative type and represent combinationsbetween a nominal element (noun/ pronoun in the N/Acc) and a verbal element (a verb in theinfinitive).

The relationship between the two elements is of a predicative type because the infinitivefunctions as the logical predicate of the nominal element, having a close semantic link with thisone.

This predicative character is obvious when these constructions are turned into fullsentences, the subjects of which are the nominal elements.

We consider Alice to be a devoted friend = We consider that Alice is a devoted friend.

Though the two sentences are taken as equivalent, cognitive linguistics would distinguishsemantic differences in their meanings, saying that the first one would mean “We know thisbecause there was an instance when she proved it”, while the latter “Since other people say sheis a devoted friend, we also think she is”.

In other words, the first statement is made from first-hand experience, being more personaland assuming responsibility for its truth, whereas the latter has as its source second-handexperience.

1.5.1. The Accusative with the InfinitiveAs its very name suggests, it is a combination between a noun/ pronoun in the accusative and along/ short infinitive, the latter being, as already mentioned, in a predicative relationship with theformer.

The nominal element has a twofold quality: it is the grammatical object of the finite verb andhas the force of a subject for the verbal/the infinitive, although it cannot formally limit this one.

On a syntactic level, the construction performs the function of an object complement,according to some grammarians, or complex object, according to some others, Levitchiincluded. Note that the choice between a long and a short infinitive depends on the verbpreceding it.

CASES OF USE

The Accusative is used:

A. with the short infinitive:

1. after verbs of physical perception see, hear, feel, notice, observe, perceive, watch, look at,listen to

Somebody may have noticed him leave the house.Just watch me do it if you don’t believe me.I stood still and listened to the rain patter on the leaves.

Note that:- when the verbs see, hear and feel indicate mental, not physical perception, they cannot befollowed by an accusative with an infinitive; instead, they take an object/that-clause:

I hear (that) you have given up being so arrogant.I see (that) you do not understand.I felt (that) she utterly disliked me.

- In the passive voice, these verbs are followed by the long infinitive:He was noticed to sneak out of the room.

Page 14: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 14

The verbs mentioned above can also take a present participle to indicate an action in progressand not (as is the case with the infinitive) an already completed action:

He was noticed sneaking out of the room.

2. after the causatives let, make, haveDon’t let him start without us.You shouldn’t let slip/pass/go/fly such an opportunity.He simply made me do it.I have to tell you that we have to make do with second-hand information.Finally, the prosecutor had him confess.I won’t have you say such things in front of my children.I had an extraordinary thing happen to me.

3. after the verbs know (in the past and perfect tenses), bid, help (Br.E).I don’t think I have ever known (seen) him (to) smile.He bade them leave the room.I helped them (to) take the necessary steps.

B. with the long infinitive:

1. after verbs expressing intention, desire, will: want, wish/desire, hate, mean (=intend), choose,expect, forbid, demand

I want him never to show his face again.

2. after declarative verbs, such as: declare, admit, report, announce, state, confess, pronounce,reckon.

The jury pronounced the defendant (to be) not guilty.

3. after verbs expressing emotions and feelings: (dis)like, prefer, can’t bear.I strongly dislike him to drive so fast.

4. after verbs expressing a request/demand: ask, demand/request, urge, invite, beg.They simply begged him to reconsider his position.

5. after exercitive verbs expressing an obligation, an order or permission: oblige, order,command, warn, allow/permit.

The police officer ordered the injured people to be taken to hospital immediately.

6. after causative verbs other than the ones previously mentioned: get, cause, determine, force,compel, instruct.

I hope someone will force him to take his pills as he needs them badly. What got you todelay the departure?

7. after verbs expressing mental activities: know, understand, consider/think, believe, suppose,imagine.

I’ve always believed her to be weird.

Note that in spoken English such verbs are followed by object/that-clauses:I’ve always believed that she is weird.

8. after some prepositional verbs: call/count/depend/rely on/upon, hope/wait for.Don’t count on me to find a solution to your problems.

Page 15: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 15

1.5.2. The Nominative with the InfinitiveIn the sentence His son is said to be a good student, the relationship between his son and theIP to be a good student, is that between a logical subject and a logical predicate. As in the caseof the ACC. with the INF., its elements are in a predicative relation. On a syntactic level, theinfinitive performs the function of subject complement.

As a subject complement, the infinitive alternates with the gerund in sentences like:My intention was not to hurt him.To know the truth is to take action.

On the other hand, it may be the passive counterpart of the active construction the ACC. withthe INF. Consequently, it can follow the passive form of most of the verbs used in the ACC. withthe INF., with the exception of those expressing intention/desire which cannot be used inpassive constructions (want, wish etc.).

