course 5: urban development and ......conditions in these poor urban areas, both by facilitating...

COURSE 5: URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTPROTECTION MECHANISMS

Block 3 : Emerging Urban Models

Unit 6 : Introduction to New Models of EnvironmentalConservation ................................................ 3

Unit 7 : Challenges and Implications .............................. 27

National Law University, DelhiSector-14, DwarkaNew Delhi-110078

Centre for Environmental Law, WWF-India172-B, Lodi EstateNew Delhi-110003

April, 2012© CEL, WWF-India & National Law University Delhi 2012

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Course CoordinatorMs. Ramya Iyer, Centre for Environmental Law, WWF-IndiaEmail: [email protected]

Block Writers

Unit PreparationCEL, WWF-India

Course Advisor & Editor Format EditorMs. Moulika Arabhi Ms. Ramya IyerDirector, CEL, WWF- India Programme Officer, CEL, WWF-India

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UNIT 6INTRODUCTION TO NEW MODELS OF ENVIRONMENTALCONSERVATION

Contents Page No.

1. Introduction 3

2. Scenario of Environmental Conservation 4

3. Sustainable Urban Development 5

4. Postulates of Conservation 8

5. Some Models of Conservation 12

6. References and Recommended Readings 26

1. IntroductionUrbanisation indicates a change not only in the nature of employment structure fromagriculture and cottage industries to mass production and service industries, but it alsoindicates a shift in social patterns of living in city dwellers. Equally true is the fact thaturbanisation not just causes but also itself results from social change. Urbanisation is theinevitable result of economic growth, with the rise of specialised craftsmen, merchants,and administrators. Cities offer markets, labour and capital with a well-developedinfrastructure, all of which increase their comparative advantage.

Urbanisation is a relatively recent process in the Third World where it is even more rapidthan population growth and where the largest agglomerations are growing most rapidly.As we have already studied in our previous units, the negative effects of urbanisationinclude the loss of agricultural land coupled with problems of urban food supply, thedestruction of habitats and urban diseconomies. However, urbanisation also gives birth tochanges in social structures like family and education. While the graph of formal educationslowly but steadily increases in an urban scenario, the graph of family structure movestowards an unpleasant decline.

Urban trends also prove a drastic shift in livelihood patterns of urban communities. Urbanlivelihoods can take on many forms but the primary objective of that livelihood is to earnmoney to enable the family to purchase those household items most urgently needed. Thisapproach differs significantly from the rural livelihood which revolves around producingsufficient food for the family and selling whatever surplus remains.1 If at all urbandisasters strike, they lead to loss of employment and frequently result in price increasesfor food, water and essential commodities. The urban family is hit disproportionately hardby disaster because those items the family most needs are increasing in price at the sametime when the family has less money to spend on them. The urban poor, particularlymigrants, often lack financial social and physical assets (i.e. money, connections andproperty) to rely upon when there is a reduction of or interruption in income or when a

1 Brown, Courtney, Director, Humanitarian Assistance, � 21st Century Urban Disaster�, CHFInternational Publications, 2012.

Emerging Urban Models4

price shock reduces the purchasing power of that income.2 Urban livelihoods patterns areoftentimes more complex and interrelated than farm-based rural livelihoods and rely onthe functioning of markets. Urban populations rely almost exclusively on buying whatevergoods they need from the market. In an urban setting, markets are integral to survival.Small businesses and shop owners are the drivers of the economy in many cities indeveloping countries. Therefore, it is of utmost priority to develop a sustainable urbancommunity that is capable of self-sustainance.

Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by providingthem with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities. These skills areoften created through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda.Community developers must understand both how to work with individuals and how toaffect communities� positions within the context of larger social institutions, as breakdownof larger social institutions will have a negative impact of community development.

The goal of local community development and decentralisation must be to improve livingconditions in these poor urban areas, both by facilitating access to infrastructures andbasic social services, and by encouraging the development of revenue-generating activities.Developing a strong and sustainable local economy is a priority for urban populations.

However, just like the socio-economic development of urban area is strongly dependenton community development, in turn, community development is directly proportional toconservation and development of human environment in which the community survives.Human communities whether clusters of homes, towns, cities, or other collections ornetworks of people are part of the natural environment. Urban communities live among,and are deeply connected to, the natural environment that makes their living area notonly habitable but also beautiful and valuable. More and more often, human communitiesrealise that the health and vibrancy of the natural environment affects the health andvibrancy of the community and vice versa.

Communities value the land, air and water available to them for material goods, beauty,solace, retreat, recreation and habitat for all creatures. Throughout the nation, communitiesare engaging in efforts to protect these treasured natural resources and the quality of lifethey provide.

Some of today�s most pressing environmental problems, such as non-point source pollution,urban sprawl, habitat destruction, and vehicle emissions are rooted in the cultural fabricof the country. The need to resolve these problems has led to new environmental protectionapproaches for urban communities.

2. Scenario of Environmental ConservationIn the past, there has been a great tradition of environmental conservation which laidemphasis on respect of nature and to take cognizance of the fact that all forms of life� human, animal and plant � are closely interlined and that disturbance in one gives riseto an imbalance in others. Even in modem times, as is evident in our constitutionalprovisions and environmental legislation and planning objectives, conscious efforts have

2 Bloom, David E. and Tarun Khanna, 2007, �The Urban Revolution,� Finance and Development,September 2007, IMF.

Introduction to New Models of Environmental Conservation 5

been made for maintaining environmental security along with developmental advances.The Indian Constitution has laid an important trail in the Section on Directive Principlesof State Policy by assigning the duties for the State and all citizens through Article 48 Aand Article 51 A (g) which state that the �State shall endeavour to protect and improvethe environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife in the country� and �to protectand improve the natural environment including forests, lakes and rivers and wildlife, andto have compassion for the living creatures�.

Over the years, there has been progressive pressure on the environment and the naturalresources, the alarming consequences of which are becoming evident in increasingproportions. These consequences detract from the gains of development and worsen thestandard of living of those people who are directly dependent on natural resources3. Itis in this context that a need to give a new thrust towards conservation and sustainabledevelopment is envisaged.

The survival and well-being of a nation depend on sustainable development. It is a processof social and economic betterment that satisfies the needs and values of all interestgroups without foreclosing future options. Thus it is required that assurance must be therein regard that the demand on the environment from which we derive our sustenance, doesnot exceed its carrying capacity for the present as well as future generations.

3. Sustainable Urban DevelopmentSustainable urban development specifically means achieving a balance between thedevelopment of the urban areas and protection of the environment with an eye to equityin employment, shelter, basic services, social infrastructure and transportation in theurban areas. With rapid expansion of urban population around the world there has arisena wide awareness about minimising the environmental costs of urbanisation. Concerns areraised at environmental damages and depletion of non-renewable resources and risinglevels of pollution in urban areas. In recent times cities have become places of urbanenvironmental degradation and wasteful use of resources, which is proving to be costly togenerations present and future. In order to mitigate this problem it is required that thedepletion of non-renewable resources must be minimised and environmentally sustainableeconomic development must be resorted to. But it has to be ensured that such efforts aredone in ways that are socially, economically and politically acceptable. According to this,ensuring environmental sustainability means taking steps, which include: a) integration ofthe principles of sustainable development in the policies and programmes of the country,b) reversal of loss of environmental resources, c) reduction of the proportion of peoplewithout sustainable access to safe drinking water, d) improving the lives of slum dwellers.4

Initiatives been taken

Sustainable city planning should aim at achieving social and environmental equity whileimproving the lives of the people. To achieve this goal a sustainable city form is requiredalong with provision and proper management of the services. Thus, in order for a city orurban area to be sustainable it needs to produce and manage basic services like water,waste, energy and transportation in a way that it conforms to the principles of sustainable

3 National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environmental Degradation, 1992.4 Chattopadhyay, Basudha, Sustainable Urban Development In India: Some Issues, 2004.


development. In other words, the city should be able to produce and distribute theservices in an economic, environment friendly and equitable way. Cities in the developingcountries are deficient in the provision of basic services that pollute the environment.Therefore in many cases assist the developing countries to accentuate these initiatives.

One such initiative is JICA5 which provides assistance through Japanese ODA loans tosupport a model of development which is environmentally harmonious and preserves thenation�s biodiversity. The projects so undertaken under this scheme are:

Yamuna Action Plan Project (III) is the third Loan Agreement aimed to address improvingthe water quality of the River Yamuna. The 22 km stretch of the river which flows throughDelhi, is less than 2% of the length of the river basin but continues to contribute over 80%of the pollution load in the entire stretch of the river. This loan shall be utilised formodernisation of the existing sewage treatment system and implementing public outreachactivities in National Capital Territory of Delhi. This project is expected to not onlyaugment the efficiency of sewerage system in Delhi, but also promote the use of recycledwater in Delhi as a sustainable supplemental source of water.6

Figure 1: River Yamuna in 2012

Another project to fulfill the demands of this initiative can be deduced by reference toKollam( Kerela) where the aim was to construct new underpass. The overall developmentgoal of Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project (the Project) is to promote sustainablegrowth and good urban governance, develop and expand urban infrastructure, and toreduce vulnerability to environmental degradation and urban poverty in five municipalcorporations in the State of Kerala. The Project involves investment in the sectors of (i)water supply; (ii) sewerage and sanitation; (iii) urban drainage; (iv) solid waste management;(v) roads and transportation; and (vi) poverty alleviation. The Project Preparatory TechnicalAssistance (PPTA) has identified sub-projects in the above-mentioned sectors in the fivemunicipal corporations of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Thrissur, Kochi and Kozhikode.7

India has integrated sustainable development into its planning process and has severalprogrammes directed towards this goal. It�s initiatives in addressing development andsustainability issues touch upon the social, economic and environmental dimensions. TheGovernment of India�s sensitivity and commitment to sustainable and inclusive growth isreflected in the major policies of various ministries and also specific initiatives andprogrammes adopted through its Five Year Plans so as to achieve sustainability and MDG�s

5 Japan International Cooperation Agency.6 Newsletter from JICA-India office, issue 15, JICA.7 Resettlement Planning Document, India: Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project, 2008.


