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I N S T I T U T E

COUNTRY BRIEFGERMANY

Petrus OlanderFrida AnderssonValeriya Mechkova

Country BriefSERIES 2016:09

THE VARIETIES OF DEMOCRACY INSTITUTE

June 2016

Please address comments and/or queries for information to:

V-Dem Institute

Department of Political Science

University of Gothenburg

Sprängkullsgatan 19, PO Box 711

SE 40530 Gothenburg

Sweden

E-mail: [email protected]

V-Dem Country Briefs are available in electronic format at www.v-dem.net.

Copyright © 2016 University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute. All rights reserved.

V-DemDataBrief Germany

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About V-Dem Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) is a new approach to conceptualizing andmeasuring

democracy. V-Dem’s multidimensional and disaggregated approach acknowledges the

complexityoftheconceptofdemocracy.TheV-Demprojectdistinguishesamongfivehigh-level

principlesofdemocracy:electoral, liberal,participatory,deliberative,andegalitarian,whicharedisaggregatedintolower-levelcomponentsandspecificindicators.

KeyfeaturesofV-Dem:

• Provides reliable data on five high-level principles and 22 lower-level components of

democracy such as regular elections, judicial independence, direct democracy, and

genderequality,consistingofmorethan400distinctandpreciseindicators;

• Coversallcountriesanddependentterritoriesfrom1900tothepresentandprovidesan

estimateofmeasurementreliabilityforeachrating;

• Makesallratingspublic,freeofcharge,throughauser-friendlyinterface.

WithfourPrincipalInvestigators,twoProjectCoordinators,fifteenProjectManagers,morethan

thirtyRegionalManagers,almost200CountryCoordinators,severalAssistantResearchers,and

approximately2,600CountryExperts,theV-Demprojectisoneofthelargest-eversocialscience

data collection projects with a database of over 15 million data points. The database makes

highlydetailedanalysisofvirtuallyallaspectsofdemocracyinacountry,whilealsoallowingfor

summarycomparisonsbetweencountriesbasedonaggregatedindicesfordifferentdimensions

ofdemocracy.UsersfromanywhereareabletousetheV-Demonlineanalysistoolswhichcanbe

foundattheproject’swebsite.Governments,developmentagencies,andNGOscanbenefitfrom

thenuancedcomparativeandhistoricaldatawheninformingcriticaldecisionssuchasselecting

country program priorities, informing program designs and monitoring impact of their

programs.

Methodology:

Unlikeextantdatacollectionprojects,whichtypicallyuseasmallgroupofexpertswhorateall

countriesoraskasingleexperttocodeonecountry,theV-Demprojecthasrecruitedover2,600

local and cross-national experts toprovide judgmentsonvarious indicatorsaboutdemocracy.

TheV-Demdatasetiscreatedbycombiningfactualinformationfromexistingdatasourcesabout

constitutional regulations and de jure situationwith expert coding for questions that require

evaluation.Experts’ratingsareaggregatedthroughanadvancedstatisticalmodelthattakesinto

accountthepossibilitiesthatexpertsmaymakemistakesandhavedifferentscalesinmindwhen

coding. In addition, bridge-coders - experts who code multiple countries - are recruited to

calibratethescalesofestimatescross-nationally.


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Germany

Introduction ThisV-Demdatabrief illustrates thedemocraticdevelopmentofGermany from1900to2014.The purpose is to provide a concise overview of the V-Dem data collected for Germany. ThehistoricaldevelopmentofthefiveV-Demprinciplesofdemocracy-electoral,liberal,egalitarian,deliberative and participatory – is analyzed, accompanied by an overviewof the female rightsindex.Inaddition,thebriefdelvesfurtherintothedifferentcomponentsanddetailedindicatorsofthemainprinciplesofdemocracy1.Weanticipatethatthisbriefwillbeausefulresourceforpolicy-makers,practitionersandcitizen-leddemocracyassessments.Germany is currently Europe’s biggest economy and the continent’s second most populouscountry.Thecountryhasalonghistoryofholdingelections,butwithvaryinglevelsofquality.Atthe turn of the 20th century, Germany was a monarchy under the rule of Wilhelm II. AfterGermany’sdefeatintheWorldWarI,themonarchywasreplacedbyGermany’sfirstdemocraticregime:TheWeimarRepublic (1918-1933).However, financial problems, staggering inflation,andpoliticalturmoilcharacterizedtheinterwaryears.WithAdolfHitler’srisetopowerin1933,aperiodof totalitarianismbegan.Thecovered territoryby theV-Demcodingand in thisbriefincludes the territoryofAustriaduring theAnschluss (1938-1945)butdoesnot includeotherareasoccupiedduring(andintheyearleadingupto)WorldWarsIandII.AftertheendoftheWorldWarII(1939–1945)Germanywasoccupiedbythe“Alliedpowers”(the US, the UK, France and the Soviet Union). In 1949, two German stateswere formed: thewestern Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic(GDR).FRG is the legal successorof theGermanReichand is the territoryonwhich thisbrieffocusesduringthepartition.TheGermanDemocraticRepubliciscodedasaseparatepolityfromthe division in 1949 and not included in this brief. Likewise, the years of allied occupation(1945-1949)arenotincludedinthisbriefduetoalackofsovereignty.Afterthereunificationin1990,Germanyretainedthe1949constitutionoftheFederalRepublicwithsomeamendments.

Principles of Democracy The radar chart in Figure 1, gives an overview of the five V-Dem indices of democracy forGermanyat fourdifferentpoints in time:1905,1950,1995and2014.All indices in the figurerangefrom0to1,whereascoreof0suggeststhatacountrydidnotevincethecharacteristicsofdemocracyrelevanttothisparticularindexatthispointintime,while1correspondstothebestpossiblesituationforthisindex,accordingtotheV-Demmeasures.In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, the electoral component of democracy is fundamental andunderstoodasanessentialelementoftheotherprinciplesofrepresentativedemocracy–liberal,participatory, deliberative, and egalitarian; without it, we cannot call a regime “democratic”.However, we recognize that countries can have “democratic qualities”, without beingdemocracies. As a result, the aggregation formulae for all high-level principles of democracyincludethemeasureofelectoraldemocracy.Thus, forexample, “ParticipatoryDemocracy” isacompositescoreoftheelectoralandtheparticipatorycomponents.

1AllindicatorsandindicescanbefoundinGlossaryofTermsinAppendixI.Foranoverviewofthestructureoftheindices,pleaseseeAppendixII.


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Figure 1. Principles of Democracy Indices

In1905thescoresforGermanyonallindicesincludedinFigure1areverylow,between.1and.2,reflectingminimaldevelopmentinthecharacteristicscapturedwiththeseV-Demmeasures.

Asignificantchangecanbeseenwhencomparing1905tothenextpointintimeinthefigure.By1950 Germany (West) is an advanced democracy according to the scores of just below .8 onelectoraldemocracy. At thispoint in time,electoralaccountabilityhasdeveloped in thesensethat those in power are held accountable by citizens through electoral competition, a greaterfreedom of expression and association are achieved. Values around .7 on egalitarian anddeliberative, as well as liberal democracy, indicate overall similar democratic advancement.Thus, for themiddleof the century thedata reflectsa situationofmoreor lessequalpoliticalrepresentationacrossgroups; individualandminority rightsare, for themostpart,protected;and,finally,widedeliberationiscommonwhenimportantpolicy-changesarebeingconsidered.Participatorydemocracyscoreslowermeaningthat,comparedtotheotherdemocraticaspects,participatory aspects such as referendums and plebiscites are a less prominent feature ofGermanydemocracyin1950.

Betweentheyearsof1995and2014onlyminorchangescanbenoted.InbothyearsGermanyshowsdemocraticadvancementwithslightlyhigherscoresthanin1950,andsignificantlybetterthanin1905.Overall,thecomparisonbetweenthedifferentprinciplesofdemocracyissimilartothe one in 1950 with electoral democracy being the measure with the highest score closelyfollowed by deliberative, egalitarian, and liberal democracy in descending order. Againparticipatorydemocracyisnotasstrongastheotheraspectsofdemocracy.

InFigure2below,welookfurtherintotheaforementionedindicesandgraphthecomponentsthat go into the five higher level principles indices of democracy: the electoral, liberal,egalitarian, participatory and deliberative aspects. The development of these components inGermanyovermorethanonehundredyearsisdisplayedtogetherwiththefemalerightsindex2.ThisoverviewdescribeshowGermanywentfromanundemocraticcountryatthebeginningofthe20thcenturytoanestablisheddemocracyin2014.

2 The scaleofeach indexand indicator is specifiedwithinparentheses in the legendofeach figure. Inall indicatorsandindices graphed, a lower score corresponds to a lessdemocratic level,while ahigher score suggests amoredemocraticlevel.PleaseseeAppendixIformoreinformationoneachoftheindicatorsandindices.

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

ElectoralDemocracy

LiberalDemocracy

ParticipatoryDemocracy

DeliberativeDemocracy

EgalitarianDemocracy

1905

1950

1995

2014


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Lookingattheoverviewof115yearsofGermandemocraticdevelopment,fivemainperiodscan

bedistinguished:Thefirstperiodofmoreorlessconstantscoreslastsfromthebeginningofthe

century through World War I and ends around 1918 with the establishment of the Weimar

Republic.Duringthisperiodalldimensionsofdemocracyregistersignificantimprovementsfor

thesituationontheground.ThisrelativelydemocraticperiodendswithHitler’srisetopowerin

1933andisreplacedbytotalitarianism.ThesurrenderofGermanyin1945andtheendofWorld

War II ushers in the fourth period, the years of Allied occupation. Due to the absence of

autonomousinstitutionsinGermanyfortheseyears,thereisabreakintheV-Demdata.Thisis

followedbythefifthandfinalperiodthatcapturesthedevelopmentofWesternGermanyfrom

1949 and onwards. Theunification of Eastern andWesternGermany in 1990only affects the

scoresofthedimensionsinFigure2toasmalldegree.

Duringthefirstperiod, liberaldemocracyisthehighestscoringdimensionwithindividualand

minorityrightsbeingprotectedtoalargeextent,whiletheelectoralcomponentsuffersfromits

greatest deficits as political power-holders are only held accountable by citizens to a small

degree through electoral competition. After the establishment of the Republic in 1918, all

democracycomponentsexpand,albeittovaryingextents,withtheelectoralcomponentshowing

the biggest improvement. However, this is also the component that shows the greatest

fluctuationsanddropsduringthisperiod.

The takeoverofpowerbyHitlerandhisNationalSocialistParty is reflectedbyrapiddrops in

democracymeasures. From1933onwards, civil rights are replacedby totalitarian repression.