So, the nominative with the infinitive can be used in the passive voice after:

1. verbs of physical perception (see, hear, listen, observe, notice etc.);2. causative verbs (cause, have, make, get, compel, drive, encourage, oblige, prompt, leadetc.);3. declarative verbs (say, tell, declare etc.). Note that the verbs to say and to certify can beused only in the nominative with the infinitive);4. verbs expressing mental activities (fancy, imagine, know, believe, suppose, think, consideretc.);5. verbs of order, permission, request (allow, permit, authorize, command, summon,recommend, request, require etc.) .

Besides these categories of verbs that can also be followed by an acc. with the inf., thenominative with the infinitive occurs in the active voice with:a) some intransitive verbs such as: happen, chance, prove, turn out, appear, seem:

He happens to come this very afternoon.She seemed to have understood my position, didn’t she?

Note that in spoken English, a subject-clause usually replaces the construction: It happens thathe comes this …. It seemed that she had understood …)b) the link/copula verb to be followed by adjectives like certain, sure, (un)likely:

He is sure to be late as usual.Are they likely to be working so late?

1.5.3. The For-To Infinitive

A for-to construction is called for if the subject of the subordinate clause is distinct from thesubject of the main clause. The relationship between the elements is also of the implicitpredicative type.

Unlike the other two infinitival constructions, the for-to infinitive can perform severalsyntactic functions that will be further specified. The construction is used:

a) in impersonal patterns (the so called introductory/anticipatory IT + be/seem/appear), aftersuch evaluative adjectives like: easy, (im)possible, good, advisable, (un)necessary,useless/useful, difficult, imperative, urgent, or evaluative nouns like: a(n)pleasure/great/joy/pity/insult/pain in the …

It seems/is/appears rather difficult for him to find another job.

Page 16: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 16

It’s a great joy for all of us to get together on such an occasion.

Notes:

since normative/prescriptive judgment is at stake with such adjectives/ nouns, the for-toconstruction is roughly equivalent to a subjunctive clause:

It is necessary for prices to go down to prevent the collapse of economy.It is necessary that prices (should) go down…

these patterns are intended for a certain thing/ person; nevertheless, they can have ageneral/indefinite application when the for+noun/pronoun are omitted:

It’s impossible to make him see things right.

other frequent colloquial noun phrases used with this construction are: any/no/not much/littleuse, any/no good, the fashion, good/bad taste, high time. the following patterns are also intended to apply to a certain person/thing: adjectives. (bold,hard, considerate, generous, (un)kind, decent, (im)polite, rude, silly, wise, wrong, …) + ofsomebody to do something or somebody is adjective to do something:

It is wise of him to co-operate with this company.He is wise to…

the of constructions can be transformed into an exclamation:

How wise (it is) of him to co-operate …

b) After certain indefinite pronouns:

There is nothing for us to do here. There was nowhere for her to go.

c) After some transitive or prepositional verbs, which accept both the for-to infinitive and a for-prepositional object or a prepositional object introduced by a different preposition: wait, long,consent, beg, vote, be happy, provide:

I would be surprised/happy for him to win the contest.

Syntactic Functions:

subject anticipated by meaningless/dummy it, having a subject complement expressed byan adjective or a noun; the infinitive here is a noun modifier or modifier of an adjective:

It is easy for you to make such an allegation.It was the proper time for her to start taking action.

adverbial modifier of purpose, of manner (where the infinitive functions as modifier of anadjective), of result:

We stepped back for the chairman to enter the room.I am anxious for my friend to meet them.The sentence was too difficult for them to translate.

Page 17: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 1: The Infinitive

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 17

Are they upon such good terms as for her to disclose the uncomfortable truth?

attribute, where the infinitive is a noun modifier:

Here are some clues for you to use in solving the case.There are some letters for you to sign before you leave.

Additional Notes on the Infinitive

1. agreement of the infinitive: the incorrect agreement of the infinitive with a certain subjectis a rather frequent error:

To write well, a thorough knowledge of grammar is necessary.To be always happy, a sense of humour is essential.

This incorrect construction is known as a dangling infinitive and the above sentences shouldbe rephrased as:

To write well, one should have a …/ A thorough knowledge of grammar is necessary if wewant to write well.

2. anaphoric TO: verbs, nouns and adjectives that may take an infinitive with TO, may alsobe followed by TO without an infinitive, to refer to a preceding verb/verb group:Don’t go there alone unless you simply have to.

Sometimes TO may be dropped, but when it appears, it makes reference to the precedingverb/verb group more explicit. After some verbs it cannot be omitted without a change inmeaning:

Go if you want to!I don’t care (to).