(Millenium Development Goals). The Eleventh Five Year Plan reiterates this commitmentof inclusive growth and reducing disparity through monitorable indicators of humandevelopment.

In order to achieve the goals of sustainable development, one of the steps that were takenwas in the direction of environment conservation and protection by promoting Environmenteducation. This strategy was adopted post Stockholm conference by setting up Centers ofExcellence for Environment Education under Ministry of Environment in the early 1980s.Though till sometime, most of these activities were restricted to this Ministry. However,gradually with the realisation of the role that Education can play for ensuing sustainabledevelopment, Government of India recommended Ministry of Human Resource Developmentto integrate environmental concerns into all aspects and levels of education. ESD (Educationfor Sustainable Development) aims to go beyond and achieve status of well being in linewith sustainable development by empowering people through various forms of educationalprocesses and practices to assume responsibility for creating sustainable future. This goalbecame finer when India became part of UN General Assembly resolution for establishingUN DESD (2005-2014) in the year 2005, in recognition of the need to enhance efforts ineducation and learning to address issues of sustainable development.

Various alternative approaches have been adopted by countries to reduce their footprintswith respect to ESD. However, scholars and development practioners have raised concernsthat India currently needs to move forward directly on its own endogenous sustainablemodel of development rather than imitating the models of the western countries. Veteranslike K. Sarabhai puts it as challenge of �leapfrogging� and blending both traditional�modern elements for ESD in all realms of society. Alongside, having the confidence tomake critical choices and walk on its own well defined path is crucial for India so as todefine the goals of ESD. As we move forward to redefine the notion of �development� tobe more sustainable from all quarters it also becomes important to develop the paradigmof �education� i.e. the way it is practiced and conceptualised. In India, ESD has broughtabout a shift in emphasis from teaching to learning in myriad forms. The new NationalCurriculum Framework 2005 has as one of its key guiding principles: Connecting knowledgeto life outside the school.

In this regard, India is the only country to have passed one of the landmark judgmentspassed by the Supreme Court of India directing all education boards to include environmentaleducation (EE) as part of the formal education system at all levels. EE in India has alwaysbeen seen in the development context. Therefore, much of the aspects of EE can be seenas ESD. For instance, issues such as water/housing/health can be seen from a variety ofperspectives including access, equity, distribution and traditional use. Thus, the perspectiveof ESD needs to be built on the foundations of sector specific development already laidout and then integrating it as part with to achieve wider development agenda. It is in thisrespect that India is progressively marked different from other countries.

The Indian vision for the DESD(Decade of Education for Sustainable Development)/ESD ishence, based on a commitment towards sustainability rooted in a centuries old traditionof living in equilibrium with nature and all its elements. The 4th International conferenceon EE at CEE recognised and gave a shape to this vision by bringing together the expertiseacross the world to build the partnership. India recognises ESD as a major drive of changeand its commitment to sustainable development is reflected in its policies, programmes


and other Government and NGO led activities. However, challenges are still to be met interms of creating awareness and ensuing ESD based development perspective. This isbecause concerns for environment conservation/protection cannot be put into place withoutaddressing/taking into account the other/larger socio-economic and cultural reality ofsociety in which concerns of environment are inbuilt.8

It is to be noted that sustainable urban development encompasses various issues that arerequired for proper urban planning. Owing to progress made in the areas of technologymany new technologies are improvised for development in the field of urban planning. Onesuch aspect could be seen in Lavasa wherein GIS (Geographic Information Center) technologyhas been used for surveying purposes. The concept of New Urbanism has integrated variousfields such as Environment, Engineering and Construction, Urban Planning and Architecturefor planning, execution and sustainable development. These components constitute theprocess of urban development and planning and require timely assistance of GIS to ensureaccuracy as well as ease of operation.

It is observed that sustainable urban development involves series of initiatives which havein the past addressed to and at present are also addressing to issues of urban development.It involves policy implementation and good governance at all levels of urbanism. It can beenvisaged from above mentioned case studies that that while undertaking urban developmentvarious aspects have to be seen such as transport, sewage facilities etc. The main purposeof focusing on specific needs is that all areas have different requirements as per theirdemography and the other facilities so present.

4. Postulates of ConservationThere is a very fine line between wildness and civility in Indian society, as well asconnection of ideas of nature to different aspects of social life, especially labour, aesthetics,politics, commerce and agriculture. These interconnected historical processes informenvironmental history in India.

Environment is an issue of high concern. Environmental conservation and Economic growthhave strong inter connection. Both are crucial for surviving and building a strong future.Therefore choosing the right methods and alternatives that would not hinder the growthof economy and preservation of environment are the policy motivations towards thisdirection. Let us discuss some such methods and alternatives that have been organised ata basic/grass-root level in recent times.

a) Think Global, Act Local

The concept urges people to consider the health of the entire planet and to takeaction in their own communities and cities. Long before governments began enforcingenvironmental laws, individuals were coming together to protect habitats and theorganisms that live within them. These efforts are referred to as grassroots efforts.They occur on a local level and are primarily run by volunteers and helpers.

�Think Globally, Act Locally� originally began at the grassroots level, however, it isnow a global concept with high importance. It is not just volunteers who take theenvironment into consideration. It is corporations, government officials, education

8 DESD INDIA, cited from <http://www.desd.org/Esd_india.htm>


system and local communities. It is now extremely important to consider global marketsand communities when doing business. Global markets and large corporations have oneof the largest impacts on the environment, it is their influence and actions that arevital to the survival of our planet. Large corporations have the most impact on theenvironment, therefore �thinking globally and acting locally� can make a majordifference in the survival of our planet.

The original phrase �Think global, act local� has been attributed to Scottish townplanner and social activist Patrick Geddes in his 1915 book �Cities in Evolution�.Although the exact phase does not appear in the book, the idea (as applied to cityplanning) is clearly evident: � �Local character� is thus no mere accidental old-worldquaintness, as its mimics think and say. It is attained only in course of adequate graspand treatment of the whole environment, and in active sympathy with the essentialand characteristic life of the place concerned.�9

Town planning is important to understanding of the idea �think globally, act locally�.Urban management and development highly impacts the surrounding environment. Theways in which this is initiated is vital to the health of the environment. Corporationsneed to be aware of global communities when expanding their companies to newlocations. Not only do corporations need to be aware of global differences, but alsoUrban and rural areas who plan on expanding or changing the dynamics of theircommunity. As stated �Addressing the complex urban environmental problems, inorder to improve urban livability through Urban Environmental Strategies (UES), involvestaking stock of the existing urban environmental problems, their comparative analysisand prioritisation, setting out objectives and targets and identification of variousmeasures to meet these objectives�10 .

In the 1970s, scientist and philosopher Rene Dubos counseled the world to �thinkglobally, act locally� in addressing environmental problems. Rene Dubos mentioned thephrase as an advisor to the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in1972. With respect to environmental conservation, in India, at the grass root levelthere are various mass movements being organised with the theme of Think globally-Act locally for conservation of nature since 1993.

b) Act responsibly for a better future

This approach is based on the concept of sustainable development and inter-generationalequity. It recognises that the actions we take today can have implications for generationsto come, and that we must live and work in a way that preserves the ability of ourchildren, grandchildren and following generations to meet their basic needs.

While our focus is on the future, much of the work that the county is undertaking inthe name of sustainability has immediate benefits for current county residents.Sustainability fundamentally is about finding more efficient, less wasteful ways ofdoing things. Policies formulated in our country constantly seek to the carbon footprintby constructing more energy efficient buildings, incorporating and encouraging use of

9 Geddes, Patrick (1915). Cities in Evolution. London: Williams. p.Ê397.10 �Strategic Urban Environmental Planning�. Urban Environment and Climate Change. 2011, as

cited from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTURBANDEVELOPMENT/EXTU


more fuel efficient vehicles, and reducing the amount of solid waste generated, alongwith simultaneously encouraging the provision of higher quality service at lower coststo county residents.

c) Protect and enhance natural and built environment

Historically, there has been a tendency to view the natural environment and the builtenvironment as being separate and distinct entities. Environmentalism in the 21st

Century understands that the two are very much interrelated as are their fates.Protecting and enhancing our natural environment will depend to a very large extenton our ability to create livable, diverse, higher density, mixed use, urban neighbourhoodsand will require leadership, vision, planning, community involvement, and ongoingcommitment.

Incorporating natural environmental values into the built environment can also improvethe quality of life and benefit nearby, more natural areas.

d) Environment, Economy and Social Equity

Enlightened 21st Century environmentalism recognises that the health of ourenvironment, health of our economy and the health of our society are intrinsicallyinterrelated. As a consequence, the government, communities and environmental leadersneed to promote solutions to our problems that acknowledge, address and seek tobalance responsibly all the three components of sustainability (i.e. Environment,economy and social equity, sometimes referred to as THE TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE).

11 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620790/utopian-socialism

Figure 2: Triple Bottom Line Approach11


For example, by allowing a more affordable, higher density, mixed use, energy andwater efficient housing constructed with sustainable material to be built in walkableand transit oriented neighbourhoods, local governments can help to provide muchneeded housing for all ages and income groups, contribute to economy and combatglobal warming, all at the same time.