Severeviolationsofhumanrightsanddemocraticnormsarereflectedbythedataupuntil the

Alliedoccupationin1945whenthetimeseriesisinterrupted.

The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany is adopted in 1949 guaranteeing the

principlesofdemocracy,civilandpoliticalrightsandthefederalstructureofgovernment.After

settingupthenewinstitutionsofthestate,thecountrysuffersnosubstantialreductionsinthe

remainingperiodofthetimeseriesexploredinthisbrief.

Participatory democracy shows slightly lower levels compared to the other democracy

componentsofrecentdecades.Nevertheless,scoresabove.6indicatethatGermancitizenshave

somemeans forparticipating in thepoliticaldevelopmentof theircountry,even throughnon-

electoralprocesses.


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In the followingsectionwe furtherexploreeachof the fivecomponentsofdemocracyand thefemalerightsindex,bygraphingthespecificindicatorsandindicesconstitutingthem.

The Electoral Component The V-Dem electoral democracy component index measures the core value of making rulersresponsive to citizens through competition for the approval of a broad electorate duringperiodicelections;whetherpoliticalandcivilsocietyorganizationscanoperatefreely;whetherelectionsarecleanandnotmarredbyfraudorsystematicirregularities;andthechiefexecutiveofacountryisselected(directlyorindirectly)throughelections.Figure3displaysthefoursub-indicesthatconstitutetheelectoralcomponentindex.

Asindicatedbytheelectedexecutiveindex(redline)inFigure3,theheadoftheexecutiveduringthe firstyearsof the20thcenturywasnotanelectedofficial.The fallof themonarchyand theestablishment of the Weimar Republic ushered in the first (indirectly) elected executive inGermany.During that period the directly electedpresident appointed a chancellor asHead ofGovernment.AfterHitler’sappointmentaschancellorin1933,thisprocedurewasnotrepeated.This interruption of the electoral cycle is reflected in the V-Dem data through a drop of theelectedexecutiveindexto0.Thehigh-intermediatelevelofthisindicatorfrom1949reflectstheindirectvotingproceduresfortheelectionofheadofstateandheadofgovernment.

The jump in share of the population with suffrage in 1918 reflects the fact that suffrage wasextendedtowomen.Thesmalldropbetween1935and1945registersthelimitationsonvotingrightsthatwereimposedontheJewishpopulation.

Thefreedomofassociationindexreflectstheextenttowhichpeoplearefreetoformpartiesandcivilsocietyorganizations.Duringthefirst twodecadesof the20thcenturyGermanshadsomefreedominthisrespect,whichwasconsiderablyexpandedduringtheWeimarRepublic.DuringtheNaziregime,freedomofassociationwasseverelylimited.

German elections in the beginning of the century were characterized by certain problems intermsofregistrationfraud,systematicirregularities,governmentintimidationoftheopposition,vote buying, and/or election violence, as suggested by the data in the clean election index.ElectionqualityimprovedslightlyaftertheendofthemonarchyanddeclinedagaindrasticallytowardstheendoftheWeimerRepublic.AftertheEnablingActofMarch1933,theNaziregime


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virtuallyabolishedthelegislativepowersoftheParliamentandconcentratedtheminthehandsof the executive. The V-Dem data reflects this degradation as an interruption of the electoralcycle with no data on the clean election index. After the establishment ofWestern Germany,electionswere largely freeandfairas indicatedbythehigh levelsonthecleanelections indexfrom1949onwards.

The Liberal Component The liberal principle of democracy emphasizes the importance of protecting individual andminority rights against the tyranny of the state. This is achieved through constitutionallyprotectedcivillibertiesandstrongruleoflaw,andeffectivechecksandbalancesbythejudiciaryand the legislaturewhich limit theuseof executivepower.Theseaspects are capturedby thethreeindicesthatconstitutetheV-Demliberalcomponent.Figure3showsthedevelopmentofthesethreeindicesovertimeinGermany.

The different aspects of liberal democracy in Figure 4 havemostly developed in tandem, andhavelargelysimilarscoresthroughouttheyears.Alloftheaspectsstartoutatmoderatelyhighlevelsslightlyabove.5and.6in1900.Equality before the law and individual liberty index measure the extent to which laws aretransparentandrigorouslyenforcedandpublicadministrationimpartial,aswellastheextenttowhich citizens enjoy access to justice, secure property rights, freedom from forced labor,freedomofmovement,physical integrity rights, and freedomof religion.This aspectof liberaldemocracydeterioratesduringWorldWarI.After the war all aspects of liberal democracy improve slightly. Particularly, the legislature’sability to monitor and question the executive is strengthened as portrayed by the indexlegislativeconstrainsontheexecutive.However,withpassageoftheEnablingActofMarch1933,Hitler and his cabinet virtually took over the legislative powers allowing him to rulewithoutoversight of either legislative chamber. Hence, since the functions of the German Parliamentwereaborted,dataismissingfromthisindexafter1933.The fact that the executive did not respect the constitution and the judiciarywas not able tooperateindependentlyoftheexecutiveafter1933,theindexjudicialconstraintsontheexecutivereflectsonlyminimalscores.


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FollowingWorldWarIIandtheestablishmentofWesternGermanyin1949,liberaldemocracydeveloped significantly, including adherence to the constitution, protection of individuallibertiesandastrongbalancebetweenthedifferentbranchesofpower.

The Participatory Component The participatory dimension of democracy embodies the values of direct rule and activeparticipationbycitizensinallpoliticalprocesses;itemphasizesnon-electoralformsofpoliticalparticipation such as through such channels as civil society organizations and through themechanismofdirectdemocracy.

At the start of the 20th century some aspects of participatory democracy are much moreprominentthanothers,reflectedinscoresspreadfromzeroto.6inFigure5.Thehighestscoreis that for civil society participation, and the score reflects the fact that civil society had asubstantial role in Germanpolitical life under the emperor. The role of civil society increasesduring theWeimar Republic only to diminish under the Nazis. In the period after the alliedoccupation,civilsocietyparticipationagainbecomesacentralfeatureoftheGermandemocracy.

Regional and local governments have, with the exception of the Nazi years been a fixture ofGerman politics. Themeasures indicatewhether there are elected subnational entities and, iftheyexist,towhatextenttheycanoperatewithoutinterferencefromunelectedbodiesattheirrespective levels.Throughouttheyearsthishasbeenthecasemorefortheregional levelthanthelocallevel,thoughinrecentyearsthereislessdifferenceintheextentoftheirfreedomfrominterference.ThelargefreedomfrominterferenceinrecentyearsisinstarkcontrasttothestateofthingsbeforeWorldWarIwhenlocalgovernments,inparticular,hadlimitedfreedom.

Directpopularvoterefershere toan institutionalizedprocessbywhichcitizensofaregionorcountryregister theirchoiceoropiniononspecific issuesusingaballot. It includes initiatives,referendums,andplebiscites.ThedirectpopularvotefirstbecomesafeatureinGermanyafterWorldWarI,growsinprominenceduringtheWeimarRepublic,andisevenrepeatedlyusedbytheNaziregime.WhenWesternGermanyisestablished,directpopularvoteisabolishedatthenationallevel.


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The Deliberative Component The deliberative component of democracy captures the core value that political decisions areguidedbythepursuitof thepublicgoodandshouldbe informedbyrespectfulandreasonabledialogueatalllevelsratherthanbyemotionalappeals,solidaryattachments,parochialinterests,orcoercion.

Note, that the indicators displayed in Figures 6, 7 and 8 have different scales, which arespecifiedinparenthesesinthelegendofeachfigure.Forexample,reasonedjustificationandtherangeofconsultationsbothhaveascoreofaround2atthebeginningofthecentury,butinthecaseofreasonedjustificationthisisarelativelyhighscore,whileitisaratherlowscorefortheindicatorrangeofconsultations.

Reasoned justification (green line)measurestheextenttowhichpoliticalelitesgivepublicandreasonedjustificationsfortheirpositionsonpolicies.Undertheemperorthisisfairlycommon,thoughlesssoduringWorldWarI.Increasinglyelaboratejustificationsbecomecomecommonduring theWeimarRepublic,butwithHitler’s rise topower, justificationsagainbecomemoresimplistic. With the establishment of Western Germany, justifications gradually improve inquality. From the 1970s onward, sophisticated and nuanced justifications tend be offered byGermanleaders.

Common good (purple line) indicates whether the political elite’s justifications refer to thecommongoodortomorenarrowinterests.Thepurplelineshowsthat,untiltheendofthealliedoccupation,justificationswereamixtureofthecommongoodandmorespecificgroups,butthatafteroccupation, thereasonsgiven forpoliciesmostly inreference to thecommongood,wereunderstood either as the greatest good for the greatest number, or as helping the leastadvantagedinasociety.

Anothercentralaspectofdeliberativedemocracy is thewidthand independenceof thepublicdeliberationsonlargepoliticalissuesbeyondtheelitelevel,whichiscapturedwiththeindicatorengagedsociety(blueline).UntiltheendofWorldWarI,publicdeliberationwasnotrepressedbut was, nevertheless, limited. During the Weimar Republic, debate and deliberation wereencouraged, though, in practice, confined to certain segments of society. Under theNazis, thepolicyprocessbecamelargelyshutofffromthepublic,andafter1949,thedebategrewinbothdepth and volume. Since unification in 1990, ordinary people and non-elite groups tend to


9

discussmajorpoliciesamongthemselvesand inthemediawithgrass-rootsdeliberationbeing

commonandunconstrained.

Inthebeginningofthe20thcenturytherangeofwithin-eliteconsultationsinadvanceofpolicy

decisionsislimitedtoloyalistsoftherulingelites,asportrayedbythedatawiththeredline;as

World War I ends, the range of consultations increases. In the FDR actors from across thepoliticalspectrum,aswellasrelevantactorsinbusinessandsociety,tendtobeconsultedwhen

policiesarebeingcontemplated.Thedatafortherespectforcounterargumentsmeasurecloselyfollowsthepathoftherangeofconsultations,thoughataslightlylowerlevel.

The Egalitarian Component The egalitarian idea is thatmaterial and immaterial inequalities inhibit the actual exercise offormalrightsandliberties;henceamoreequaldistributionofresources,education,andhealth

acrosssocioeconomicgroupsshouldenhancepoliticalequality.

InFigure7theeightindicatorsthatcomposetheegalitariandemocracycomponentareplotted.Withtheexceptionofpowerdistributedbygender,allmeasuresinFigure7showintermediate

levelsatthestartoftheseries.