This is known as the implicit infinitive. If the infinitive is be/have we usually keep it:

Isn’t he the leader here? No, and he doesn’t want to be!

Page 18: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 2: The –ing form

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 18

Chapter 2. THE -ING FORM

The –ING form is a very complex matter in the English language. There are quite many wordsending in –ing, but they can be classified according to the different syntactic functions theyperform, or according to the determiners and modifiers they can dispose of. Consequently, wedistinguish:

a) –ING words with an independent value, words that detached long ago from a possible verbal origin:

everything, sibling, pudding.

b) Words having a verbal origin, which have developed into parts of speech with an independent status,

with no verb functions and which can be: verbal nouns or verbal adjectives.

VERBAL NOUNS

As verbal nouns, these –ING forms:

a) may have a definite/indefinite/zero article preceding them:This period might be considered the beginning of a new era.Crying doesn’t help anyone.

b) may be determined by different types of adjectives (possessive, demonstrative, qualifying):Our missing the plane was most embarrassing. This reading is not fit for your age.Her unexpected coming was a great surprise for everybody.

c) may take their own object:The reading of this novel does not mean too much for me.

d) may have plural forms:His unexpected comings and goings madden me.Her writings are widely appreciated.

e) may perform the syntactic functions of a noun (subject, subject complement, attribute,object):

Living and dying are individual experiences. Drinking is a social disease.Touching is seeing with your fingers. The pleasure of meeting new people is a hobby I cannotgive up so easily. We pray hoping for the backing of God.One can achieve almost anything through training and learning.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES

They have a verbal origin and behave as true adjectives, i.e. they express a quality, are pre-modifiers to a noun and have the syntactic function of an attribute:

His amazing appearance took us by surprise. Everybody was greatly surprised by thisastonishing news.

Page 19: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 2: The –ing form

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 19

AS GERUND

It is translated into Romanian as GERUNDIV, due to its different characteristics from those ofthe Romanian GERUNZIU.From a formal point of view, the gerund and the present participle are alike, hence their beingoften mistaken one for the other. The gerund has both verb and noun characteristics. This canbe clearly pointed out by the determiners and modifiers it can have, as well as the syntacticfunctions it can perform in the sentence.

1. Verb characteristics:

- it has different forms for tense and voice:As a child, I was very fond of mountaineering. They are very proud of having succeeded in

getting working visas. I don’t mind being seen with her. At that stage of negotiation, their offerwas far from having been rejected.

Mark that the indefinite gerund can express:

- an action (present, past or future) simultaneous with the action of the predicative verb in thesentence:We all objected to his leaving a wife and two kids.

- an action previous to the one expressed by such main verbs as THANK, EXCUSE, FORGIVE,or after such prepositions as WITHOUT, ON, UPON. Note that these situations may also berendered by the perfect gerund:I apologize for being late. To our surprise, he left without saying goodbye.

- an action following the one expressed by verbs like RELY ON, COUNT ON/UPON, INTEND,INSIST, or after the preposition BEFORE:

I rely on his arriving here pretty soon. She intends going there tomorrow.Before accepting the new job, I had a two month holiday.

Another important verb characteristic of the gerund is that it can have:- a (logical) subject: Do you mind her leaving now?- a direct object (when the verb is transitive): I hate telling the same thing over and over again.- an indirect object: After giving/having given me the book, he went home.- an adverbial modifier of place, of time, of manner: What about going there this summer? Do

you mind my coming earlier? He seems incapable of driving carefully when he is tired.

2. Noun characteristics:

- the gerund may be determined by an adjective or a noun in the possessive case:She insisted on my telling her everything I knew. He offered him a night’s lodging.

- it may be preceded by a preposition:After reaching the office, he realized he had forgotten his keys at home.I am really tired of listening to nonsense. That goes without saying.

* Note that TO may be followed by a gerund when it is a preposition, not the infinitive marker:I’m looking forward to seeing you. She is used to sleeping on the couch.There is no objection to your working in this department.

Page 20: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 2: The –ing form

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 20

The prepositions EXCEPT, BUT, THAN (the last two only when they have the same meaning asthe first one), may also be followed by an infinitive:She does nothing except/but/than sing(ing) all day.

- it may perform the syntactic function of subject, direct object (after AVOID, ENJOY, FANCY,FINISH, CONSIDER, TRY, DELAY/POSTPONE), adverbial modifier of time, cause,purpose, manner, part of a prepositional object, attribute or part of a prepositional attribute,functioning as a noun modifier:

Watching T.V. is fun, but also a terrible waste of time. Avoid interfering in other people’sbusinesses. His essay is worth reading. On hearing the news, he left. She apologized forstarting the experiment without me. We started at dawn intending to reach the chalet beforedark. I will go on by pointing out the second aspect of the matter. She aims at getting the goldmedal in the Olympics. It’s a pity to miss the opportunity of hearing this violinist.