Accommodating future population growth in ways that protect our environment willinevitably require that we create higher density, transit oriented, mixed use urbanneighbourhoods in appropriate locations within our existing communities. Local officialsand community leaders have an obligation to provide leadership and vision in creatinglivable, vibrant, urban neighbourhoods in their communities

e) Reduce, Reuse and Recycle

Figure 3: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle

There are three key waste management strategies referred to as waste hierarchy or thethree Rs of waste management: reduce, reuse, recycle. The Rs are meant to be a hierarchy,in order of importance. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximumpractical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste.

Some waste management experts have recently incorporated an additional R: �Re-think�,with the implied meaning that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and thata thoroughly effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way oflooking at waste.

Reduce - Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materialsby modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes inmanufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and product formulation. At times, theterm �pollution prevention� may refer to source reduction.

Another method of source reduction is to increase incentives for recycling. Many communitiesin the United States are implementing variable-rate pricing for waste disposal (also knownas Pay As You Throw) which has been effective in reducing the size of the municipal wastestream.

Reuse - Elements of the discarded item are used again. Initiatives include hand-me-downs,garage sales, quilting, travel mugs and composting (nutrients). Includes the terms laundry,repair, regift and upcycle.


Recycle - Discards are separated into materials that may be incorporated into new products.This is different from Reuse in that energy is used to change the physical properties ofthe material. Initiatives include Composting, Beverage Container Deposits and buyingproducts with a high content of post-consumer material. Within recycling there is distinctionbetween two types:

Upcycle - converting low-value materials in high-value products (more desirable)

Downcycle - converting valuable products into low-value raw materials (less desirable)

5. Some Models of ConservationIn past centuries, there have emerged two models of grass-root environmental conservation.They are:

I) Reactive Conservational Efforts: Protest and Activism

II) Proactive Conservational Efforts: Protection and Advocacy

Let us examine a few cases studies of the same:

I) Reactive Conservational Efforts: Protest and Activism

A) Bishnoi Movement

As the legend goes, in the year 1471 A.D., there was a severe drought in a villagecalled Pipasar of Rajasthan. The drought lasted for three years. Every bit of grass andplants were chopped to feed the animals. Children starved, cattle were dying andthere was not a drop of water. People left their homes to search for water. At thattime, there was a man called �Jambeshwar� who was acutely pained at the tragedybut wisely learnt a lesson. He noticed that, unlike in the past, the land was not ableto withstand the destruction from the drought as a large number of trees had beenfelled. If life was to survive, people must understand the value of environment. Hepreached that the way in which we lived should be in harmony with nature and notagainst it. He came to be known as Guru Maharaj Jambaji. Jambaji put down histhoughts into 29 principles which are followed by his disciples who are known asBishnois (20+9) or twenty-niners.

According to the religion preached by Jambaji, there was strict ban on: Killing of anyanimals or bird; Felling of a green tree. The unique religion of conservation was takenup by a large number of people in Rajasthan and the number of Bishnois increased tothe entire village communities. This helped to make villages greener and restore thenatural ecosystems. Vegetation naturally helped to recharge the ground water.

About 300 years after this religion was founded, the soldiers of king of Jodhpur triedto cut trees in a Bishnoi village of Khejadali so that a new place may be built for theking. The Bishnois tried to reason with them and stop them but in vain. But true oftheir religion, the Bishnois hugged the trees to protect them. The soldiers attackedthem to overcome the protest and 363 Bishnois were killed. When the king heard ofthis massacre and the unique religion, he was overcome by people�s devotion. Heordered his men to withdraw, gave the religion state sanction and ensured that thewishes of Bishnois were respected in future. Even today, after many generations,Bishnois continue to protect the trees and animals.


One can spot a Bishnoi village easily as being more green and abundant in wildlife.The population of Black Buck, which is in the list of endangered species, is found tobe in greater number in Bishnoi villages than outside. In today�s environment, whenmany places are facing acute shortage of water and pollution of air, land and water,we need to take a lesson in conservation from Bishnois. Conservation is a religionevery human being should adopt.

b) Jhola Andolan

The Jhola Andolan was organised as a nation-wide mass movement by the ParyawaranSachetak Samiti (PSS). The movement was organised to completely ban on use, trade,store and manufacturing of plastic carry bags.

c) Save Silent Valley

Save Silent Valley was a social movement aimed at the protection of Silent valley, anevergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India. It was started in1973 to save the Silent Valley Reserve Forest in from being flooded by a hydroelectricproject. The valley was declared as Silent Valley National Park in 1985. Nonethelessthe controversy surrounding the valley is still on.

The Kuntipuzha is a major river that flows 15 km southwest from Silent Valley. It takesits origin in the lush green forests of Silent valley. In 1928 the location at Sairandhrion the Kunthipuzha River was identified as an ideal site for electricity generation. Astudy and survey was conducted in 1958 of the area about the possibility of ahydroelectric project of 120 MV and one costing Rs.17 Crore was later proposed by theKerala State Electricity Board.

The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) decided to implement the Silent ValleyHydro-Electric Project (SVHEP) centered on a dam across the Kunthipuzha River in1973. The resulting reservoir would have flood 8.3 km² of virgin rainforest. The proposalwas enquired by National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co-ordination(NCEPC) and suggested 17 safeguards to be implemented in case the projectimplemented. A shortage of funds delayed activity. Even then from 1974 to 1975 a verylarge number of trees were felled in the area. KSEB announced its plan to begin damconstruction in 1973.

After the announcement of imminent dam construction the valley became the focalpoint of �Save Silent Valley�, India�s fiercest environmental debate of the decade.Because of concern about the endangered lion-tailed macaque, the issue was broughtto public attention. In 1977 the Kerala Forest Research Institute carried out an EcologicalImpact study of the Silent Valley area and proposed that the area be declared aBiosphere Reserve.

In 1978 the project was approved with the condition that the State Government enactLegislation ensuring the necessary safeguards. Also that year the IUCN (Ashkhabad,USSR, 1978) passed a resolution recommending protection of Lion-tailed Macaques inSilent Valley and Kalakkad and the controversy heated up. In 1979 the Government ofKerala passed Legislation regarding the Silent Valley Protection Area (Protection ofEcological balance Act of 1979) and issued a notification declaring the exclusion of theHydroelectric Project Area from the proposed National Park.


Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad (KSSP) effectively aroused public opinion on therequirement to save Silent Valley. A petition of writ was filed before the High Courtof Kerala, against the clear cutting of forests in the Hydroelectric Project area andthe court ordered a stop to the clear cutting.

Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the renowned Agricultural Scientist, and then Secretary to theDepartment of Agriculture, called at the Silent Valley region and his suggestion was389.52 km² including the Silent Valley (89.52 km²), New Amarambalam (80 km²),Attappadi (120 km²) in Kerala and Kunda in Tamil Nadu (100 km²) reserve forests,should be made into a National Rainforest Biosphere Reserve, with the aim of �preventingerosion of valuable genes from the area�.

In January 1980 the Hon. High Court of Kerala lifted the ban on clear cutting, but thenthe Hon. Prime Minister of India requested the Government of Kerala to stop furtherworks in the project area until all aspects were fully discussed. In December, theGovernment of Kerala declared the Silent Valley area, excluding the HydroelectricProject area, as a National Park.

In 1982 a multidisciplinary committee with Prof. M. G. K. Menon as chairman, wascreated to decide if the Hydroelectric Project was feasible without any significantecological damage. Early in 1983, Prof. Menon�s Committee submitted its report. Aftera careful study of the Menon report, the central government decided to abandon theProject. On November 15, 1984 the Silent Valley forests were declared as a NationalPark, though the boundaries of the Silent Valley Park were limited and no buffer zonewas created, despite recommendations by expert committees and scientists.

Ten months later, on September 7, 1985 the Silent Valley National Park was formallyinaugurated. On September 1, 1986 Silent Valley National Park was designated as thecore area of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Since then, a long-term conservation efforthas been undertaken to preserve the Silent Valley ecosystem. In 2001 a new Hydroproject was proposed and the �Man vs. Monkey debate� was revived. The proposedsite of the dam (64.5 m high and 275 m long) is just 3.5 km downstream of the olddam site at Sairandhiri, 500 m outside the National Park boundary. The 84 km² catchmentof the project area included 79 km² of the Silent Valley National Park.

The Kerala Minister for Electricity called The Pathrakkadavu dam (PHEP) an �eco-friendly alternative� to the old Silent Valley project. The PHEP was designed as a run-off-the-river project with an installed capacity of 70 MW in the first phase (105 MWeventually) and an energy generation of 214 million units (mu) with a minimal grossstorage of 0.872 million cubic meters. The claim was that the submergence area ofthe PHEP would be a negligible 0.041 km² compared to 8.30 km² submergence of the1970s (SVHEP). However, The spectacular waterfall between the Neelikkal andPathrakkadavu hills bordering the Silent Valley will disappear if the proposedPathrakkadavu hydro-electric project is implemented.

During January to May 2003 a rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carriedout during by the Thiruvananthapuram-based Environmental Resources Research Centerand its report was released in December, stating that forest lost due to the projectwould be just 0.2216 km², not including the 7.4 km approach road and land to beacquired for the powerhouse in Karapadam.


d) Chipko Movement

The forests of India are a critical resource for the subsistence of rural peoples throughoutthe country, but especially in hill and mountain areas, both because of their directprovision of food, fuel and fodder and because of their role in stabilising soil andwater resources. As these forests have been increasingly felled for commerce andindustry, Indian villagers have sought to protect their livelihoods through the Gandhianmethod of satyagraha non-violent resistence. In the 1970s and 1980s this resistanceto the destruction of forests spread throughout India and became organised and knownas the Chipko Movement.