Thelowscoreforpowerdistributedbygender(greenline)indicatesthat,intheearly1900sandduringtheNaziregime,menheldavirtualmonopolyonpoliticalpowerinGermany.Following

WorldWarI,womenstrengthenedtheirpositionbutstilltheyhadonlymarginalinfluence.After

the end of Allied occupation, the distribution of power became graduallymore gender equal.

Nevertheless,thedatasuggeststhatevenin2014powerwasstillnotbeingdistributedequally

bygender.

Germany’sscoreonthemeasurepowerdistributedbysocialgroup(blackline)isjustbelow2atthebeginningofthecentury,reflectingthatintheperiodbeforethewarthepoliticalpowerin

Germany was monopolized by a coalition of only select social groups. TheWeimar Republic

becomesmore inclusive,butduring theNaziyears largepartsof thepopulationareexcluded.

Since the establishment of Western Germany, and especially after 1970, social group

characteristicssuchasethnicity,race,andreligiondonothavegreatimpactonpolitics.


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Whenlookingatsocialgroupequality forcivil liberties (orange line)asimilarpatternemerges.BeforeWorldWarI,whilesomesocialgroupshadlittlepoliticalpower,thecivillibertiesofmostgroupswere almost equal.AfterHitler’s rise topower, the situationdeterioratedquickly and,untiltheendofWorldWarII,somegroupshadfewifanycivilliberties.InthenewlyestablishedWesternGermanytherewerefewdifferences incivil libertiesbasedonsocialgroup,andfromthemid-1950sonward,allsalientgroupshavehadthesameliberties.

Data on the indicator power distributed by socioeconomic groups suggests that socioeconomicpositionandclassweresalientfactorsinpoliticallifeundertheemperor.Peoplewithaverageorpoor incomehad little influence,and, instead, therichenjoyedavirtualmonopolyonpoliticalpower.IntheWeimarRepublicpeopleofaverageandpoorincomewereabletoassertpoliticalinfluence toa largerextent thanbefore,andwhenone’ssocioeconomicpositionbecamemoreimportant,asHitlerwascomingtopower,theshiftbecamelessdramaticthaninotheraspectsofdemocracy. In the years after thewar and thedecades that followed, thewealthyhad a greatdeal of political influence, to some extent, evenmore than other groups, but other segmentswerealsoabletoassertasignificantamountofpoliticalinfluencetoanalmostequalextent.

Healthequality (purple line), andeducational equality (darkblue line)measurewhether somepeopleduetopoorhealthorpooreducationalqualityarepreventedfromexercisingtheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.The twoareclosely linked inGermany,whichcanbeseen inFigure7.Fromthebeginningofthe20thcenturyonward,thereisabasicequalityintermsofhealthandeducation,thoughforsometheprovisionsofhealthcareandeducationareinadequateandtheirabilitiesareundermined.This improvesduringtheWeimarRepublic,andtheNazitakeoverin1933 has only a small negative impact. After World War II, health no longer impedes theexercisingofpoliticalrights,andeducationgraduallyimprovestoalevelatwhich,bytheendofthe1970s,onlyasmallminorityhasaneducational levelthat impedestheirabilitytoexercisebasicrights.

The indicatormeans-tested vs. universalistic (light blue line) aims to capturewhetherwelfareprograms are means-tested, targeting only the poor or underprivileged constituents (forexamplethroughcash-transferprograms)orwhethertheypotentiallybenefitallmembersofthepolity(suchprogramscanincludefreeeducation,nationalhealthcareschemes,andretirementprograms).IntheV-Demconceptualscheme,welfareprogramsthatbenefiteveryoneanddonotstigmatize certain unprivileged groups, such as poor people, are more democratic from anegalitarianperspectivethanmeans-testedprogramswhichonlytargettheseparticulargroups.Overtheentireperiod,thescoreneverdropsbelow3andfrom1949onward,thescoreisabove4,indicatingthatatleasthalfofthepoliciescouldbeconsidereduniversalisticovertime.

Theindicatorparticularisticorpublicgoods(yellowline)reflectstheextenttowhichsocialandinfrastructure expenditures are public-goods in character. The scores between two and threeduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyindicatethatamajorityofgoodsareprovidedaspublicgoods.Thescoreofjustbelow4duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyreflectsthatalmostallpolicesarepublic.

Female Rights Equality betweenwomen andmen is indivisible from democracy at all levels, and is broadlyrecognizedasapre-conditionfortrulyrepresentativeandresponsivegovernments.TheV-Demfemale rights index focuses on political rights understood to include the ability of women toparticipateintheopendiscussionofpoliticalissues,toparticipateincivilsocietyorganizations,thefreedomofmovement,therighttoprivateproperty,theaccesstojustice,thefreedomfromforced labor, and an equal share in the overall distribution of power. Figure 8 displays thesevenindicatorsthatconstitutethisindexforGermany.


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Atthebeginningofthe20thcenturyanduptotheNazitakeoverin1933,Germanwomenlargelyenjoyeda freedomofdomesticmovement (black line),anda freedomfromforced labor (orangeline)asindicatedbyscoresbetween3and4.In1933bothdropsharply.Themovementofsomeminoritiesisrestrictedwhilemanystillretainthisfreedom.Intwostagesforcedlaborbecomesmore common and the Nazis introduce state sanctioned forced labor for some women asreflectedinthescoreofzerofromtheendofthe1930sto1945.SincetheendofWorldWarII,Germanyisvirtuallyfreefromforcedlaborforwomen.

Women’s property rights (yellow line) varies in imperial Germany, but following the end ofWorld War I, this right is made more equal. In 1933 levels start to deteriorate, but this isinterrupted by the establishment ofWestern Germany. Since the late 1970s all, or almost all,women enjoy equal property rights. For much of the period in Figure 8 the development ofaccessto justice forwomen (greenline)hasshadowedthatofpropertyrights forwomen(notethatthescalesaredifferent).

CSOparticipationforwomen(redline)andfreedomofdiscussionforwomen(purpleline)arealsotwo measures for which Germany follows a similar path. The former indicator measureswomen’sfreedomtoengageincivilsocietyorganizationsandwhetherCSOspursuingwomen’sinterests are prevented from taking part in associational life. The latter focuses on women’sability to openly discuss political issues in private homes and in public spaces. In imperialGermany and in the Weimar Republic, women were free to do both, with only a handful ofexceptions. Following the end of WorldWar II, there were few limits placed on debating orparticipatingincivilsociety.

In theGermanEmpiremenhadavirtualmonopolyofpoliticalpower,as indicatedby the lowscoreforpowerdistributedbygender(lightbluelineinthisfigure).ThischangedastheimperialsystemgavewaytotheWeimarRepublicandwomenstartedtogaininfluence.TheNaziregimelargelyput a stop to this, however, anduntil the endofAlliedoccupationwomenhad limitedpoliticalinfluence.Followingthewar,womenembarkedonaslowbutconstantprocesstogainmore influence over politics in Germany. In 2014 they still have some ways to go beforeachievingdefactofullequality.


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Concluding Remarks BasedondatafromkeyV-Demindicesandindicators,thisdatabriefpresentsanoverviewofthedemocraticdevelopmentofGermanyfrom1900to2014.

ThedemocratichistoryofGermanyrevealspatternofupsanddownsoverthepastcentury.19thcentury institutions survived to the end of World War I, when they were replaced bydemocratizationefforts.DuringtheNaziregimetheseeffortswerediminished,however,astheminimalscoresonalmostallV-Demmeasurescanattest. In thereconstructionyearsafter thewarthisreportfollowsWesternGermany.Arapidadvancementisachievedonmanydemocracyaspectsandalreadyinthe1950sGermanystartstoexhibithighscoresonanumberofV-Demmeasures such as quality of elections, rule of law andprotection of individual liberties.Otherareassuchaswomen’spoliticalinfluenceanddeliberationtakemoretimetodevelop.

By the turn of the century, a reunified Germany is mostly rated as highly democratic by themultipleV-Demcoders.However,directpopularvotessuchasreferendumscouldbeutilizedtoa greater extent if the goal is to develop the participatory aspect of democracy in Germany.Women’sparticipation inpolitics, togetherwithgrass-rootsdeliberations, isanotherarea thatcouldbenefitfrommorefocusedattention.


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Appendix I. List of variables. Thisisalistofalltheindicesandindicatorsincludedinthecountrybrief.

Itcontainsthequestionandthequestionalternativesaswellasinformationofaggregation,scale,

datareleaseandcitation.ThesecanalsobefoundintheV-Demcodebook.

VariablesincludedinFigure1.

Electoraldemocracyindex(D)(v2x_polyarchy)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofelectoraldemocracyinitsfullestsenseachieved?

Clarifications:Theelectoralprincipleofdemocracyseekstoembodythecorevalueofmakingrulers

responsivetocitizens,achievedthroughelectoralcompetitionfortheelectorate’sapprovalunder

circumstances when suffrage is extensive; political and civil society organizations can operate

freely; elections are clean and not marred by fraud or systematic irregularities; and elections

affect the composition of the chief executive of the country. In between elections, there is

freedom of expression and an independent media capable of presenting alternative views on

matters of political relevance. In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, electoral democracy is

understood as an essential element of any other conception of (representative) democracy –

liberal,participatory,deliberative,egalitarian,orsomeother.

Aggregation:Theindexisformedbytakingtheaverageof,ontheonehand,thesumoftheindices

measuringfreedomofassociation(thick)(v2x_frassoc_thick),suffrage(v2x_suffr),cleanelections

(v2xel_frefair), elected executive (de jure) (v2x_accex) and freedom of expression

(v2x_freexp_thick);and,ontheother,thefive-wayinteractionbetweenthoseindices.Thisishalf

waybetweena straightaverageand strictmultiplication,meaning theaverageof the two. It is

thus a compromise between the twomost well known aggregation formulas in the literature,

bothallowing"compensation"inonesub-componentforlackofpolyarchyintheothers,butalso

punishing countries not strong in one sub-component according to the "weakest link"

argument.TheaggregationisdoneatthelevelofDahlssub-components(withtheoneexception

ofthenon-electoralcomponent).Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:

v2x_polyarchy=

.1*v2x_suffr+.1*v2xel_frefair+.1*v2x_accex+.1*v2x_frassoc_thick+.1*v2x_freexp_thick+.5*

v2x_suffr*v2xel_frefair*v2x_accex*v2x_frassoc_thick*v2x_freexp_thick.

Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_freexp_thickv2x_EDcomp_thick

Datarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Liberaldemocracyindex(D)(v2x_libdem)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofliberaldemocracyachieved?