CASES OF USE

The indefinite gerund is used: after certain prepositions: after, through, before, by, for, from, on, with, like, to, in, without.

I raised the necessary amount of money by selling my house in Brasov.

after nouns followed by a preposition:He seems to have lost interest in writing poetry. I have no objection to listening to your storyagain. They clearly showed their disappointment at finding out that they had been lied to. Hecouldn’t give any reason for his being so rude the other day.Don’t miss the opportunity of joining our trip.

after adjectives with preposition:I’m very anxious about inviting him here as soon as possible. When he was younger he wasvery good at wrestling. Every time I look for him, he is busy working in his beloved garden.

after verbs with preposition or adverbial particle:Don’t you ever laugh at somebody’s being in a trouble.Now seems to be a good time to conclude by saying that…

after verbs expressing mental activities (verbs of mental cognition): understand, forget,remember, recollect, imagine, fancy, mind.

after verbs of emotion/feeling: like, love, prefer, regret, hate, etc.

* Note that- the gerund is used for general statements, the infinitive for statements about a particularoccasion: I like skating, but I don’t like to skate today, on such a cold weather.- the infinitive expresses a perfective action, the gerund an imperfective one:He likes to smoke a cigarette and then go for a walk. He likes smoking a cigarette by thefireplace.- the infinitive often refers to the subject of the sentence, the gerund may also refer to some

other agent:

I don’t like to trifle with serious things (myself). I don’t like trifling with serious things (eithermyself or someone else).

Page 21: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 2: The –ing form

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 21

after such phrases as it’s no good/use, can’t help/stand/resist/stop, there’s no:It’s no use wasting your time here. I couldn’t help asking when he had become so smart.There’s no accounting for tastes.

after the adjective worth (while):If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.

Page 22: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 3: The present/ –ing participle

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 22

Chapter 3. THE PRESENT/-ING PARTICIPLE

The traditional name present participle is open to the objection that the verbal form it denotesdoes not necessarily refer to the present, just as a past participle need not refer to the past. Wealso have the alternatives imperfect and perfect participles, considering that a form like 'going'usually expresses incomplete action, a form like 'gone' a completed one, or also -ing participleand -ed participles. None seems to cover all the uses of these forms. This is the reason why weshall not discard the traditional terms.

CHARACTERISTICS

The participle has both VERB and ADJECTIVE characteristics.

1. VERB characteristics

The same as the gerund, with which it is often mistaken, the present participle has distinct formsfor voice and aspect:

- taking - indefinite aspect, active voice;- being taken - indefinite aspect, passive voice;- having taken - perfect aspect, active voice;- having been taken - perfect aspect, passive voice.

The indefinite participle expresses an action or a state simultaneous with that of the predicate ofthe sentence:When reading books in English, I come/came/shall come across unknown words.

The perfect participle expresses an action or a state prior to that of the predicate of thesentence:Having driven for two hours, I felt rather tired.

* Note that with verbs of physical perception or of movement (COME, ARRIVE), anteriority isrendered:Seeing him in the council chamber, I went to bid him welcome.

From a syntactic point of view, the present participle can take:- a subject: I heard her humming a famous tune.- a direct object: Hearing footsteps, I went to see who it was.- an indirect object: You’ve made him happy by giving him such a good news.- different adverbial modifiers: Leaving yesterday, Pete made a big mistake.

I saw him walking slowly on the snow covered alleys.

2. ADJECTIVE characteristics

2.1. The participle as NOUN PREMODIFIER

*Note that the gerund may also be the premodifier of a noun. We can distinguish between themby asking what the person or thing is doing. For example, of the phrase wrapping paper we

Page 23: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 3: The present/ –ing participle

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 23

cannot ask what’s the paper doing, as the answer would be a nonsense. We must ask what is itfor?, thus identifying the gerund. On the other hand, of the phrase sleeping child we can askwhat’s the child doing?, because sleeping makes sense. This is a participle. Moreover, when agerund is used as a premodifier, there is a primary stress on it and a second stress on the noun.We usually place a primary stress on the noun when it is preceded by a present participle,which may have a primary or secondary stress.Compare greying hair, balding man, setting sun, running water, coming year, falling star withbathing resort, drawing room, fishing rod, swimming pool.