The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in April 1973 and over the next fiveyears spread to many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The name of themovement comes from a word meaning �embrace�: the villagers hug the trees, savingthem by interposing their bodies between them and the contractors� axes. The Chipkoprotests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on greenfelling in the Himalayan forests of that state by order of India�s then Prime Minister,Indira Gandhi. Since then the movement has spread to Himachal Pradesh in the North,Karnataka in the South, Rajasthan in the West, Bihar in the East and to the Vindhyasin Central India. In addition to the 15-year ban in Uttar Pradesh, the movement hasstopped clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas and generated pressurefor a natural resource policy which is more sensitive to people�s needs and ecologicalrequirements.

The Chipko Movement is the result of hundreds of decentralised and locally autonomousinitiatives. Its leaders and activists are primarily village women, acting to save theirmeans of subsistence and their communities. Men are involved too, however, and someof these have given wider leadership to the movement. Prominent Chipko figuresinclude: Sunderlal Bahuguna, a Gandhian activist and philosopher, whose appeal to thethen Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi resulted in the green-felling ban and whose5,000 kilometer trans-Himalaya footmarch in 1981-83 was crucial in spreading theChipko message. Bahuguna coined the Chipko slogan: �ecology is permanent economy�.

Chandi Prasad Bhatt, one of the earliest Chipko activists, who fostered locally-basedindustries based on the conservation and sustainable use of forest wealth for localbenefit.

Another activist was Dhoom Singh Negi, who, with Bachni Devi and many villagewomen, first saved trees by hugging them in the �Chipko embrace�. They coined theslogan: �What do the forests bear? soil, water and pure air�. The Chipko poet, GhanasyamRaturi was another prominent figure, whose songs still echo throughout the Himalayaof Uttar Pradesh.

Indu Tikekar, a doctor of philosophy, whose spiritual discourses throughout India on theancient Sanskrit scriptures and on comparative religion have stressed the unity andoneness of life and put the Chipko Movement in this context.

A feature published by the United Nations Environment Programme reported the ChipkoMovement thus: �In effect the Chipko people are working a socio-economic revolutionby winning control of their forest resources from the hands of a distant bureaucracywhich is concerned with selling the forest for making urban-oriented products.�


The essence of the movement is stated by Sunderlal Bahuguna in the following words,�The solution of present-day problems lie in the re-establishment of a harmoniousrelationship between man and nature. To keep this relationship permanent we willhave to digest the definition of real development: development is synonymous withculture. When we sublimate nature in a way that we achieve peace, happiness,prosperity and, ultimately, fulfilment along with satisfying our basic needs, we marchtowards culture.�

e) Baliyapal Movement

The Government of India decided to setup a missile testing range at Baliyapal inOrissa. Baliyapal become a center of controversy because the area to be taken for thetesting range area a very fertile area with thick population. The Baliyapal Movementwas organised by the people of Baliyapal testing of missiles on the land of Baliyalvillagers which was feared to lead to interfertitlity of soil. The Government could notimplement its decision because of the strong resistance of the people.

f) The Plchimada Struggle

�It is a new experience for us that water becomes a market commodity. It is aliento our habits. To sell bottled water is unjust and anti-nature.� - Veloor Swaminathanstates the rationale of the struggle in these simple statements.

The struggle against the multi-national Coca-Cola factory at Plachimada of PerumattyPanchayat in Chittoor Taluk of Palakkad district, Kerala has shown unique consistencyand perseverance in the recent years. It has attracted considerable amount ofinternational media attention and thus being projected as a symbolic model of resistanceagainst multi-national colonisation. As a result, similar struggles against Coca-Cola andthe exploitation of scarce groundwater resources for its sake, is gaining momentum inSivaganga in Tamilnadu and in Orissa. All these struggles have to be viewed in aperspective that would unveil the ruthless exploitative face of globalisation and itsagents, the multi-national giants.

People representing the five most affected colonies adjacent to the factory, whobelong to Eravala, Malasar tribal communities and other scheduled cast communitiesheld demonstrations and sit-in strike in front the factory for the last one and a halfyears. On April 22nd 2002,around 2000 men, women and children dwelling around theHindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Pvt. Ltd at Plachimada, picketed the factory and gavean ultimatum to the authorities to quit immediately.

The Adivasi Gotrasabha leader Ms. C.K.Janu inaugurated the overwhelming function.The police arrested all the people participated in the function. Blockades, Dharna andPicketing were all resorted to during this continuous protest against the wrongs of themighty by the poor and the weak. The police accusing them of raising slogans againstthe multinational company, blocking the workers from entering the factory and indulgingin anti-social activities, registered several cases against these poor people and theirleaders. The company filed a case (OP No.11598) in the High Court demanding policeprotection from these �anti-social elements�. The accused were Vilayodi Venugopal(Chairman,Adivasi Protection Council),Veloor Swaminathan(Convenor, Action Council)Subrahmanyan, Murukesan, Kochikkadu Mani and Pazhaniswami.


However the High Court accepted a counter petition in file submitted by the ActionCouncil explaining that they were waging a very just protest and it was their legitimateright to demonstrate in a peaceful and democratic manner. They alleged that the MNCwas clever enough to influence the media not to give coverage to the struggle. Localalso stated that political parties, irrespective of their ideologies for or againstglobalisation and have done their best to protect the interests of the factory deprivingthe basic rights and physical existence of those who elected them to power. A proagitation agency has stated as follows, �As the days went by the national media justcannot but to give due coverage as the struggle was gaining momentum and internationalmedia attention Cases were registered one after another but it didn�t affect themorale or political will of the people whatever be the financial burden it rendered.The giant factory that can literally dictate terms to political rulers, law enforcementagencies, civil servants etc., used its money power and muscle power to silence thepeople and it has been partly successful so much so that the police department,despite the fact that the petition by the factory for Police protection was dismissedby the high court of Kerala, has mis-informed the people that the factory has beengranted police protection by the high court. There is heavy deployment of police atthe gate of the factory threatening the poor people of dire consequences if anyattempt is made against the smooth functioning of the factor�.

g) Some other prominent socio-environmental movements organised at the grassrootlevel are Narmada Bachao Andolan, Koel Karo, Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha, etc.

II) Proactive Conservational Efforts: Protection and Advocacy

a) Vulture ConservationThe population of the three, once most common, vulture species viz. Gyps bengalensis,Gyps indicus and Gyps tenuirostris (White-backed Vulture, Long-billed Vulture andSlender-billed Vulture, respectively) has declined drastically over last two decades.Compared to early nineties, the crash in population is over 99%. The average annualmortality rate is about 42% for White-backed Vulture and 17% for the Long-billedVulture and Slender-billed Vulture.

Two of the three affected species, the Oriental white-backed and the long-billedvulture, once regarded as very common in India, are now listed as critically endangeredby the IUCN � The World Conservation Union. The third affected species, the slender-billed vulture, has historically been uncommon, but now is regarded as extremelyrare. The study conducted by Peregrine Fund, a U.S. based conservation organisation,in Pakistan have confirmed that Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory druggiven to cattle to treat pain and inflammation, is a major killer of vultures. In India,it is estimated that the veterinary diclofenac worth about 20 crores is used to treatthe animals. The finding of diclofenac as vulture killer was published in the prestigiousscientific journal �Nature� in January 2004.

The problem was originally highlighted by Dr. Vibhu Prakash, principal scientist of anorganisation called Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). In the mid 1990s,Dr. Prakash identified that the Oriental white-backed vulture and the long-billedvulture had declined by 96% and 97% respectively in Keoladeo National Park (KNP),Rajasthan, over a 10 year period. He also noticed a marked increase in the mortalityrate of both young and adult vultures in and around KNP, and that the birds appearedlethargic and sick with drooping heads for several weeks before death.


Interestingly, both affected species are in the genus Gyps (often called �griffon�vultures), while other (non-Gyps) species of vulture in and around KNP appeared tobe unaffected. Similarly, other scavenging species (birds and mammals) were unaffected.

Prompted by dramatic and worrying findings, and supported by the Royal Society forProtection of Birds (RSPB) and the Indian Government, the BNHS conducted an India-wide survey of vultures in 2000 and compared the results with similar surveys carriedout in the early 1990s.

States like Delhi, Rajastahn and Haryana have taken up conservational efforts to savethe population of vultures from further decline. For instance, Haryana forest departmentin collaboration with BNHS has established a Vulture Conservation Breeding Center atPinjore. This center was established in 2001 initially as a Vulture Care Center toinvestigate and study the declining populations. At present the center houses 127Vultures (White-backed Vulture 55 nos., Long-billed Vulture 55 nos., Slender-billedVulture nos. 15 and Himalayan Griffon 2 nos.)12 . This is the largest collection of thethree critically endangered species of vulture at one place any where in the world13 .A planned breeding programme has been initiated with the financial assistance fromthe Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species fund of the Government of U.K., theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and technical and financial collaborationof the Zoological Society of London. The Pinjore Vulture Conservation Breeding Centerof Haryana Forest Department has been recognised as the first center of its kind inAsia and is poised for major contribution in the conservation of these threatenedspecies.

Vultures are nature�s most efficient scavengers. Nine species of vultures are found inIndia of which five belong to genus Gyps. All the species of vultures are scavengersand are commensal of man. Their occurrence in extremely high density is attributedto the availability of abundant food supply due to the primitive method of carcassdisposal. All of them have successfully exploited the vast food resources created byman by extensive dairy farming. The carcasses of livestock form the principal food forvulture and are now mostly dependant on human activities for the food.