Clarifications:Theliberalprincipleofdemocracyemphasizestheimportanceofprotectingindividual

andminority rightsagainst thetyrannyof thestateandthetyrannyof themajority.The liberal

modeltakesa“negative”viewofpoliticalpowerinsofarasitjudgesthequalityofdemocracyby

the limits placed on government. This is achieved by constitutionally protected civil liberties,

strong rule of law, an independent judiciary, and effective checks and balances that, together,

limittheexerciseofexecutivepower.Tomakethisameasureofliberaldemocracy,theindexalsotakesthelevelofelectoraldemocracyintoaccount.


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Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_libdem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_liberal+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_liberal

Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_liberalv2x_polyarchyDatarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Participatorydemocracyindex(D)(v2x_partipdem)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofparticipatorydemocracyachieved?Clarifications:Theparticipatoryprincipleofdemocracyemphasizesactiveparticipationbycitizensin

allpoliticalprocesses,electoralandnon-electoral.Itismotivatedbyuneasinessaboutabedrockpractice of electoral democracy: delegating authority to representatives. Thus, direct rule bycitizens is preferred, wherever practicable. This model of democracy thus takes suffrage forgranted, emphasizing engagement in civil society organizations, direct democracy, andsubnationalelectedbodies.Tomakeitameasureofparticipatorydemocracy,theindexalsotakesthelevelofelectoraldemocracyintoaccount.

Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_partipdem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_partip+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_partip

Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_polyarchyv2x_partipDatarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Deliberativedemocracyindex(D)(v2x_delibdem)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofdeliberativedemocracyachieved?Clarification:Thedeliberativeprincipleofdemocracyfocusesontheprocessbywhichdecisionsare

reached in a polity. A deliberative process is one in which public reasoning focused on thecommon good motivates political decisions—as contrasted with emotional appeals, solidaryattachments, parochial interests, or coercion. According to this principle, democracy requiresmorethananaggregationofexistingpreferences.Thereshouldalsoberespectfuldialogueatalllevels—from preference formation to final decision—among informed and competentparticipants who are open to persuasion. To make it a measure of not only the deliberativeprinciple but also of democracy, the index also takes the level of electoral democracy intoaccount.

Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_delibdem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_delib+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_delib

Scale:IntervalSources:v2xdl_delibv2x_polyarchyDatarelease:4,5.


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Datarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)

Egalitariandemocracyindex(D)(v2x_egaldem)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofegalitariandemocracyachieved?Clarifications: The egalitarian principle of democracy addresses the distribution of political power

acrosssocialgroups,i.e.,groupsdefinedbyclass,sex,religion,andethnicity.Thisperspectiveondemocracyemphasizesthataformalguaranteeofpoliticalrightsandcivillibertiesarenotalwayssufficient for political equality. Ideally, all social groups should have approximately equalparticipation,representation,agenda-settingpower,protectionunderthelaw,andinfluenceoverpolicymakingandpolicy implementation. Ifsuchequalitydoesnotexist,thestateoughttoseekto redistribute socio-economic resources, education, and health so as to enhance politicalequality.Tomakeitameasureofegalitariandemocracy,theindexalsotakesthelevelofelectoraldemocracyintoaccount.

Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_egaldem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_egal+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_egal

Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_egalv2x_polyarchyDatarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).


Electoralcomponentindex(D)(v2x_EDcomp_thick)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheelectoralprincipleofdemocracyachieved?Clarification: The electoral principle of democracy seeks to achieve responsiveness and

accountabilitybetweenleadersandcitizensthroughthemechanismofcompetitiveelections.Thisispresumedtobeachievedwhensuffrageisextensive;politicalandcivilsocietyorganizationscanoperatefreely;electionsarecleanandnotmarredbyfraudorsystematic irregularities;andthechiefexecutiveofacountryisselected(directlyorindirectly)throughelections.

Aggregation:Theelectoralcomponentindexisoperationalizedasachaindefinedbyitsweakestlinkof freedom of association, suffrage, clean elections, and elected executive. The index is thusaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_EDcomp_thick=v2x_frassoc_thick*v2x_suffr*v2xel_frefair*v2x_accex.

Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_frassoc_thickv2x_suffrv2xel_frefairv2x_accexDatarelease:3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Participatorycomponentindex(D)(v2x_partip)

Projectmanager:JanTeorell


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Question:Towhatextentistheparticipatoryprincipleachieved?Clarification:Theparticipatoryprincipleofdemocracyemphasizesactiveparticipationbycitizensin

allpoliticalprocesses,electoralandnon-electoral.Itismotivatedbyuneasinessaboutabedrockpractice of electoral democracy: delegating authority to representatives. Thus, direct rule bycitizens is preferred, wherever practicable. This model of democracy thus takes suffrage forgranted, emphasizing engagement in civil society organizations, direct democracy, andsubnationalelectedbodies.

Aggregation: This index is formed by averaging the following indices: civil society participation(v2x_iccpart), direct popular vote (v2xdd_dd), elected local government power (v2xel_locelec),andelectedregionalgovernmentpower(v2xel_regelec).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_iccpartv2xdd_ddv2xel_locelecv2xel_regelecDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Egalitariancomponentindex(D)(v2x_egal)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheegalitarianprincipleachieved?Clarifications: The egalitarian principle of democracy addresses the distribution of political power

acrosssocialgroups,i.e.,groupsdefinedbyclass,sex,religion,andethnicity.Thisperspectiveondemocracyemphasizesthataformalguaranteeofpoliticalrightsandcivillibertiesarenotalwayssufficient for political equality. Ideally, all social groups should have approximately equalparticipation,representation,agenda-settingpower,protectionunderthelaw,andinfluenceoverpolicymakingandpolicy implementation. Ifsuchequalitydoesnotexist,thestateoughttoseekto redistribute socio-economic resources, education, and health so as to enhance politicalequality.

Aggregation: The index is formedbypointestimatesdrawnfromaBayesianfactoranalysismodelincluding indicators of power distribution according to socioeconomic position (v2pepwrses),power distribution according to social group (v2pepwrsoc), social group equality in respect forcivil liberties (v2clsocgrp), equal access to education (v2peedueq), equal access to health(v2pehealth),powerdistributionaccordingtogender(v2pepwrgen),shareofbudgetallocatedtopublic/common goods (v2dlencmps), and the share ofwelfare programs that provide universalratherthanmeans-testedbenefits(v2dlunivl).

Scale:IntervalSources: v2pepwrses v2pepwrsoc v2clsocgrp v2peedueq v2pehealth v2pepwrgen v2dlencmps

v2dlunivlDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Liberalcomponentindex(D)(v2x_liberal)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheliberalprincipleofdemocracyachieved?Clarification:Theliberalprincipleofdemocracyemphasizestheimportanceofprotectingindividual

andminority rightsagainst thetyrannyof thestateandthetyrannyof themajority.The liberalmodeltakesa“negative”viewofpoliticalpowerinsofarasitjudgesthequalityofdemocracybythe limits placed on government. This is achieved by constitutionally protected civil liberties,


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strong rule of law, an independent judiciary, and effective checks and balances that, together,limittheexerciseofexecutivepower.

Aggregation: This index is formedbyaveraging the following indices:equalitybefore the lawandindividual liberties (v2xcl_rol), judicial constraints on the executive (v2x_jucon), and legislativeconstraintsontheexecutive(v2xlg_legcon).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2xcl_rolv2x_juconv2xlg_legconDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Deliberativecomponentindex(D)(v2xdl_delib)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentisthedeliberativeprincipleofdemocracyachieved?Clarification:Thedeliberativeprincipleofdemocracyfocusesontheprocessbywhichdecisionsare

reached in a polity. A deliberative process is one in which public reasoning focused on thecommon good motivates political decisions—as contrasted with emotional appeals, solidaryattachments, parochial interests, or coercion. According to this principle, democracy requiresmorethananaggregationofexistingpreferences.Thereshouldalsoberespectfuldialogueatalllevels—from preference formation to final decision—among informed and competentparticipantswhoareopentopersuasion.Tomeasurethesefeaturesofapolitywetrytodeterminetheextenttowhichpoliticalelitesgivepublicjustificationsfortheirpositionsonmattersofpublicpolicy,justifytheirpositionsintermsof the public good, acknowledge and respect counter-arguments; and how wide the range ofconsultationisatelitelevels.

Aggregation: The index is formedbypointestimatesdrawnfromaBayesianfactoranalysismodelincludingthefollowingindicators:reasonedjustification(v2dlreason),commongoodjustification(v2dlcommon), respect for counterarguments (v2dlcountr), range of consultation (v2dlconslt),andengagedsociety(v2dlengage).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2dlreasonv2dlcommonv2dlcountrv2dlconsltv2dlengageDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Femalerightsindex(D)(v2x_gender)

Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Towhatextentarewomen’spoliticalrightsprotected?Clarifications: Political rights indexfocusesontheabilityofwomentoparticipate indiscussionsof

political issues, participation in civil society organizations, freedom of movement, the right toprivate property, access to justice, freedom from forced labor, representation in the ranks ofjournalists,andanequalshareintheoveralldistributionofpower.

Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for CSO women’s participation (v2csgender), female journalists(v2mefemjrn),freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen(v2cldmovew),freedomofdiscussionfor women (v2cldiscw), freedom from forced labor for women (v2clslavef), property rights forwomen(v2clprptyw),accesstojusticeforwomen(v2clacjstw),andpowerdistributedbygender(v2pepwrgen).


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Scale:IntervalSources: v2csgender v2mefemjrn v2cldmovew v2cldiscw v2clslavef v2clprptyw v2clacjstw

v2pepwrgen

Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).


Freedomofassociation(thick)index(D)(v2x_frassoc_thick)

Projectmanager:AllenHicken,MichaelBernhard,JanTeorell

Question: To what extent are parties, including opposition parties, allowed to form and toparticipate in elections, and towhat extent are civil society organizations able to form and tooperatefreely?

Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for party ban (v2psparban), barriers to parties (v2psbars), oppositionparties autonomy (v2psoppaut), elections multiparty (v2elmulpar), CSO entry and exit(v2cseeorgs) and CSO repression (v2csreprss). Since the multiparty elections indicator is onlyobservedinelectionyears,itsvalueshavefirstbeenrepeatedwithinelectionregimeperiods(asdefinedbyv2x_elecreg).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2psparbanv2psbarsv2psoppautv2elmulparv2cseeorgsv2csreprss

Data release: 4, 5 (release 1, 2, and 3 used a different aggregation formula for the thinner indexv2x_frassoc)

Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Cleanelectionsindex(D)(v2xel_frefair)

Projectmanagers:StaffanLindberg,JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentareelectionsfreeandfair?Clarifications: Free and fair connotes an absence of registration fraud, systematic irregularities,

governmentintimidationoftheopposition,votebuying,andelectionviolence.

Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for EMB autonomy (v2elembaut), EMB capacity (v2elembcap), electionvoter registry (v2elrgstry), election votebuying (v2elvotbuy), electionother voting irregularities(v2elirreg), election government intimidation (v2elintim), election other electoral violence(v2elpeace), and election free and fair (v2elfrfair). Since the bulk of these indicators are onlyobserved in election years, the index scores have then been repeated within election regimeperiods(asdefinedbyv2x_elecreg)

Scale:IntervalSources:v2elembautv2elembcapv2elrgstryv2elvotbuyv2elirregv2elintimv2elpeacev2elfrfair


Shareofpopulationwithsuffrage(D)(v2x_suffr)

Projectmanager:Svend-ErikSkaaning


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Question:Whatshareofadultcitizens(asdefinedbystatute)hasthelegalrighttovoteinnational

elections?

Clarification: This question does not take into consideration restrictions based on age, residence,having been convicted for crime, or being legally incompetent. It covers legal (de jure)

restrictions,notrestrictionsthatmaybeoperativeinpractice(defacto).Thescoresreflectdejure

provisions of suffrage extension in percentage of the adult population as of January 1 in a

particularyear.Theadultpopulation(asdefinedbystatute) isdefinedbycitizens inthecaseof

independent countries or the people living in the territorial entity in the case of colonies.

Universalsuffrageiscodedas100%.Universalmalesuffrageonly iscodedas50%.Yearsbefore

electoralprovisionsareintroducedarescored0%.Thescoresdonotreflectwhetheranelectoral

regime was interrupted or not. Only if new constitutions, electoral laws, or the like explicitly

introduce new regulations of suffrage, the scores were adjusted accordingly if the changes

suggesteddoingso.Ifqualifyingcriteriaotherthangenderapply(suchasproperty,taxpayments,

income, literacy, region, race, ethnicity, religion, and/or ‘economic independence’), estimates

have been calculated by combining information on the restrictions with different kinds of

statisticalinformation(onpopulationsize,agedistribution,wealthdistribution,literacyrates,size

of ethnic groups, etc.), secondary country-specific sources, and – in the case of very poor

information–theconditionsinsimilarcountriesorcolonies.

Aggregation:v2elsuffrage/100

Responses:PercentScale:IntervalSource:v2elsuffrageDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Electedexecutiveindex(dejure)(D)(v2x_accex)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Isthechiefexecutiveappointedthroughpopularelections(eitherdirectlyorindirectly)?Clarifications:Thisindexattemptstomeasurewhetherthechiefexecutiveiselected,eitherdirectly

electedthroughpopularelectionsor indirectly throughapopularlyelected legislaturethatthen

appointsthechiefexecutive.

Note thatapopularelection isminimallydefinedandalso includes shamelectionswith limited

suffrageandnocompetition.Similarly,“appointment”bylegislatureonlyimpliesselectionand/or

approval,notthepowertodismiss.

Thisindexisusefulprimarilyforaggregatinghigher-orderindicesandshouldnotbeinterpretedas

animportantelementofdemocracyinitsownright.

Aggregation: There are six different chains of appointment/selection to take into account in

constructingthisindex,allofwhicharescaledtovaryfrom0to1.First,whethertheheadofstate

is directly elected (a=1) or not (a=0). Second, the extent to which the legislature is popularlyelected(b),measuredastheproportionoflegislatorselected(iflegislatureisunicameral),orthe

weighted average of the proportion elected for each house,with theweight defined bywhich

house isdominant (if legislature isbicameral).Third,whether theheadofstate isappointedby

thelegislature,ortheapprovalofthelegislatureisnecessaryfortheappointmentoftheheadof

state (c1=1, otherwise 0). Fourth, whether the head of government is appointed by the

legislature, or the approval of the legislature is necessary for the appointment of the head of

government(c2=1,otherwise0).Fifth,whethertheheadofgovernmentisappointedbythehead

ofstate(d=1)ornot(d=0).Sixth,whethertheheadofgovernmentisdirectlyelected(e=1)ornot


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(e=0). Define hosw as the weight for the head of state. If the head of state is also head ofgovernment (v2exhoshog==1), hosw=1. If the head of state hasmore power than the head of

governmentovertheappointmentanddismissalofcabinetministers,thenhosw=1;ifthereverseis true, hosw=0. If they share equal power, hosw=.5. Define the weight for the head ofgovernmentashogw=1-hosw.Theformulais:

v2x_accex=

hosw*[max(a1,b*c1)]+hogw*[max(a1*d,b*c1*d,a2,b*c2)]

Scale:IntervalSources: v2lgello v2lgelecup v2lgdomchm v2exaphos v2expathhs v2exaphogp v2expathhg

v2exdfcbhsv2exdjcbhgv2exdfdmhsv2exdfdshgv2exhoshog

Datarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).


Equalitybeforethelawandindividuallibertyindex(D)(v2xcl_rol)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion: Towhat extent are laws transparent and rigorously enforced andpublic administration

impartial,andtowhatextentdocitizensenjoyaccesstojustice,securepropertyrights,freedom

fromforcedlabor,freedomofmovement,physicalintegrityrights,andfreedomofreligion?

Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysis

modelof the indicators for rigorousand impartialpublic administration (v2clrspct), transparent

laws with predictable enforcement (v2cltrnslw), access to justice for men/women (v2clacjstm,

v2clacjstw), property rights for men/women (v2clprptym, v2clprptyw), freedom from torture

(v2cltort),freedomfrompoliticalkillings(v2clkill),fromforcedlaborformen/women(v2clslavem

v2clslavef), freedom of religion (v2clrelig), freedom of foreign movement (v2clfmove), and

freedomofdomesticmovementformen/women(v2cldmovem,v2cldmovew).

Scale:IntervalSources: v2clrspct v2cltrnslw v2clacjstm v2clacjstw v2clprptym v2clprptyw v2cltort v2clkill

v2clslavemv2clslavefv2clreligv2clfmovev2cldmovemv2cldmovew


Legislativeconstraintsontheexecutiveindex(D)(v2xlg_legcon)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion: To what extent is the legislature and government agencies (e.g., comptroller general,

general prosecutor, or ombudsman) capable of questioning, investigating, and exercising

oversightovertheexecutive?

Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysis

model of the indicators for legislature questions officials in practice (v2lgqstexp), executive

oversight (v2lgotovst), legislature investigates inpractice (v2lginvstp),and legislatureopposition

parties(v2lgoppart).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2lgqstexpv2lgotovstv2lginvstpv2lgoppart


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Judicialconstraintsontheexecutiveindex(D)(v2x_jucon)

Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentdoestheexecutiverespecttheconstitutionandcomplywithcourtrulings,

andtowhatextentisthejudiciaryabletoactinanindependentfashion?Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysis

model of the indicators for executive respects constitution (v2exrescon), compliance withjudiciary (v2jucomp), compliance with high court (v2juhccomp), high court independence(v2juhcind),andlowercourtindependence(v2juncind).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2exresconv2jucompv2juhccompv2juhcindv2juncindDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).VariablesincludedinFigure5.

Civilsocietyparticipationindex(D)(v2x_cspart)

Projectmanager:MichaelBernhardQuestion: Are major CSOs routinely consulted by policymaker; how large is the involvement of

peopleinCSOs;arewomenpreventedfromparticipating;andislegislativecandidatenominationwithinpartyorganizationhighlydecentralizedormadethroughpartyprimaries?

Clarifications:Thesphereofcivilsocietyliesinthepublicspacebetweentheprivatesphereandthestate. Here, citizens organize in groups to pursue their collective interests and ideals.We callthese groups civil society organizations (CSOs). CSOs include, but are by nomeans limited to,interest groups, labor unions, spiritual organizations (if they are engaged in civic or politicalactivities), social movements, professional associations, charities, and other non-governmentalorganizations.The core civil society index (CCSI) is designed to provide a measure of a robust civil society,understoodasonethatenjoysautonomyfromthestateandinwhichcitizensfreelyandactivelypursuetheirpoliticalandcivicgoals,howeverconceived.

Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for candidate selection –national/local (v2pscnslnl), CSO consultation(v2cscnsult), CSO participatory environment (v2csprtcpt), and CSO women’s participation(v2csgender).

Scale:IntervalSources:v2pscnslnlv2cscnsultv2csprtcptv2csgenderDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Localgovernment(D)(v2xel_locelec)

Projectmanagers:KellyMcMann,JanTeorellQuestion: Are there elected local governments, and –if so – to what extent can they operate

withoutinterferencefromunelectedbodiesatthelocallevel?


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Clarification: The lowest score would be reserved for a country that has no elected localgovernments.Amediumscorewouldbeaccordedacountrythathaselectedlocalgovernmentsbutwhere those governments are subordinate tounelectedofficials at the local level (perhapsappointedby a higher-level body).A high scorewouldbe accorded to a country inwhich localgovernmentsareelectedandable tooperatewithout restrictions fromunelectedactors at thelocal level (with the exception of judicial bodies). (Naturally, local governments remainsubordinatetotheregionalandnationalgovernments.)

Aggregation:First,localgovernmentelected(v2ellocelc)isrecodedsothat0=noneelected,1=onlyexecutiveelected,2=onlyassemblyelected,and3=bothelected.Thisnewconstructisthenscaledtovaryfrom0-1andmultipliedbylocalofficesrelativepower(v2ellocpwr)scaledtovaryfrom0-1.

Scale:IntervalSources:v2ellocelcv2ellocpwrDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Directpopularvoteindex(D)(v2xdd_dd)

Projectmanager:DavidAltmanQuestion:Towhatextentisthedirectpopularvoteutilized?Clarification: Directpopularvotingrefersheretoaninstitutionalizedprocessbywhichcitizensofa

regionorcountryregistertheirchoiceoropiniononspecificissuesthroughaballot.Itisintendedto embrace initiatives, referendums, and plebiscites, as those terms are usually understood. Itcapturessomeaspectsofthemoregeneralconceptofdirectdemocracy.The termdoesnot encompass recall elections,deliberativeassemblies, or settings inwhich thevote is not secret or the purview is restricted. Likewise, it does not apply to elections forrepresentatives.

Aggregation: This indexmeasureshoweasy it is to initiateandapproveadirectpopularvoteandhowconsequentialthatvoteis(ifapproved)?Easeofinitiationismeasuredby(a)theexistenceofadirectdemocracyprocess(v2ddlegci), (b)thenumberofsignaturesneeded(v2ddsigcip), (c)time-limits to circulate the signatures (v2ddgrgpci), and (d) the level of government (nationaland/or subnational). Ease of approval is measured by quorums pertaining to (a) participation(v2ddgrgpci), (b) approval (v2ddbindci), (c) supermajority (v2ddspmjci), and (d) districtmajority(v2dddistci).Consequencesaremeasuredby(a)thelegalstatusofthedecisionmadebycitizens(binding or merely consultative) (v2ddlegci), and (b) the frequency with which direct popularvoteshavebeenapprovedinthepast(v2ddciniyr).