Some present participles have become mere adjectives with the corresponding characteristics:they can be added the suffix –ly to form adverbs, have degrees of comparison, can be part of aparticipial construction with the syntactic function of an attribute:blood - freezing scream, heart – breaking story, body – building exercises,fast – spreading fire, sweet – smelling cream, good – looking girl,never – ending story.

In the constructions above, the participles take an object or an adverb or an adjective used asan adverb, thus reaching full adjectival status.

2.2. The participle as NOUN POSTMODIFIER

As a postmodifier, the participial phrase comes after the noun (headword) and is equivalent of awhole sub-clause (attributive clause):Who is the man standing in the corner? Whose is the book lying on the floor? Here is a letterannouncing his arrival. My uncle living abroad is coming home.

It may function as an apposition (appositive clause): His current research, investigating attitudesto racial stereotypes, takes up most of his time.

Participial phrases as postmodifiers are punctuated in the same way as attributive clauses,depending on whether the phrase is RESTRICTIVE (indispensable, defining, no use ofcommas), or NONRESTRICTIVE (optional, non-defining, not common in informal conversation,separated by commas from the rest of the sentence).

CASES OF USE

1. To form the progressive aspect, in the active or passive;2. in incidental participial phrases (stereotyped phrases), where the participle does not refer to

any particular word in the sentence that could be considered its subject. This is calledUNRELATED/DANGLING PARTICIPLE: considering the circumstances,strictly/generally/roughly speaking, seeing that, counting from today, beginning with, judgingby appearances, taking everything into account;

3. the present participle as preposition or conjunction: concerning, providing, supposing,regarding, barring: Barring accidents he should be here in two days. We can leaveproviding/provided (that) he agrees. Supposing/suppose we lose everything, what then?

4. in special constructions:the ACCUSATIVE with the - ING PARTICIPLE,the NOMINATIVE with the -ING PARTICIPLE,the ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with the –ING

PARTICIPLE.

Page 24: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 4: The past/ –ed participle

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 24

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

The syntactic functions performed by the present participle can be clearly pointed out byreplacing it with the corresponding adverbial clause.As a matter of fact, in current speech this second option is preferred to the one using theparticiple.

1. ATTRIBUTE (all important details have been given above);

2. ADVERBIAL MODIFIER or PART of an ADV. MOD. :- of time: Hearing footsteps, I hurried to open the door. (=when I heard …)- of cause: Being very poor, they couldn’t buy a house. (=As they were…)- of condition: Dinning outside upon the terrace, you may catch a cold. (=If you dine…)- of comparison: Jim was playing tennis as if being a professional. (=as if he

were…)- of attending circumstances: That evening we stayed indoors talking about the good old

days. With the dog bouncing in front of him, he started on his way.

3. PART of a COMPLEX DIRECT OBJECT (OBJECT COMPLEMENT)in the ACC. with the –ING PART., or PART of a COMPLEX SUBJECT (SUBJECTCOMPLEMENT) in the NOM. with the –ING PART..

SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS with the PRESENT PARTICIPLE

1. ACCUSATIVE (object) with the PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The present participle may be regarded as a predicative adjunct to the object of these verbs.The verbs followed by this construction are the same as those followed by a NOMINATIVE withPRESENT PARTICIPLE, which is its passive counterpart.

1.1. Verbs commonly called ‘verbs of perception’: see, feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive,sense, watch: We heard them laughing in the next room.

*Note that the ACCUSATIVE with the INFINITIVE may also be used here. The distinctionbetween the two is that the one with the infinitive merely states the action whereas the one withthe participle views the action in progress (perfective/vs/imperfective). Sometimes the distinctionis one between completion and incompletion: I saw him walking across the road. (=on the wayacross…)

I saw him walk … (=from one side to the other)

After these verbs in the passive, we use the infinitive with to or the present participle:The woman was seen to check in at this hotel. The woman was seen checking in at this hotel.

1.2. Other verbs, but without the alternative construction with a bare infinitive: catch, find, get,imagine, keep, leave, set, start, have, spot, discover: You won’t catch me doing that again.The news set him thinking. The search team discovered/spotted/found the man clinging to arock. Never keep a lady waiting.His answer left me wondering what he was getting at. Her few words said in passing set methinking.

Page 25: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 4: The past/ –ed participle

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 25

-SPOT, FIND and DISCOVER can also be followed by an object + past/-ed participle:The police found the money hidden in an old garage.

They may also be followed by a ‘that’ clause, or by an object + to be/to have, in which case theverbs suggest the discovery of a fact rather than the act, an intellectual awareness rather than aphysical perception:Men of science found that the theory was correct. Men of science found the theory to be correct.