These extremely efficient scavengers can finish off a carcass of adult cattle, in amatter of about 20 minutes. The vultures were keeping the environment clean in Indiain absence of any effective carcass and slaughterhouse waste disposal system andhereby have prevented outbreak of epidemics by cleaning the carcasses before theycould rot and putrify. A population crash of vulture could cause a dramatic increasein epidemics, as carcass and waste disposal system has remained more or less unchanged.

The dramatic vulture declines observed across India present a whole range of threatsboth ecologically and to human health. The absence of such important scavengers willalmost certainly influence the numbers and distribution of other scavenging species forexample as vultures have declined, feral dog populations have been reported to haveincreased massively, with over 1000 observed recently at a carcass dump in Rajasthan.This could pose many associated disease risk to humans and wildlife, such as rabies.

12 Figures from Haryana Forest Department�s website.13 Supra


b) House Sparrow Conservation

Universally familiar in appearance, the widespread and once abundant house sparrowhas become a mystery bird and is becoming increasingly rare all over the world. Perkyand bustling, house sparrows have always been seen, mingling with finches in thefields in autumn and winter, but now weeks pass without a single one putting in anappearance.

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a member of the old world sparrow familyPasseridae. Sadly, house sparrows, that have been a part of our city culture are fastvanishing from many big cities, but are still not uncommon in small towns and villages.India has seen a massive decline of house sparrows14 in recent years. On the worldmap too. Once a commonplace bird in large parts of Europe, its numbers are decreasing.In the Netherlands, the House Sparrow is even considered an endangered species.Their recent decline has earned them a place on the Red List15 in the Netherlands.Similar precipitous drops in population have been recorded in the United Kingdom.French ornithologists have charted a steep decline in Paris and other cities. There hasbeen an even sharper fall in the urban areas in Germany, the Czech Republic, Belgium,Italy and Finland.

Urbanisation has done away with home gardens, which had worms and insects for theyoung sparrows. But pesticides have proved lethal for their survival. The most recentreason for their disappearance is the mobile phone towers. The waves from the towerare capable of destroying the life in the eggs. Thereby they are incapable of hatching.

Many reasons could be cited for House sparrow population decline like introduction ofunleaded petrol, the combustion of which produces compounds such as methyl nitrite,a compound highly toxic for insects. Widespread use of garden pesticides, which killsinsects that are vital diet of new-born sparrows, disappearance of open grass lands,rising temperature and avian-unfriendly modern architecture had also grievously harmedthe sparrows. Unscientific proliferation of mobile phone towers have also, in recenttimes, emerged as a major factor in the decline of house sparrow population. Mobiletowers emit a frequency of 900-1800 MHz, continuous penetration of EMR(electromagnetic radiation) through the body of birds would affect their nervoussystem and their navigational skills. They become incapable for navigation and foraging.The birds which nests near towers are found to leave the nest within one week.

The house sparrow is an intelligent bird that has proven to be adaptable to mostsituation, i.e. nest sites, food and shelter, so it has become the most abundantsongbird in the world. Sparrows are very social birds and tend to flock togetherthrough most of the year. A flock�s range covers 1.5-2 miles, but it will cover a largerterritory if necessary when searching for food. The sparrow�s main diet consists ofgrain seeds, especially waste grain and live stock feed. If grain is not available, itsdiet is very broad and adaptable. It also eats weeds and insects, especially during thebreeding season. The human dependent nature of the house sparrow is quite evident

14 House Sparrows are a part of the Sparrow family. Sparrow family has over 250 varieties ofSparrows. The sparrow birds generally found in cities are called �House Sparrows�.

15 IUCN Red List, Netherland�s Chapter. Appearance of a species� name in the Red List denotes thatit is a �Threatened Species�.


as they are avid seekers of garbage tossed out by humans. In spring, flowers (especiallythose with yellow colours) are often eaten crocuses, primroses and aconites seem toattract the house sparrow most. The birds also hunt butterflies.

House sparrows are generally attracted to buildings for roosting, nesting and cover.They look for any man-made nook or cranny to build their nests. Other nesting sitesare clothes line poles with the end caps open, lofts, kitchen garden etc. The sparrowmakes its home in areas closely associated with human habitation.

In India, House sparrows are popularly known as Goraiya in the Hindi belt. In TamilNadu and Kerala it is known as Kuruvi. Telugu language has given it a name, Pichhuka,Kannadigas call it Gubbachchi, Gujaratis call it Chakli where as Maharashtrians call itChimani. It is known as Chiri in Punjab, Chaer in Jammu and Kashmir, Charai Pakhi inWest Bengal, and Gharachatia in Orissa. In Urdu language it is called Chirya whileSindhi language has termed it as Jhirki.

The nesting sites of the birds are varied � in holes in buildings or rocks, in ivy orcreepers, on houses or riverbanks, on sea-cliffs or in bushes in bays and inlets. Whenbuilt in holes or ivy, the nest is an untidy litter of straw and rubbish, abundantly filledwith feathers. Large well-constructed domed nests are often built when the bird nestsin trees or shrubs, especially in rural areas. The House Sparrow is quite aggressive inusurping the nesting sites of other birds, often forcibly evicting the previous occupants,and sometimes even building a new nest directly on top of another active nests withlive nestlings. Eggs are variable in size and shape as well as markings. Eggs areincubated by the female. The sparrow has the shortest incubation period of all thebirds, 10-12 days, and a female can lay 25 eggs each season.

Today one misses the sight of sparrows hopping from branch to branch in the bushesoutside one�s house and their chirping. One is taken back to well known Hindi WriterMahadevi Verma�s Story �Goraiya� � eating grains from her hands, jumping on hershoulders and playing hide and seek. Today one wishes that the Goriya does not remainconfined in the pages of Mahadevi Verma�s story but comes back to our cities as everbefore.

The lack of awareness on the various sparrow species and its habitat is probably thebiggest bottleneck that is hindering the conservation of sparrows. An effort known as�World House Sparrow Day� is organised every year aimed at raising public awarenessregarding the conservation of sparrows. The first World House Sparrow Day (WHSD)held on March 20, 2010 can be best described as a campaign by the common man,for the common man and of the common man to save a common species from thebrink of extinction. The effort was motioned under the leadership of Mr. MohhamadDilawar, a scientist and former lecturer in Environmental Studies.

The WHSD was conducted without any financial help or assistance from any governmentor non-governmental agency by Nature Forever Society in collaboration with the BNHS,Eco-Sys Action Foundation (France), Avon Wildlife Trust (UK) and numerous othernational and international organisations across the globe. It became a people�s movementto give voice to a bird that will remain etched in the minds of people across theirworld for their proximity with humans once upon a time. The event was promoted


entirely with the help of a website16 and groups such as the World House Sparrow Day,House Sparrow and Nature Forever Society on the social networking sites like Facebook.

In New Delhi, Hon. Chief Minister Dr. Sheila Dikshit inaugurated the World HouseSparrow Day that was attended by representatives from the government and non-governmental organisations, leading environmentalists, researchers and nature lovers.Delhi Chief Minister, Dr. Sheila Dikshit announced that the Delhi administration wouldinitiate a campaign to save house sparrows in Delhi by reviving native plants andhedges which support the birds.

As part of the WHSD celebrations in the UK, people in Bristol recorded house sparrowsightings and wrote blogs about their sparrow experiences and shared their theoriesabout the decline. Avon Wildlife Trust organised �A Festival of Feather� to encouragepeople to build and put up house sparrow terraces. Environmentalists madepresentations about the plight of house sparrows at the Bristol Zoo gardens.

In Italy, Lega Italiana Protezione Uccelli (LIPU), an environmental organisation andBird Life International, a global alliance working for the conservation of birds, organiseda conference titled �SOS Passeri. Giornata mondiale dei Passeri: indicatori ambientalidella qualità urbana.� ECO Task Force, a students� body of the Patna Women�s College,which works for the cause of the environment, held a rally on the main thoroughfaresof the city and distributed more than 1,000 handbills to the general public. Theyscattered bajra for sparrows and pledged to feed and provide water to the birds.

At an event organised by Parijatham Trust in Chennai, more than 100 students fromdifferent schools gathered to learn about house sparrow conservation. The studentssang House Sparrows songs, which were written by the poet Bharathiyar. A drawingcompetition was also organised and students sketched house sparrows and other commonbirds. The Government Middle School in Kothapurinatham, Puducherry, held an exhibitionof clay sparrow dolls made by the students under the guidance of their teacher Thiru.S.Ilamourougane. They also made different types of nests for the sparrow and distributedit among students. In Hyderabad, the Asian Wildlife Foundation (AWIFO) celebratedWHSD at the Sanjeeviah Park on the bank of the Hussain Sagar. The Buddha PurnimaProject (Hyderabad Metro Development Authority) and the Forest Department were co-sponsors of the event. The AWIFO conducted a photo and painting contest on thetheme �House Sparrow� for school students below 16. More than 70 students participatedin a programme organised by Kriya in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. Studentsin Manjoor Taluka in the picturesque Nilgiris took out a rally, organised by The EarthTrust, to create awareness on the decline of the species and distributed pamphlets tomore than 700 people in the village.

Mission Green in Goa organised a common bird watching trip for nature lovers. A.M.K.Bharos, the Indian Bird Conservation Network�s State Coordinator and leadingconservationist from Chattisgarh, made presentations to raise awareness on the needto conserve the house sparrow. Conservationists expressed concern that a tribalcommunity in Bastar killed sparrows and consumed its flesh believing that it is anaphrodisiac. Environmentalists urged the forest and other government agencies to

16 www.worldhousesparrowday.org


initiate efforts to stop the massacre of the innocent birds. Bhavani Child DevelopmentCenter in Jaipur, Rajasthan, a special school for children with learning disabilities,celebrated WHSD by holding drawing competitions and creating awareness about housesparrows. Prakruti Nature Club in Junagadh, Gujarat, explained to children how theycan contribute in conserving efforts. Karuna International in Junagadh celebrated theevent for a week by conducting workshops, debates, drawing and essay competitions.A field trip was also organised to teach students to identify birds by sight as well ascalls.