Scale:IntervalSources: v2ddlegci v2ddsigcip v2ddgrtlci v2ddgrgpci v2ddlevci v2ddbindci v2ddthreci v2ddspmjci

v2dddistciv2ddlegciv2ddciniyrDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Regionalgovernment(D)(v2xel_regelec)

Projectmanagers:KellyMcMann,JanTeorellQuestion: Are there elected regional governments, and –if so – towhat extent can theyoperate

withoutinterferencefromunelectedbodiesattheregionallevel?


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Clarification: The lowest score would be reserved for a country that has no elected regionalgovernments. A medium score would be accorded a country that has elected regionalgovernmentsbutwherethosegovernmentsaresubordinatetounelectedofficialsattheregionallevel(perhapsappointedbyahigher-levelbody).Ahighscorewouldbeaccordedtoacountryinwhichregionalgovernmentsareelectedandabletooperatewithoutrestrictionsfromunelectedactors at the regional level (with the exception of judicial bodies). (Naturally, regionalgovernmentsremainsubordinatetothenationalgovernment.)

Aggregation: First, regional government elected (v2elsrgel) is recoded so that 0=none elected,1=only executive elected, 2=only assembly elected, and 3=both elected. This new construct isthenscaledtovaryfrom0-1andmultipliedbyregionalofficesrelativepower(v2elrgpwr)scaledtovaryfrom0-1.

Scale:IntervalSources:v2elsrgelv2elrgpwrDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).VariablesincludedinFigure6.

Reasonedjustification(C)(v2dlreason,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When important policy changes are being considered, i.e. before a decision has been

made,towhatextentdopoliticalelitesgivepublicandreasonedjustificationsfortheirpositions?Clarification:Becausediscoursevariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson,baseyouransweronthestyle

thatismosttypicalofprominentnationalpoliticalleaders.Responses:

0:Nojustification.Elitesalmostalwaysonlydictatethatsomethingshouldorshouldnotbedone,butnoreasoningaboutjustificationisgiven.Forexample,“Wemustcutspending.”

1:Inferiorjustification.Elitestendtogivereasonswhysomeoneshouldorshouldnotbefordoingornotdoingsomething,butthereasonstendtobeillogicalorfalse,althoughtheymayappealtomanyvoters.Forexample,“Wemustcutspending.Thestateisinefficient.”[Theinferenceisincompletebecauseaddressinginefficiencieswouldnotnecessarilyreducespendinganditmightundermineessentialservices.]

2:Qualifiedjustification.Elitestendtoofferasinglesimplereasonjustifyingwhytheproposedpoliciescontributetoordetractfromanoutcome.Forexample,“Wemustcutspendingbecausetaxpayerscannotaffordtopayforcurrentprograms.”

3:Sophisticatedjustification.Elitestendtooffermorethanoneormorecomplex,nuancedandcompletejustification.Forexample,“Wemustcutspendingbecausetaxpayerscannotaffordtopayforcurrentgovernmentprograms.Raisingtaxeswouldhurteconomicgrowth,anddeficitspendingwouldleadtoinflation.”

Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem

Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).


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Respectcounterarguments(C)(v2dlcountr,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When importantpolicy changes arebeing considered, towhat extentdopolitical elites

acknowledgeandrespectcounterarguments?Clarification:Becausediscoursevariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson,baseyouransweronthestyle


0:Counterargumentsarenotallowedorifarticulated,punished.1:Counterargumentsareallowedatleastfromsomeparties,butalmostalwaysareignored.2:Elitestendtoacknowledgecounterargumentsbutthenexplicitlydegradethembymakinga

negativestatementaboutthemortheindividualsandgroupsthatproposethem.3:Elitestendtoacknowledgecounterargumentswithoutmakingexplicitnegativeorpositive

statementsaboutthem.4:Elitesalmostalwaysacknowledgecounterargumentsandexplicitlyvaluethem,evenifthey

ultimatelyrejectthemforthemostpart.5:Elitesalmostalwaysacknowledgecounterargumentsandexplicitlyvaluethem,and

frequentlyalsoevenacceptthemandchangetheirposition.Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem


Engagedsociety(C)(v2dlengage,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion:Whenimportantpolicychangesarebeingconsidered,howwideandhowindependentare

publicdeliberations?Clarification: This question refers to deliberation as manifested in discussion, debate, and other

publicforumssuchaspopularmedia.Responses:

0:Publicdeliberationisnever,oralmostneverallowed.1:Somelimitedpublicdeliberationsareallowedbutthepublicbelowtheelitelevelsisalmost

alwayseitherunawareofmajorpolicydebatesorunabletotakepartinthem.2:Publicdeliberationisnotrepressedbutneverthelessinfrequentandnon-eliteactorsare

typicallycontrolledand/orconstrainedbytheelites.3:Publicdeliberationisactivelyencouragedandsomeautonomousnon-elitegroups

participate,butitisconfinedtoasmallsliceofspecializedgroupsthattendstobethesameacrossissue-areas.

4:Publicdeliberationisactivelyencouragedandarelativelybroadsegmentofnon-elitegroupsoftenparticipateandvarywithdifferentissue-areas.

5:Largenumbersofnon-elitegroupsaswellasordinarypeopletendtodiscussmajorpoliciesamongthemselves,inthemedia,inassociationsorneighborhoods,orinthestreets.Grass-rootsdeliberationiscommonandunconstrained.


Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.


25

Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).

Commongood(C)(v2dlcommon,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When importantpolicy changes arebeing considered, towhat extentdopolitical elites

justifytheirpositionsintermsofthecommongood?Clarification:Becausediscoursevariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson,baseyouransweronthestyle


0:Littleornojustificationintermsofthecommongoodisusuallyoffered.1:Specificbusiness,geographic,group,party,orconstituencyinterestsareforthemostpart

offeredasjustifications.2:Justificationsareforthemostpartamixofspecificinterestsandthecommongoodanditis

impossibletosaywhichjustificationismorecommonthantheother.3:Justificationsarebasedonamixtureofreferencestoconstituency/party/groupinterests

andonappealstothecommongood.4:Justificationsareforthemostpartalmostalwaysbasedonexplicitstatementsofthe

commongoodforsociety,understoodeitherasthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumberorashelpingtheleastadvantagedinasociety.



Rangeofconsultation(C)(v2dlconslt,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When important policy changes are being considered, how wide is the range of

consultationatelitelevels?Clarification:Becausepracticesvarygreatlyfrompolicytopolicy,baseyouransweronthestylethat

ismosttypicalofpolicymaking.Responses:

0:Noconsultation.Theleaderoraverysmallgroup(e.g.militarycouncil)makesauthoritativedecisionsontheirown.

1:Verylittleandnarrow.Consultationwithonlyanarrowcircleofloyalparty/rulingelites.2:Consultationincludestheformerplusalargergroupthatisloyaltothegovernment,suchas

therulingparty’sorparties’localexecutivesand/orwomen,youthandotherbranches.3:Consultationincludestheformerplusleadersofotherparties.4:Consultationincludestheformerplusaselectrangeofsociety/labor/business

representatives.5:Consultationengageselitesfromessentiallyallpartsofthepoliticalspectrumandall

politicallyrelevantsectorsofsocietyandbusiness.Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem

Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.


26

Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).VariablesincludedinFigure7.

Powerdistributedbysocioeconomicposition(C)(v2pepwrses,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanager:JohnGerring Question:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtosocioeconomicposition?Clarification: All societies are characterized by some degree of economic (wealth and income)

inequality. Insomesocieties, incomeandwealtharedistributed inagrosslyunequal fashion. Inothers,thedifferencebetweenrichandpoorisnotsogreat.Here,weareconcernednotwiththedegreeofsocial inequalitybutratherwiththepoliticaleffectsofthis inequality.Specifically,weareconcernedwiththeextenttowhichwealthandincometranslatesintopoliticalpower.

Responses:0:Wealthypeopleenjoyavirtualmonopolyonpoliticalpower.Averageandpoorerpeople

havealmostnoinfluence.1:Wealthypeopleenjoyadominantholdonpoliticalpower.Peopleofaverageincomehave

littlesay.Poorerpeoplehaveessentiallynoinfluence.2:Wealthypeoplehaveaverystrongholdonpoliticalpower.Peopleofaverageorpoorer

incomehavesomedegreeofinfluencebutonlyonissuesthatmatterlessforwealthypeople.

3:Wealthypeoplehavemorepoliticalpowerthanothers.Butpeopleofaverageincomehavealmostasmuchinfluenceandpoorpeoplealsohaveasignificantdegreeofpoliticalpower.

4:Wealthypeoplehavenomorepoliticalpowerthanthosewhoseeconomicstatusisaverageorpoor.Politicalpowerismoreorlessequallydistributedacrosseconomicgroups.



Socialgroupequalityinrespectforcivilliberties(C)(v2clsocgrp,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanager:Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Doallsocialgroups,asdistinguishedbylanguage,ethnicity,religion,race,region,orcaste,

enjoythesamelevelofcivilliberties,oraresomegroupsgenerallyinamorefavorableposition?Clarification:Here,civillibertiesareunderstoodtoincludeaccesstojustice,privatepropertyrights,

freedomofmovement,andfreedomfromforcedlabor.Responses:

0:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoymuchfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.

1:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoysubstantiallyfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.

2:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoymoderatelyfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.

3:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoyslightlyfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.

4:Membersofallsalientsocialgroupsenjoythesamelevelofcivilliberties.


27

Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.

Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-DemMethodology,postedatV-Dem.net).


Healthequality(C)(v2pehealth,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindberg

Question:Towhatextentishighqualitybasichealthcareguaranteedtoall,sufficienttoenablethemtoexercisetheirbasicpoliticalrightsasadultcitizens?

Clarification:Poor-qualityhealthcarecanmakecitizensunabletoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizensbyfailingtoadequatelytreatpreventableandtreatableillnessesthatrenderthemunabletowork,participateinsocialorpoliticalorganizations,orvote(wherevotingisallowed).

Responses:0:Extreme.Becauseofpoor-qualityhealthcare,atleast75percent(%)ofcitizens’abilityto

exercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.1:Unequal.Becauseofpoor-qualityhealthcare,atleast25percent(%)ofcitizens’abilityto

exercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.2:Somewhatequal.Becauseofpoor-qualityhealthcare,tento25percent(%)ofcitizens’

abilitytoexercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.3:Relativelyequal.Basichealthcareisoverallequalinqualitybutbecauseofpoor-quality

healthcare,fivetotenpercent(%)ofcitizens’abilitytoexercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.