- LEAVE and KEEP (someone in a certain situation or condition) share some of thecharacteristics of FIND and DISCOVER. They can be followed by an object + a pres./past part.:He left/kept everybody waiting in the restaurant. He left his car parked nearby.

- GET + -ing part./to-inf.: I found it difficult to get things going. I cannot get him to apologize.2. NOMINATIVE with PRESENT PARTICIPLE: the verbs that take an accusative with presentparticiple may also stand in the passive:He admitted that he had been discovered stealing.

3. ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with PRESENT PARTICIPLEAll types of participles may have a subject of their own expressed by a noun-personal pronoun.The absolute phrase may be active or passive:My car being out of order, I had to walk. Everybody having left, nothing could be done. Thequestion being settled, we went home. None of the people present having any further remarksto make, I suppose we can close our meeting.The syntactic function is that of an adverbial modifier which can be developed into acorresponding adverbial clause of time, cause, condition.

PARTICIPLES OR GERUNDS

The distinction between a present participle and a gerund is made on the basis of the functionsthey perform, not on their outward form. As stated before, gerunds either function as nounsstanding alone, or operate as verbs in non-finite noun clauses: Thank God the fighting hasstopped! Shutting down the factory means putting so many people out of work.Participles either function as verbal adjectives, or operate as verbs in non-finite clauses, mostoften than not, the equivalent of adjectival or adverbial clauses:Two children were trapped in the blazing house. Having signed the final agreement, the twoprime–ministers shook hands and were taken photos by the press representatives. (=When theyhad signed …)*Note that the participle is related to a noun (the subject of the main clause), and studentsshould avoid what is called a misrelated participle:Standing in the middle of an immensely large and empty room, the feeling of loneliness andfrustration could be deeply felt. (instead of: I could feel…)Being a wet day, we stayed at home. (instead of: The day being wet, we …)

Page 26: COSteluta Stan

Chapter 4: The past/ –ed participle

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 26

Chapter 4. THE PAST/-ED PARTICIPLE

As the present participle is identical in form with the gerund, so the past participle of all regularand some irregular verbs is identical with the past tense, and is to be distinguished from this oneby its functions in the sentence.

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

1. ATTRIBUTE/NOUN MODIFIER

Like certain quasi-participial forms in –ing (amusing, charming, interesting…),some past participles may be purely adjectival in meaning: distinguished (=eminent), fixed/set(=steady), tired (=weary), pleased (=glad). These words may also occur as real participles:Compare He had distinguished himself by great bravery with Here are our distinguished guests.

Some such participial adjectives, unlike the corresponding –ed participles, have their endingpronounced [id], no matter what the preceding sound:aged woman, beloved wife, crooked means, learned man, naked body, cursed nuisance,distinguished scientist.

Some may be preceded by –UN:unexpected meeting, unarmed troops, unknown hero, unheard-of event, uncared-for children,undeserved punishment, undreamed-of wealth.

Past participles may combine with adverbs/adjectives used as adverbs:well-known writer, clean-shaven face, long-forgotten memories, badly-written letter, hard-earnedmoney.They may form compounds with other words:frost-bitten hands, home-made cake.

*Note that adjectives derived from nouns cannot be regarded as participles:a three-legged stool, a white-faced girl.**Note also that some verbs have different participle forms for verbal and adjectival use:drunk/drunken, molt/molten, shaved/shaven.

The –ed participle can function both as a premodifier of a noun (broken cup, written promise,spoken language) and a postmodifier of it, in the latter case being equivalent of a whole sub-clause (attributive), being punctuated as such, depending on whether the participle phrase isrestrictive (defining) or nonrestrictive (non-defining, optional):The photos taken in Italy are wonderful. (restrictive attributive cl.)Their son, spoiled by his parents, never became a responsible adult. (non-restrictive attributivecl.)*Note the construction NP + as + -ed:He is telling the story as seen by himself at the time.

Page 27: COSteluta Stan

Applications

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 27

2. SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

In a predicative use, the past participle of a transitive verb may express the state or conditionresulting from the action indicated by the verb. The verb connecting the participle with thesubject is usually BE, but also APPEAR, FEEL, LIE, LOOK, REMAIN, SEEM:The village was/appeared/looked/seemed quite deserted. He felt/was/looked/seemedthoroughly disappointed.

*Note that in the above examples, though implying action, the –ed participle chiefly denotesresultative CONDITION, some of them being almost equivalent of predicative adjectives(deserted=empty).When the idea of ACTION is predominant, the group BE + -ED PART. forms the category of thepassive voice, as in: His letters were written by a secretary.