The students of Rangubai Junnare English Medium School in Nashik, Maharashtra,celebrated WHSD by installing nest boxes and feeders for house sparrows in theirschool campus. The Canine Group Association in Vadodara, Gujarat, distributed nestboxes and carried out awareness campaigns in different parts of the city.

c) Tree Plantation and Promotion of Native Species

Everyone knows the benefits of tree plantation and afforestation. Come monsoon andscores of people who feel oblidged to their city will come out to participate inplantation drives. But just planting any tree isn�t enough. Especially, the exotic ones(not native to a particular place) have proved to be of little help in environmentconservation.

Native plants are preferred over the �outside� plants because they support the localflora and fauna. They provide diverse habitats and food sources, unlike exotic species.Exotic or introduced species of plants and trees are invasive and disturb the ecologicalbalance. They do not associate with local fauna and the eco-system. Besides they donot support the local/native birds, insects or honey bees. For example, in Delhi, thereis a single Canary Island date palm tree (date palm tree which is a native of CanaryIslands, the tree can be seen on the Indian Women Press Corps lawns at 5 WindsorPlace, Delhi) but does not support the general biodiversity of the city. Similarly, inPune, birds do not nest in gulmohar trees as it is not a natie tree of Pune. Also, honeybees do not visit eucalyptus trees.

There have been various drives across the country to make people aware of thebenefits of planting not just trees but also to carefully chose native species. One suchinitiative is by WWF-India. The organisation has been working on promoting natureconservation and environmental protection across the country for over four decadesnow and through its campaign known as �Adopt a Tree� campaign which emphasizesthe importance of planting and protecting native tree species to restore the ecologicalbalance of a region and help conserve natural resources.

Adopt a Plant is an annual campaign that was first initiated in the Delhi region in theyear 2005. Since its launch, it has received tremendous positive response fromindividuals, communities, corporate entities, schools, institutions, RWAs, civil societyorganisations and Government offices that have actively participated and made thecampaign a massive success in Delhi. Encouraged by the progressive support receivedthrough the years from different sectors, this year, we look forward to increase thecampaign�s reach across other States as well.


Each year, Adopt a Plant campaign coincides with Van Mahotsav, the national annualtree-plantation drive, celebrated in the first week of July. Under Adopt a Plantcampaign more than 3000 saplings of native tree species are distributed every yearfree of cost with just a commitment in return - to nurture the sapling into a tree.Also, as part of this campaign individuals and corporations are encouraged to adoptthe existing fully grown trees for their protection.

d) Protection of Urban forests and species

Restoring urban forests often involves eradicating exotic species and diligently guardingagainst future invasions. Understanding how landscape structure contributes to thedistribution of exotic species may inform these management efforts. To date, thedistribution of exotic species in forested patches has been correlated with the typeof development surrounding the patch, with those surrounded by agricultural or urbandevelopment often more highly invaded. Yet, previous studies have categorised landuse types and have not examined more local-scale changes in land use. These localchanges may be particularly important in urban areas where forested patches areimmediately surrounded by diverse land use types.

When restoring urban forests, attention should be paid to local land use to better planfor successful, long-term eradication of exotic species. In this respect, WWF-Indiainitiated a campaign called �Cities for Forests�. This campaign is an annual nationallevel campaign focusing on raising awareness about the intrinsic link between forestsand human well-being amongst the youth. WWF-India organises events across thecountry where some of the best and most creatively depicted experiences are bepresented to key decision makers, local politicians, experts, and advisors of your city�sgovernment, to build positive political pressure towards the need to protect forestsaround urban spaces.

The Cities for Forests campaign focuses on raising awareness about the intrinsic linkbetween forests and human well-being, with a primary focus on changing perceptionof youth all over the country. It encourages individuals to discover, visit and documentthe forests that support their cities in innumerable ways, and share their findings ontheir website17 , which is an interactive platform to upload stories, pictures,presentations, and videos about individual observations of the city�s forests and greenspaces.

e) Protection of heritage buildings

India has an extraordinary, vast and diverse pool of cultural heritage and ancientmonuments in the form of buildings and other archaeological sites and remains. Thesheer number of these historic heritages is astounding. And the fact that thesemonuments are the reminiscence of the living witnesses of the golden historic era ofover a thousand years and of the pre-independence battles, they carry a special anda well-deserved respect in the eyes of the Indians. They are the epitome of courage,stand testimony to the evolution and are a symbol of cultural expressions.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) describes ancient monument as �AncientMonument means any structure, erection or monument, or any tumulus or place of

17 www.citiesforforests.in


interment, or any cave, rock-sculpture, inscription or monolith which is of historical,archaeological or artistic interest and which has been in existence for not less than100 years�. Some of these ancient heritages include The Taj Mahal, Agra; Qutub Minar,Delhi; Tomb at Sikandara, Qutb Minar, Sanchi and Mathura; Ajantaa and Ellora Caves,Nasik, Maharashtra; The Jantar Mantar, Delhi, Jaipur; The Red Fort, Delhi; The Charminar,Hyderabad and others. There are about a thousand more such places spread all overIndia. Also included are other palaces, forts, epigraphs, coins, drawings, architecture,wells and sculptures.

Most of the sculptures in historic temples and tourist places have been damaged byvandals and inscribed gold/silver/bronze idols have been taken out of the country, theepigraphs are vanishing during construction of additional facilities in old temples andmindless applying of fresh coat of paint during renovation. Some monuments havegone missing due to encroachment, granite quarrying and construction of dwellingunits near the temples and collapse of fort walls.

For the maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains ofnational importance the ASI has divided the entire country into 24 Circles. The ASI hasa large work force of trained archaeologists, conservators, epigraphist, architects andscientists for conducting archaeological research projects. Earlier a lot of laws andacts had been passed by the government to protect these monuments, but major ofthem were done on structures that were beneficial to the contemporary society. Also,the work that was carried out had a dearth of funds, enthusiasm and awareness. Laterthe �Ancient Monuments and Preservation Act, 1904� was passed with the primeobjective to ensure the proper upkeep and repair of ancient buildings in privateownership excepting such as those used for religious purposes. Under this programme,the conservation work is carried out in three main broad categories:

♣ Chemical Preservation � The ASI�s Science Branch is responsible mainly for the chemicalconservation treatment and preservation of some three thousand five hundred ninetythree protected monuments besides chemical preservation of museum and excavatedobjects countrywide. The main aim of the Science Branch includes � Materialdeterioration process, basic studies of intervention technologies, basic studies onmaterials and diagnostic technologies.

♣ Structural Conservation � The workers in the field are acquiring cumulative knowledgeof several generations and gaining expertise on the ways to improve and stabilise thestructures by maintaining their pristine looks. The structures are given additionalstrength and reinforced to undo the harms done by pollution, acid rains and otherchemicals over the years. The foundations are so improved so as to make thesestructures natural-disasters resistant.

♣ Contemporary Awareness Programme - The citizens of India in general and studentsin specific are being roped in by the government to spread awareness and advertiseabout the preservation of the heritage. Many seminars are being organised every yearwhere the students are lectured not only about the basic steps each can take individuallyon this issue but also are made familiarised with the amount of money, time, expertiseand labour that goes into protecting these structures via chemical and other methods.


One voluntary organisation working toward protection of heritage structures in Indiais The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH). INTACH is anautonomous non-governmental Indian NGO that seeks to preserve Indian Art and Culturalheritage. In 2007, the United Nations awarded INTACH a special consultative statuswith United Nations Economic and Social Council. INTACH is the only non-governmentalIndian NGO working for the awareness and conservation of Indian culture and heritage.Among the tasks undertaken by INTACH are restoration of monuments and theirmanagement; advocacy for heritage property conservation; public awareness throughheritage walks and buses; establishment of heritage clubs in schools; and holding ofawareness workshop for teachers of schools and colleges and for the guides at variousheritage sites.

Over the years, INTACH has taken up restoration and protection of hundreds ofmonuments that fall outside the coverage of Archeological Survey of India and othergovernment agencies, and at times local authorities hand over the upkeep and restorationof heritage structures to INTACH directly.

INTACH has established chapters not only within India but also outside it. It now usesfunds mobilised by its international chapters in Belgium, the United Kingdom and theUnited States, to take up restoration, conservation and protection projects of historicalstructures and heritage buildings across India. After developing Raghurajpur, Orissa, aplace famous for its master �Pattachitra� artists and �Gotipua� dance troupes as aheritage village, which has now become a major rural tourist destination, it later usedthe same pattern to develop Padmanabhpur village, Ganjam district, Orissa, famousfor its weavers and folk dancers, into another heritage destination.

In 2007, the government of Goa signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) withINTACH for restoration, conservation and maintenance of 51 officially listed heritageand cultural monuments in the state. This includes the restoration and conservationof the 16th century Reis Magos Fort in Goa, then in 2008, INTACH signed an outh amemorandum of understanding with the Government of Delhi for the conservation of92 monuments in Delhi, in the preparation of the Commonwealth Games 2010.

Apart from this organisation, efforts can be made to preserve cultural hertitage ofIndia at a local level. Some of the steps that we as individuals/communities can followto do our share in their protection are -

♣ Prevent ourselves and others from scribbling on the walls.

♣ Participating in the regular Cleanliness Drives.