4:Equal.Basichealthcareisequalinqualityandlessthanfivepercent(%)ofcitizenscannotexercisetheirbasicpoliticalrightsasadultcitizens.




Particularisticorpublicgoods(C)(v2dlencmps)


Question:Consideringtheprofileofsocialandinfrastructuralspendinginthenationalbudget,how“particularistic”or“publicgoods”aremostexpenditures?

Clarification: Particularistic spending is narrowly targeted on a specific corporation, sector, socialgroup, region, party, or set of constituents. Such spending may be referred to as “pork,”“clientelistic,”or“privategoods.”

Public-goodsspending is intendedtobenefitallcommunitieswithinasociety, though itmaybemeans-tested so as to target poor, needy, or otherwise underprivileged constituents. The keypointisthatallwhosatisfythemeans-testareallowedtoreceivethebenefit.

Your answer should consider the entire budget of social and infrastructural spending. We areinterested in the relative valueof particularistic andpublic-goods spending, not thenumber ofbillsorprogramsthatfallintoeithercategory.

Responses:0:Almostallofthesocialandinfrastructureexpendituresareparticularistic.


28

1:Mostsocialandinfrastructureexpendituresareparticularistic,butasignificantportion(e.g.¼or1/3)ispublic-goods.

2:Socialandinfrastructureexpendituresareevenlydividedbetweenparticularisticandpublic-goodsprograms.

3:Mostsocialandinfrastructureexpendituresarepublic-goodsbutasignificantportion(e.g.,¼or1/3)isparticularistic.

4:Almostallsocialandinfrastructureexpendituresarepublic-goodsincharacter.Onlyasmallportionisparticularistic.



Powerdistributedbysocialgroup(C)(v2pepwrsoc,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtosocialgroups?Clarification: A social group is differentiated within a country by caste, ethnicity, language, race,

region,religion,orsomecombinationthereof. (Itdoesnot include identitiesgrounded insexualorientationorsocioeconomicstatus.)Socialgroupidentityiscontextuallydefinedandislikelytovaryacrosscountriesandthroughtime.Socialgroupidentitiesarealsolikelytocross-cut,sothatagivenpersoncouldbedefinedinmultipleways,i.e.,aspartofmultiplegroups.Nonetheless,atanygivenpoint in time thereare social groupswithina society thatareunderstood -by thoseresidingwithinthatsociety–tobedifferent,inwaysthatmaybepoliticallyrelevant.

Responses:0:Politicalpowerismonopolizedbyonesocialgroupcomprisingaminorityofthepopulation.

Thismonopolyisinstitutionalized,i.e.,notsubjecttofrequentchange.1:Politicalpowerismonopolizedbyseveralsocialgroupscomprisingaminorityofthe

population.Thismonopolyisinstitutionalized,i.e.,notsubjecttofrequentchange.2:Politicalpowerismonopolizedbyseveralsocialgroupscomprisingamajorityofthe

population.Thismonopolyisinstitutionalized,i.e.,notsubjecttofrequentchange.3:Eitherallsocialgroupspossesssomepoliticalpower,withsomegroupshavingmorepower

thanothers;ordifferentsocialgroupsalternateinpower,withonegroupcontrollingmuchofthepoliticalpowerforaperiodoftime,followedbyanother–butallsignificantgroupshaveaturnattheseatofpower.

4:Allsocialgroupshaveroughlyequalpoliticalpowerortherearenostrongethnic,caste,linguistic,racial,religious,orregionaldifferencestospeakof.Socialgroupcharacteristicsarenotrelevanttopolitics.



Educationalequality(C)(v2peedueq,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)



29

Question:Towhatextentishighqualitybasiceducationguaranteedtoall,sufficienttoenablethemtoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens?

Clarification: Basiceducationreferstoagestypicallybetween6and16yearsofagebutthisvariesslightlyamongcountries.

Responses:0:Extreme.Provisionofhighqualitybasiceducationisextremelyunequalandatleast75

percent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.

1:Unequal.Provisionofhighqualitybasiceducationisextremelyunequalandatleast25percent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.

2:Somewhatequal.Basiceducationisrelativelyequalinqualitybuttento25percent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.

3:Relativelyequal.Basiceducationisoverallequalinqualitybutfivetotenpercent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatprobablyunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.

4:Equal.Basiceducationisequalinqualityandlessthanfivepercent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatprobablyunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.



Powerdistributedbygender(C)(v2pepwrgen,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtogender?Responses:

0:Menhaveanear-monopolyonpoliticalpower.1:Menhaveadominantholdonpoliticalpower.Womenhaveonlymarginalinfluence.2:Menhavemuchmorepoliticalpowerbutwomenhavesomeareasofinfluence.3:Menhavesomewhatmorepoliticalpowerthanwomen.4:Menandwomenhaveroughlyequalpoliticalpower.



Means-testedv.universalisticpolicy(C)(v2dlunivl,*_dos,*_ord,*_meanl)

Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion:Howmanywelfareprogramsaremeans-testedandhowmanybenefitall(orvirtuallyall)

membersofthepolity?


30

Clarification: A means-tested program targets poor, needy, or otherwise underprivilegedconstituents.Cash-transferprogramsarenormallymeans-tested.A universal (non-means tested) program potentially benefits everyone. This includes freeeducation,nationalhealthcare schemes,and retirementprograms.Granted, somemaybenefitmore than others from these programs (e.g., when people with higher salaries get higherunemploymentbenefits).Thekeypoint is thatpracticallyeveryone isabeneficiary,orpotentialbeneficiary.Thepurposeofthisquestionisnottogaugethesizeofthewelfarestatebutratheritsquality.So,youranswershouldbebasedonwhateverprogramsexist.

Responses:0:Thereareno,orextremelylimited,welfarestatepolicies(education,health,retirement,

unemployment,povertyprograms).1:Almostallofthewelfarestatepoliciesaremeans-tested.2:Mostwelfarestatepoliciesmeans-tested,butasignificantportion(e.g.¼or1/3)is

universalisticandpotentiallybenefitseveryoneinthepopulation.3:Thewelfarestatepoliciesareroughlyevenlydividedbetweenmeans-testedand

universalistic.4:Mostwelfarestatepoliciesareuniversalistic,butasignificantportion(e.g.,¼or1/3)are

means-tested.5:Almostallwelfarestatepoliciesareuniversalincharacter.Onlyasmallportionismeans-

tested.Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem



CSOwomen’sparticipation(C)(v2csgender,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanager:MichaelBernhardQuestion:Arewomenpreventedfromparticipatingincivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)?Clarification: Pleasepayattentiontoboth(A)whetherwomenarepreventedfromparticipating in

civilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)becauseoftheirgenderand(B)whetherCSOspursuingwomen’sinterestsarepreventedfromtakingpartinassociationallife.

Responses:0:Almostalways.1:Frequently.2:Abouthalfthetime.3:Rarely.4:Almostnever.




31

Freedomofdiscussionforwomen(C)(v2cldiscw,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Arewomenabletoopenlydiscusspoliticalissuesinprivatehomesandinpublicspaces?Clarification: This indicator specifies the extent to which women are able to engage in private

discussions,particularlyonpoliticalissues,inprivatehomesandpublicspaces(restaurants,publictransportation, sports events,work etc.)without fear of harassment by othermembers of thepolityorthepublicauthorities.Weareinterestedinrestrictionsbythegovernmentanditsagentsbutalsoculturalrestrictionsorcustomarylawsthatareenforcedbyothermembersofthepolity,sometimesininformalways.This question does not ask you to assess the relative freedom ofmen and women. Thus, it ispossibletoassignthe lowestpossiblescoretoacountryeven ifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andextremelylow–rightstofreedomofdiscussion.

Responses:0:Notrespected.Hardlyanyfreedomofexpressionexistsforwomen.Womenaresubjectto

immediateandharshinterventionandharassmentforexpressionofpoliticalopinion.1:Weaklyrespected.Expressionsofpoliticalopinionsbywomenarefrequentlyexposedto

interventionandharassment.2:Somewhatrespected.Expressionsofpoliticalopinionsbywomenareoccasionallyexposed

tointerventionandharassment.3:Mostlyrespected.Thereareminorrestraintsonthefreedomofexpressionintheprivate

sphere,predominantlylimitedtoafewisolatedcasesoronlylinkedtosoftsanctions.Butasarulethereisnointerventionorharassmentifwomenmakepoliticalstatements.

4:Fullyrespected.Freedomofspeechbywomenintheirhomesandinpublicspacesisnotrestricted.



Propertyrightsforwomen(C)(v2clprptyw,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Dowomenenjoytherighttoprivateproperty?Clarification: Private property includes the right to acquire, possess, inherit, and sell private

property, including land. Limitsonproperty rightsmaycome from the state (whichmay legallylimit rightsor fail toenforce them); customary lawsandpractices;or religiousor social norms.Thisquestionconcernstherighttoprivateproperty,notactualownershipofproperty.Thisquestiondoesnotaskyoutoassesstherelativerightsofmenandwomen.Thus,itispossibletoassignthelowestpossiblescoretoacountryevenifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andveryminimal–propertyrights.

Responses:0:Virtuallynowomenenjoyprivatepropertyrightsofanykind.1:Somewomenenjoysomeprivatepropertyrights,butmosthavenone.2:Manywomenenjoymanyprivatepropertyrights,butasmallerproportionenjoysfewor

none.3:Morethanhalfofwomenenjoymostprivatepropertyrights,yetasmallershareofwomen

havemuchmorerestrictedrights.


32

4:Mostwomenenjoymostprivatepropertyrightsbutasmallminoritydoesnot.5:Virtuallyallwomenenjoyall,oralmostall,propertyrights.



Powerdistributedbygender(C)(v2pepwrgen,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtogender?Responses:

0:Menhaveanear-monopolyonpoliticalpower.1:Menhaveadominantholdonpoliticalpower.Womenhaveonlymarginalinfluence.2:Menhavemuchmorepoliticalpowerbutwomenhavesomeareasofinfluence.3:Menhavesomewhatmorepoliticalpowerthanwomen.4:Menandwomenhaveroughlyequalpoliticalpower.



Freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen(C)(v2cldmovew,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Dowomenenjoyfreedomofmovementwithinthecountry?Clarification: This indicator specifies the extent to which all women are able to move freely, in

daytimeandnighttime,inpublicthoroughfares,acrossregionswithinacountry,andtoestablishpermanentresidencywheretheywish.Notethatrestrictionsinmovementmightbeimposedbythe state and/or by informal norms and practices. Such restrictions sometimes fall on ruralresidents,onspecificsocialgroups,orondissidents.This question does not ask you to assess the relative freedom ofmen and women. Thus, it ispossibletoassignthe lowestpossiblescoretoacountryeven ifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andextremelylow–freedomofmovement.Donotconsiderrestrictionsinmovementthatareplacedonordinary(non-political)criminals.Donotconsiderrestrictionsinmovementthatresultfromcrimeorunrest.

Responses:0:Virtuallynowomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovement(e.g.,NorthKoreaorAfghanistan

undertheTaliban).1:Somewomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovement,butmostdonot(e.g.,ApartheidSouth

Africa).2:Mostwomenenjoysomefreedomofmovementbutasizeableminoritydoesnot.

Alternativelyallwomenenjoypartialfreedomofmovement.3:Mostwomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovementbutasmallminoritydoesnot.4:Virtuallyallwomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovement.


33




Freedomfromforcedlaborforwomen(C)(v2clslavef,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaning

Question:Areadultwomenfreefromservitudeandotherkindsofforcedlabor?

Clarification:Involuntaryservitudeoccurswhenanadultisunabletoquitajobs/hedesirestoleave–notbyreasonofeconomicnecessitybutratherbyreasonofemployer’scoercion.Thisincludeslabor camps but not work or service which forms part of normal civic obligations such asconscriptionoremploymentincommandeconomies.

This questiondoesnot ask you to assess the relative freedomofmenandwomen from forcedlabor. Thus, a country inwhich bothmen andwomen suffer the same conditions of servitudemightbecodeda(0)forwomen,eventhoughthereisequalityacrossthesexes.

Responses:0:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaboriswidespreadandaccepted(perhapseven

organized)bythestate.1:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborissubstantial.Althoughofficiallyopposedby

thepublicauthorities,thestateisunwillingorunabletoeffectivelycontainthepractice.2:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborexistsbutisnotwidespreadandusually

activelyopposedbypublicauthorities,oronlytoleratedinsomeparticularareasoramongparticularsocialgroups.

3:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborisinfrequentandonlyfoundinthecriminalunderground.Itisactivelyandsincerelyopposedbythepublicauthorities.

4:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborisvirtuallynon-existent.




Accesstojusticeforwomen(C)(v2clacjstw,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)

Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaning

Question:Dowomenenjoyequal,secure,andeffectiveaccesstojustice?

Clarification: Thisquestionspecifiestheextenttowhichwomencanbringcasesbeforethecourtswithout risk to their personal safety, trials are fair, and women have effective ability to seekredress if public authorities violate their rights, including the rights to counsel, defense, andappeal.

Thisquestiondoesnotaskyoutoassesstherelativeaccesstojusticemenandwomen.Thus,itispossibletoassignthe lowestpossiblescoretoacountryeven ifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andextremelylimited–accesstojustice.

Responses:0:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisnon-existent.


34

1:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisusuallynotestablishedorwidelyrespected.

2:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisinconsistentlyobserved.Minorproblemscharacterizemostcasesoroccurratherunevenlyacrossdifferentpartsofthecountry.

3:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisusuallyobserved.4:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisalmostalwaysobserved.




35

Appendix II. Overview of the structure of the indices.

StructureofAggregation–IndicesandIndicators

DemocracyIndicesNames

Mid-LevelDemocracyandGovernanceIndicesNames

Lower-LevelDemocracyandGovernanceIndicesNames

NamesIndicators v2_tagIndicesandIndicators

ElectoralDemocracyIndex

v2x_polyarchy

Freedomofexpressionindex

v2x_freexp

Governmentcensorshipeffort-Media

v2mecenefm

Harassmentofjournalists v2meharjrn Mediaself-censorship v2meslfcen Freedomofdiscussion

formenv2cldiscm

Freedomofdiscussionforwomen

v2cldiscw

Freedomofacademicandculturalexpression

v2clacfree

Alternativesourceinformationindex

v2xme_altinf

Mediabias v2mebias Print/broadcastmedia

criticalv2mecrit

Print/broadcastmediaperspectives

v2merange

ElectoralComponentIndex

v2x_EDcomp_thick

Freedomofassociationindex(thick)

v2x_frassoc_thick

PartyBan v2psparban Barrierstoparties v2psbars Oppositionparties

autonomyv2psoppaut

Electionsmultiparty v2elmulpar CSOentryandexit v2cseeorgs CSOrepression v2csreprss Shareof

populationwithsuffrage

v2x_suffr

Percentofpopulationwithsuffrage

v2elsuffrage

Cleanelections v2xel_frefair


36

index EMBautonomy v2elembaut EMBcapacity v2elembcap Electionvoterregistry v2elrgstry Electionvotebuying v2elvotbuy Electionothervoting

irregularitiesv2elirreg

Electiongovernmentintimidation

v2elintim

Electionotherelectoralviolence

v2elpeace

Electionfreeandfair v2elfrfair Electedexecutive

index(dejure) v2x_accex

Lowerchamberelected v2lgello Upperchamberelected v2lgelecup Legislaturedominant

chamberv2lgdomchm

HOSselectionbylegislatureinpractice

v2exaphos

HOSappointmentinpractice

v2expathhs

HOGselectionbylegislatureinpractice

v2exaphogp

HOGappointmentinpractice

v2expathhg

HOSappointscabinetinpractice

v2exdfcbhs

HOGappointscabinetinpractice

v2exdjcbhg

HOSdismissesministersinpractice

v2exdfdmhs

HOGdismissesministersinpractice

v2exdfdshg

HOSappointscabinetinpractice

v2exdfcbhs

LiberalDemocracyIndex

v2x_libdem


v2x_polyarchy

LiberalComponentIndex

v2x_liberal

Equalitybeforethelawandindividuallibertyindex

v2xcl_rol

Rigorousandimpartialpublicadministration

v2clrspct

Transparentlawswithpredictableenforcement

v2cltrnslw

Accesstojusticeformen v2clacjstm


37

Accesstojusticeforwomen

v2clacjstw

Propertyrightsformen v2clprptym Propertyrightsfor

womenv2clprptyw

Freedomfromtorture v2cltort Freedomfrompolitical

killingsv2clkill

Freedomfromforcedlaborformen

v2clslavem

Freedomfromforcedlaborforwomen

v2clslavef

Freedomofreligion v2clrelig Freedomofforeign

movementv2clfmove

Freedomofdomesticmovementformen

v2cldmovem

Freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen

v2cldmovew

Judicialconstraintsontheexecutiveindex

v2x_jucon

Executiverespectsconstitution

v2exrescon

Compliancewithjudiciary

v2jucomp

Compliancewithhighcourt

v2juhccomp

Highcourtindependence v2juhcind Lowercourtindependence v2juncind Legislative

constraintsontheexecutiveindex

v2xlg_legcon

Legislaturequestionsofficialsinpractice

v2lgqstexp

Executiveoversight v2lgotovst Legislatureinvestigatesin

practicev2lginvstp

Legislatureoppositionparties

v2lgoppart

DeliberativeDemocracyIndex

v2x_delibdem


v2x_polyarchy

DeliberativeComponentIndex

v2xdl_delib

Reasonedjustification v2dlreason Commongood v2dlcommon Respect

counterargumentsv2dlcountr

Rangeofconsultation v2dlconslt


38

Engagedsociety v2dlengage EgalitariandemocracyIndex

v2x_egaldem


v2x_polyarchy

EgalitarianComponentIndex

v2x_egal

Powerdistributedbysocioeconomicposition

v2pepwrses

Powerdistributedbysocialgroup

v2pepwrsoc

Socialgroupequalityinrespectforcivilliberties

v2clsocgrp

Educationalequality v2peedueq Healthequality v2pehealth Powerdistributedby

genderv2pepwrgen

Encompassing-ness v2dlencmps Means-testedvs.

universalisticv2dlunivl

ParticipatoryDemocracyIndex

v2x_partipdem


v2x_polyarchy

ParticipatoryComponentIndex

v2x_partip

Civilsocietyparticipationindex

v2x_cspart

Candidateselection--National/local

v2pscnslnl

CSOconsultation v2cscnsult CSOparticipatory

environmentv2csprtcpt

CSOwomensparticipation

v2csgender

DirectPopularVoteIndex

v2xdd_dd

Initiativespermitted v2ddlegci Initiativessignatures% v2ddsigcip Initiativessignature-

gatheringtimelimitv2ddgrtlci

Initiativessignature-gatheringperiod

v2ddgrgpci

Initiativeslevel v2ddlevci Initiativesparticipation

thresholdv2ddbindci

Initiativesapprovalthreshold

v2ddthreci

Initiativesadministrativethreshold

v2dddistci


39

Initiativessupermajority v2ddspmjci Occurrenceofcitizen-

initiativethisyearv2ddciniyr

Localgovernmentindex

v2xel_locelec

Localgovernmentelected

v2ellocelc

Localofficesrelativepower

v2ellocpwr

Localgovernmentexists v2ellocgov Regional

governmentindex v2xel_regelec

Regionalgovernmentelected

v2elsrgel

Regionalofficesrelativepower

v2elrgpwr

Regionalgovernmentexists

v2elreggov

CoreCivilSociety

Index v2xcs_ccsi

CSOentryandexit v2cseeorgs CSOrepression v2csreprss CSOparticipatory

environmentv2csprtcpt

Party

Institutionalizationindex

v2xps_party

Partyorganizations v2psorgs PartyBranches v2psprbrch Partylinkages v2psprlnks Distinctpartyplatforms v2psplats Legislativeparty

cohesionv2pscohesv

Femalerightsindex v2x_gender

CSOwomensparticipation

v2csgender

Percent(%)FemaleJournalists

v2mefemjrn

Freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen

v2cldmovew

Freedomofdiscussionforwomen

v2cldiscw

Freedomfromforcedlaborforwomen

v2clslavef

Propertyrightsforwomen

v2clprptyw

Accesstojusticeforwomen

v2clacjstw


40

Powerdistributedbygender

v2pepwrgen

ElectoralRegime

Index v2x_elecreg

Legislativeorconstituentassemblyelection

v2xel_elecparl

v2eltype v2eltype_0 v2eltype v2eltype_1 v2eltype v2eltype_4 v2eltype v2eltype_5 Legislatureclosed

downoraborted v2xlg_leginter

Legislaturebicameral v2lgbicam Presidential

election v2xel_elecpres

v2eltype v2eltype_6 v2eltype v2eltype_7 Chiefexecutiveno

longerelected v2x_hosinter

HOS=HOG? v2exhoshog HOGappointmentin

practicev2expathhg

HOSappointmentinpractice

v2expathhs

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