3. OBJECT COMPLEMENT

The past participle of transitive verbs may be used as object complement/predicative adjunct tothe objects of verbs like SEE, HEAR, FEEL, FIND, GET, MAKE, LIKE, WANT, WISH, ORDER.The construction may be identified as ACCUSATIVE with –ED/PAST PARTICIPLE.He had seen villages evacuated, bridges blown up and railways destroyed. He heard his namecalled. She was greatly surprised to find herself elected president. We must get the lawsobeyed.Unlike the Acc. with infinitive and the Acc. with present part., this special construction has nopassive counterpart. After LIKE, WANT, WISH, ORDER, the ACCUSATIVE with PASSIVEINFINITIVE also occurs: I want it (to be) done by the end of the week.I don’t like such subjects (to be) discussed.

*Note that in all the above examples, the past participle expresses a RESULT.Special attention should be given to the use of the Acc. with the present participle aftercausative HAVE. The person performing the action may or may not be mentioned:If he won’t behave, I’ll have him locked up by the police.

When HAVE is causative, the finites are never anomalous:How often do you have your hair cut?

The verb GET is also found in this construction:Where did you get your linen washed?

The same construction is used after HAVE in the sense of EXPERIENCE/SUFFER:He had his licence suspended for reckless driving. He had his leg amputated.

The construction also occurs with HAVE in the sense of HOLD/POSSESS:The operation may be expensive, and I have no money saved. The Romans had the Persiansarmy surrounded.

4. ADVERBIAL MODIFIER OF TIME/CAUSE/MANNER/CONCESSION/COMPARISON

The work finished, we went home. Freightened to death, he couldn’t move. The two men satfascinated by their first sight of television. Born in better times, he would have become a greatpoet. Without a word spoken, he went away. Though severely hurt, the driver was able to walkto the ambulance. He was listening speechless, as if struck by her reproachful words.

Page 28: COSteluta Stan

Applications

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 28

ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with PAST PARTICIPLELike the present participle, the past/-ed participle of a transitive verb may be used in theabsolute participial constructions, where it has its own subject, different from that of thepredicate of the sentence:This done, we packed up everything and went home. All things considered, it is not such abargain.

Page 29: COSteluta Stan

Applications

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 29

APPLICATIONS

* Keep in mind that the infinitive can have the following syntactic functions:

1. subject: To drink too much is, at least, unwise. It is necessary to read the whole article.2. subject complement: To decide is to act. He is believed to be the best so far.3. object: Why should you refuse to go with her? I don’t know what to do first.4. object complement: He asked them to attend to the guests properly. We could but watchhim go. (the acc. with the inf.)5. adverbial modifier: We remained to finish the work.6. noun post-modifier: Here is something for you to take care of. She is not the person togive in so easily.7. adjective modifier: You’re very kind to help me. I’m sorry for you to leave so soon.

1. Make up sentences of your own according to the patterns below:

It+V+O+S (=IP): It puzzled me to find him there. It+V+SC+S (=IP): It’s a luxury to go on holiday twice a year. It+V+SC+S (=IP): It was necessary for me to see him. It+V+SC (AP+of+NP)+S (=IP): It’s nice of you to look after our dog.

2. Find the subject complement in the following sentences and state what it isexpressed by:

She seems to have been crying. He appeared to have been satisfied with the results. They wererequested to be ready by the next day. You prove to be working ceaselessly when you reallywant something done. She is supposed to observe the rules if she wants to play the game.

3. Change the construction of the sentences and use infinitives:

He claims that he knows everything. He claimed that he knew everything. He claimed that hehad settled the matter. We didn’t claim that we had been working on the project. We forgot thatwe had to do it. I hope I didn’t hurt you; I didn’t mean that.

4. Put the verbs and pronouns in brackets in the correct forms:

The sad news made (she, lie) awake all night and (keep, she) thinking. I didn’t expect (he,understand) what it all meant to me. The owner wanted (I, do) the job for a place to eat andsleep. I got (they, take) care of food and drinks for the party. The talk with him made (we, feel)beside ourselves with joy. We believe (she, be) appointed head of the department.

5. State tense, aspect and voice of the infinitive forms in the following sentences:

I am glad to be flying on such a good plane. We were very honored to be invited to the party.She seems to have done everything on her own. He is said to have been taught only by reputedprofessors. The appointments in the newspaper were to be answered by letter only. They weresupposed to have been working very hard on the project which proved, indeed to be a success.