♣ Being a part of the �Adopt a Heritage� initiative

♣ Spreading awareness around about these monuments and their importance.

In today�s competitive world, we have to preserve the monuments and showcase themto the next generation as the contributions or achievements of our ancestors. A littleeffort on our side can create drastic changes that will make the past, the present andthe future generations of the country and the world proud of India.


6. References and Recommended ReadingsBloom, David E. and Tarun Khanna, The Urban Revolution, Finance and Development,

September 2007, IMF.

Brown, Courtney, Director, Humanitarian Assistance, 21st Century Urban Disaster, CHFInternational Publications, 2012.

Chattopadhyay, Basudha, Sustainable Urban Development In India: Some Issues, 2004.

National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environmental Degradation, 1992.

Newsletter from JICA-India office, issue 15, JICA.


UNIT 7CHALLENGES AND IMPLICATION

Contents Page No.

1. Introduction 27

2. Public Private Partnerships 28

3. Methodology of Data Collection: GIS 33

4. Some Best Practices 34

5. The Modern Metropolis � New Directions for Planning 36

6. Conclusion 38

7. References and Recommended Readings 39

1. IntroductionAn urban setting that allows for different economic activities to have a legitimate space� big businesses, small enterprises, small home-based manufacturing and processing unitsand informal economic activities. In many areas, such a setting allows for a co-existenceof residential and work spaces.

An ideal model of urban development should be characterised by locally initiated residentialand commercial development, alongside centralised infrastructure planning � involvingroads, water-supply and drainage. Secondly, it should incorporate environmentalconservation. Thirdly, it must focus on infrastructure development and relying on communityself-determination. Such a model is most sustainable at the level of the city since it willminimise the �slum spill-over effect� (i.e.: creating new slum pockets elsewhere in thecity). Such a model is needed for infrastructure development (roads, water, electricity,sewage), not only at the level of city�s master plan but also at the local developmentlevel, i.e. at the local level of existing communities and nagars/municipalities.

Now, when we talk about ideal models of urban development, we are also posed withquestions regarding not just the theories of social and infrastructural development in anurban area but also with the urban typology. Typology (in urban planning and architecture)is the taxonomic classification of (usually physical) characteristics commonly found inbuildings and urban places, according to their association with different categories, suchas intensity of development (from natural or rural to highly urban), degrees of formality,and school of thought (for example, modernist or traditional). Individual characteristicsform patterns. Patterns relate elements hierarchically across physical scales (from smalldetails to large systems).

The following is an example of a set of characteristics with typological associations:

Single-family residences set well back from a street on large lots (say, one-fifth acre totwo or more acres) and surrounded by mowed lawns with naturalistic ornamental plantingsof trees and shrubs are associated typologically with North American suburban places.

Single-family residences that come all the way forward on an individual lot so that thefront of the building is co-incident with front lot line, or which are set back only a few


feet to accommodate a light well or front entry stoop, are associated typologically withhighly urbanised places in North America.

Another imortant issue is of Urban morphology. Urban morphology is the study of the formof human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation. The studyseeks to understand the spatial structure and character of a metropolitan area, city, townor village by examining the patterns of its component parts and the process of itsdevelopment. This can involve the analysis of physical structures at different scales aswell as patterns of movement, land use, ownership or control and occupation. Typically,analysis of physical form focuses on street pattern, lot (or, in the UK, plot) pattern andbuilding pattern, sometimes referred to collectively as urban grain. Analysis of specificsettlements is usually undertaken using cartographic sources and the process of developmentis deduced from comparison of historic maps. Special attention is given to how thephysical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare to eachother. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the study of the social formswhich are expressed in the physical layout of a city, and, conversely, how physical formproduces or reproduces various social forms.

Urban morphology is also considered as the study of urban tissue, or fabric, as a meansof discerning the underlying structure of the built landscape. This approach challenges thecommon perception of unplanned environments as chaotic or vaguely organic throughunderstanding the structures and processes embedded in urbanisation.

Urban planners are looking for the ideal density in which cities can keep open spaces, sunlightning, normal building scale and many other important issues. The questions that nowarise are whether morphology can we reach that ideal urban typology? Is it throughbuilding towers and heigh buildings, or is it through inventing new urban typologies whichtry to keep the quality of low density when living in a high density city? Secondly, whatare the main elements of this quality? Can we define them? Can we say that without publicspaces the city will remain the same?

The relationship of typology of built form and density is very interesting. There are awhole range of high/medium/low rise built forms and high/medium /low densities. Whilethe high rise tower may appear to have high rise-high density, one needs to really checkif it is so. At the same time there are creative possibilities of generating urban form withlow rise-high density which was the norm in our traditional habitat.

The urban blocks with central open-spaces and surrounding streets is one of the mostsuccessful urban type, which has been used since time immemorial. The courtyard housewas the source of inspiration for this urban type. One can find the use of the same in manya traditional / modern / post-modern projects. Some examples are cities of Berlin,Barcelona, Baghdad, Mumbai, Delhi, Lahore and many cities around the world. Urbanplanners and policy makers need to creatively evolve this type of urban model to providea hierarchy of urban spaces to make our cities more humane.

2. Public Private PartnershipsEnsuring quality urban services to the large, growing urban population is crucial to realisingIndia�s vision of urban development. Infrastructure development at this scale would requirehuge resources and it was not feasible for the government alone to fund the total required

Challenges and Implications 29

infrastructure investment. This is where the Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) model forurban development comes to play.

PPP is best suited approach for the infrastructure sector. It is imperative that newavenues for increasing investment in infrastructure through a combination of publicinvestment, PPPs and exclusive private investment wherever feasible, are explored inurban infrastructure development sector. PPP supplements scarce resources, creates amore competitive environment and helps improve efficiencies and reduce costs.

Unfortunatly, as of today, urban infrastructure sector has witnessed least amount ofprogress regarding PPPs in India. PPPs are useful only if they ensure quality supply atreasonable cost stressing the need for the establishment of independent regulatory bodieswith an appeal mechanism.

Policies for strengthening PPPs in India

India has already witnessed considerable growth in PPPs in the last one and half decade.It has emerged as one of the leading PPP markets in the world, due to several policy andinstitutional initiatives taken by the central as well as many state governments. Governmentof India has set up Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee to streamline appraisaland approval of projects. Transparent and competitive bidding processes have beenestablished. To provide a broader cross-sectoral fillip to PPPs, extensive support has beenextended through project development funds, viability gap funding, user charge reforms,provision of long tenor financing and refinancing as well as institutional and individualcapacity building. PPPs are now seen as the preferred execution mode in many sectorssuch as highways, ports and airports. Increasingly, PPPs are being adopted in the urbansector and in social sectors. Over the years an elaborate eco-system for PPPs has developed,including institutions, developers, financiers, equity providers, policies and procedures.

The growing PPP trends, especially in the last decade, justify the need for a broad policyframework that sets out the principles for implementing a larger number of projects acrossdiverse sectors to complement the inclusive growth aspirations of the nation. In thisrespect the government has come up with a different PPP policies to facilitate andstreamline PPP in India. Let us examine the same:

A) Draft National Public Private Policy, 2011

The National PPP Policy seeks to facilitate this expansion in the use of PPP approach,where appropriate, in a consistent and effective manner, through:

i) Setting out the broad principles for pursuing a project on PPP basis;

ii) Providing a framework for identifying, structuring, awarding and managing PPPprojects;

iii) Delineating the cross-sectoral institutional architecture and mechanisms forfacilitating and implementing PPPs.

iv) Standardising some of the vital interpretations and processes of PPP so that aclear and consistent common position is adopted in key issues.

v) Identifying the next generation issues to mainstream, upscale, broaden and expeditePPPs.


The Policy aims to assist the Central and State government agencies and privateinvestors seeking PPP opportunities in:

i) Undertaking PPP projects through streamlined processes and principles;

ii) Esuring that a value-for-money rationale is adopted with optimal risk allocationin project structuring with life cycle approach;

iii) Developing governance structures to facilitate competitiveness, fairness andtransparency in procurement; and

iv) Attaining appropriate public oversight and monitoring of PPP projects.

Defining PPPs

According to Section 1.1 of Draft National Public Private Policy, 2011, PPP is definedas, �Public Private Partnership means an arrangement between a government / statutoryentity / government owned entity on one side and a private sector entity on the other,for the provision of public assets and/or public services, through investments beingmade and/or management being undertaken by the private sector entity, for a specifiedperiod of time, where there is well defined allocation of risk between the privatesector and the public entity and the private entity receives performance linked paymentsthat conform (or are benchmarked) to specified and pre-determined performancestandards, measurable by the public entity or its representative�.1

As per Section 1.2. The essential conditions in the definition are as under:

i) Arrangement with private sector entity: The asset and/or service under thecontractual arrangement will be provided by the Private Sector entity to theusers. An entity that has a majority non-governmental ownership, i.e., 51 percent or more, is construed as a Private Sector entity.

ii) Public asset or service for public benefit: The facilities/ services being providedare traditionally provided by the Government, as a sovereign function, to thepeople.

To better reflect this intent, two key concepts are elaborated below:

a) Public Services are those services that the State is obligated to provide to itscitizens or where the State has traditionally provided the services to its citizens.

b) Public Asset is that asset the use of which is inextricably linked to the deliveryof a Public Service, or, those assets that utilise or integrate sovereign assets todeliver Public Services. Ownership by Government need not necessarily imply thatit is a PPP.