Page 30: COSteluta Stan

Applications

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 30

6. Identify the form and function of the infinitives:

The station began to transmit signals. He repeated all the words so as to make no mistakes inspelling. I should take a taxi in order to get my friend to the station. It was too late to find wherethey were. We stopped to have a smoke. The machinery to be installed in the workshop wasbuilt by a Dutch machine-building plant. He seems to have been waiting for a long time. He issaid to be living in Nicaragua. The 20th century is known to be the age of the nuclear power andof the image. This, in my opinion, is a chance not to be missed. It must be seen to be believed.He was happy to have won the competition and to have been given the prize money in cash. Iam sorry to be giving you so much trouble. Didn’t it annoy you to be left behind? It seemeduseless to go on. It would be foolish of you not to grasp this attractive opportunity. I can’t affordto pay so much/bear to see her cry. Be careful not to let slip such an opportunity. To my mind,he was quite right to decline the invitation.

7.a. Give passive infinitives corresponding to the following active ones:

To borrow, to have built, to bury, to have followed, to forget, to have driven.

7.b. Give perfect infinitives (both passive and active, wherever possible) correspondingto the following ones:

To give, to answer, to lose, to offer.

8. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the infinitive (with/ without to, active/passive, progressive/ non-progressive, perfect/ non-perfect):

The mild climate will surely allow the tender plant (place) in the open air. The woman wasobserved (follow) him closely. He hated (have) (treat) her like that the day before. The patientwas known (suffer) from the same disease for years. The house wants (paint). You needn’t(bother) so much about it. It might (be) pleasant for them (remember) on Christmas who madelame beggars (walk) and blind man (see). It can’t be true! I just know he couldn’t (react) sorudely on such an occasion. The best thing (do) is (shelve) something you can do nothingabout. He was pretty sure his wife was not the woman (say) something like that.

9. Gerund or infinitive? Rephrase the sentences below, choosing between the two non-finite forms; when both are possible, explain the difference in meaning, if any:

Make sure you check your spelling before handing in your paper.Remember… The accused man said he had never seen the victim.The accused man denied… I remember that I was first introduced to her when we went on that picnic.I remember… Forgive me for interrupting you.I am sorry… It’s a pity I didn’t see their performance last night.I regret… Making speeches in front of a large audience doesn’t disturb him at all.He is used… When I ran into him the other day, we started talking.When I ran into him the other day, we stopped…

Page 31: COSteluta Stan

Applications

Non-Finite Forms of the English Verb 31

There is no good movie on at the moment.No movie is… He claims that he did the work without any help.He claims… James resolved that nothing should hold him back.James resolved… He said it was true he was driving too fast.He admitted… They ought to have informed the passengers that the train had been withdrawn from servicea week before.The passengers… Pressed by the others, he confessed that it would be likely that the truth would come to lightlater on.Pressed by the others, he confessed it…

* VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY TO-INFINITIVE (Verbs marked * can also be followedby a that-clause):*agree, *appear, *arrange, attempt, ask, choose, dare, *decide, *demand, deserve, *expect, fail,grow, hasten, *happen, *hope, hurry, *learn, long, manage, neglect, offer, pay, *plan, *pledge,*pretend, *promise, refuse, *resolve, seek, *seem, struggle, *swear, *threaten, *vow, want, *wish

* VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY -ING (Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause:*appreciate, avoid, contemplate, delay, *deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse,face, *fancy, finish, involve, *mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, *resent, risk, *suggest,burst out, it’s no good/use, feel like, give up, keep on, leave off, put off, can’t stand,spend/waste time

10. Translate the following into English using infinitives:

Am intrat in sala de asteptare, dar nu era nimeni cu care sa pot sta de vorba.Am repetat intrebarea destul de tare ca s-o auda si el, cu toate ca era genul de persoana carese face ca nu aude ce nu-i convine.El este cel care trebuie sa hotarasca in aceasta chestiune, asa ca ai face mai bine sa-l lasi inpace.A fost, ca sa nu spun mai mult, foarte neintelept din partea ta sa refuzi o asemena oferta.Si cand te gandesti ca n-o sa-l mai vedem niciodata; sa-ti spun cinstit, m-am cam atasat de el.Ca sa vorbesc pe sleau, sa te certi cu el nu este cel mai bun lucru pe care sa-l faci acum; maibine incerci sa fii intrutotul de acord cu sugestiile lui.Nu uita sa-i transmiti mesajul exact asa cum ti l-am scris; nu tu trebuie sa hotarasti daca epotrivit sau nu; aminteste-ti ca i-ai spus parerea ta si nu a parut interesata.N-am vrut s-o fac sa planga, dar a trebuit sa-i spun vestea.Pentru a-i aprecia pe deplin calitatile, ar trebui sa-l cunosti mai bine.Se spune ca a fost invitat sa participle la conferinta, dar n-ar fi putut s-o faca pentru ca doctorall-a obligat sa ramana acasa.