B) Public Private Partnership (Preparation, Procurement and Management) Rules2011 - Draft For Consultation

In the past decade, the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA), Ministry of Finance, GoIhad issued detailed guidelines for selection of consultants, developers for PPP projectsand private Partners for disinvestment, etc. In order to provide more transparency inthe bidding process, these guidelines, in the year 2007 were adopted by the government

1 Section 1.1, National Public Private Policy 2011, Draft for Consultation.


with certain modifications. It was further clarified by DEA that financial support to PPPprojects in infrastructure projects shall be granted under Viability Gap Funding (VGF)scheme subject to being in conformity to its guidelines.

Pursuant to the decision on the recommendations of the Committee on Public Procurement,a Committee has been constituted in Department of Economic Affair to formulate theRules for PPP projects, including rules for regulating expenditure, appropriation of revenues,contingent liabilities, etc. in PPP projects and proposed delegation of powers in thisregard.

Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance has prepared the draft Public PrivatePartnership (Preparation, Procurement and Management) Rules 2011, and issued it fordiscussions to give more impetus on transparency and conformity defining duties andresponsibilities at each stage of implementation of projects. These exhaustive rules onbidding process, monitoring of projects during and after implementation and on auditprocedures, are proposed to be applicable on all projects undertaken by Government ofIndia and projects of State Government or of its authorities or Corporations etc. barringprojects of few Ministries.

Some of the very important highlights of draft PPP rules are as under :

1) It involves qualitative and quantitative assessments to ascertain the Value for Money.

2) The Contracting Authority has been made responsible for ensuring the interests of landowners under the extant of laws.

3) In very complex PPP projects, a new stage known as Request for Technical Proposalbetween RFQ and RFP, and Competitive Dialogue system, have been incorporated forassessment technical qualification of developer and to establish project objectives.

4) A provision of appointment of an Independent Monitor is made to ensure the transparencyin bidding process. However, it may not be practically possible as in some statesexiting Bid Evaluation and Consultant Evaluation Committee are being headed by fairlysenior government officers of the state.

5) It is proposed that bid security amount shall not be more than one per cent ofestimated project value.

6) One applicant can submit only one application either individually or as a member ofconsortium.

7) Negotiations with the Bidder are strictly prohibited except in case of sole bid to getbetter terms.

8) Suitable provision for exit strategy for continued service delivery projects, are requiredto be made in concession agreement.

9) A data bank to deal with dissemination of information following in-principle approval,signing of the Concession Agreement, after Financial Close, during Construction andOperations Phase and following Termination of the Concession Agreement shall becreated.


10) An Approach to audit has been formulated and provision of constitution of ContractManagement Team (CMT) and Empowered Review Cell (ERC) to deal with the activitiesrelated to Post Award Project and Contract Management, has been made with clearlydefining their duties.

11) A code of conduct for officers or employees of Contracting Authority shall be documentedand implemented.

It is evident from the above, that implemented of these exhaustive rules would give newdimension to the PPP projects.

C) India Infrastructure Development Fund (IIDF)

Infrastructure sector is a focus area for Government of India and it needs hugeinvestments over the next five years. A significant number of PPP projects acrossvarious infrastructure sectors are being offered to the private developers. Recognisingthis potential, UTI Asset Management Company Ltd. (UTI AMC) decided to set up thisfund mainly with a view to channelise funds from offshore investors.

UTI AMC has set up of India Infrastructure Development Fund (IIDF), an infrastructurefocused, private equity fund. The fund has a corpus of USD 500 million. The fund isbeing set up in association with two off-shore partners� namely HSH Nordbank, (HSH)Germany and Noor Financial Investment Company, Kuwait.

HSH Nordbank is organised under the laws of Germany in the form of a German stockcorporation and has twin headquarters in the cities of Hamburg and Kiel. The majorshareholders of HSH Nordbank AG include the State of Schleswig-Holstein and the Freeand Hanseatic City of Hamburg. HSH Nordbank is a leading financier in Transportationsector especially in shipping, aviation and other transport related infrastructure projects.It is also the largest financier of Ships in the world. HSH has global business interestsand in India, it has participated in debt financing of Delhi Airport modernisation.

Noor is the financial arm of NIG Group, which is one of the leading conglomerates inMiddle East having diversified business interests both in Kuwait and in other internationallocations. Noor is engaged in investment activities and financial services primarily inKuwait, the Middle East, Asia, and other emerging markets. Noor has wide experiencein managing alternate assets in the infrastructure space, both in Kuwait and in otherInternational markets. Noor is also shareholders in a number of leading companies inKuwait including Kuwait Finance House, the 2nd largest Islamic Bank in the world.

For managing the fund, UTI AMC has created a dedicated team with combined experienceof over seventy five years. The fund will invest in unlisted companies engaged ininfrastructure sectors like roads, ports, power, logistics, airports, energy and othercore infrastructure sectors in India.

The fund has already made an investment in a City Gas Distribution project.

UTI AMC is the Investment Manager of UTI Mutual Fund, a SEBI registered mutual fundwhose Sponsors are State Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Bank of Baroda and LifeInsurance Corporation of India. As of June 2009, UTI Mutual Fund has assets undermanagement (average) of Rs.67978.18 crore and investor accounts of over 9.70 millionunder its 78 domestic schemes.


3. Methodology of Data Collection: GISComputing devices have been used in public planning for 100 years. Hermann Hollerithinvented the punched card machine at the turn of the century for the US PopulationCensus, and this eventually led to the formation of the world�s largest computer company,IBM. Once the digital computer was developed half century later, applications in publicplanning and management became widespread. By the mid 1950s, population andtransportation data were being processed by computers and these were quickly followedby various simulation modelling efforts.

By the late 1960s, urban data management systems were being widely implemented bypublic agencies for a variety of routine and less routine management and strategic planningfunctions. The top-down approach based on remote, large-scale, database computing hasbeen replaced by a much more personal computing style in which graphical display ofurban data now provides the focus.

This bottom-up style is largely a consequence of changes in computing technology. Oncethe microprocessor was invented, the path to miniaturisation and personalisation was setand as the cost of memory fell dramatically, more and more applications involved graphicalcomputing. Geographic information systems (GIS) are an obvious application but the waycomputers are being accessed and results displayed is now largely graphic � witness thewidespread dissemination of recent Windows-based software � and this has led to a seachange in the way computers are being applied in planning.

There has also been a change in types of application over the last 20 years. There is nowmuch more emphasis on data than on modelling, on routine applications for managementrather than the more grandiose applications to strategic planning which dominated the1950s and 1960s. This is reflected as much in the way planning is now perceived in itscurrent role in advanced (post) industrial societies, as in the way the technology haschanged.

These changes can even be detected in the development of GIS. 20 years ago, the earlybeginnings of GIS were as an adjunct to strategic planning, particularly in landscape andresources management. Software vendors such as ESRI and ERDAS began this way whilecompanies such as Intergraph came directly from computer-aided design (CAD). In the last10 years, the emphasis has shifted to graphic display, the representation of spatial data,and its manipulation in quite straightforward ways. In terms of planning and problem-solving processes, to date there has been very little emphasis on formal analysis, simulationand modelling and hardly any at all on design and decision-making aids. However thispicture is changing and new functions are being slowly added.

In the next 10 years however, the use of computers in planning will clearly be affectedby developments in computer use in general � across networks based on decentralisedinteraction between users � and it is likely that we will see a much greater emphasis oninformal decision-making using computers interactively.

Computers have been applied in urban planning almost since their inception, but onlyrecently with the development of graphics, distributed processing, and networkcommunications has software emerged which can now be used routinely and effectively.At the basis of these developments are geographic information systems (GIS) but gradually,


these are being adapted to the kind of decision and management functions that lie at theheart of the planning process.

Current developments in urban planning show what is now possible in the development ofspatial decision support systems (SDSS), and planning support systems (PSS). There havebeen proposed future developments in decentralised decision-making which will dominatethe field in the next decade. Methodology for data mining an urban Geographic InformationSystem (GIS) data set, consists of three main phases:

a) representation,

b) analysis, and

c) description

This methodology is demanding in the preparation phase and requires a high level of GISand statistics expertise in the analysis phase. However, it successfully addresses thecomplex multi-scale and multi-level nature of cities in a systematic way, providing a toolfor systematic profiling of neighbourhoods, which is site and problem specific.

4. Some Best PracticesThe early city planning models are witnessed in Indus civilisation, Mesopotamia, Greeceand Rome. Cities began to emerge in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) around 4500 years ago.Ur, the capital of ancient Sumeria, was the world�s first city. It supported a complex andsophisticated society.

The ancient �ideal city� � typified by Athens in the 5th century BC and imperial Rome (c100BC � c400 AD) � was not planned. Athens grew from its focal point, the acropolis, whichbecame the ceremonial center of the city-state, decked with temples including theParthenon. These temples, and other civic buildings of the ancient Greek world, definedthe architectural style known as �classical�. Below the acropolis was the agora or centralmarket and community space for the citizens of Athens.

While Athens was an organic city2 , there were some planned towns in the ancient world.Priene, in Asia Minor, was a town planned to fit a hilltop site.

Ancient Rome grew from a settlement founded around 700 BC on seven hills near the Tiberriver. Its Capitol had a similar function to the Athenian acropolis. And its forums, withtemples, baths, basilicas and colonnades were places for business and recreation. Manyof these buildings were in the classical style copied from Greece.

Unlike Rome itself, many cities and towns of the Roman Empire were planned, but mainlyas military camps. They featured a grid with a forum at the center and baths, basilicas,amphitheatres and markets.

2 Humans have built towns and cities for thousands of years. A cluster of huts, a camp by a river,a citadel on a commanding height � numerous places like these have grown organically intopermanent settlements. With streets and housing following the contours of the land, many ofthese organic cities were charming. Others were overcrowded and unsanitary, failing to provideenough sunlight or fresh air. Some made poor use of their sites or outgrew them.


� Classical revival through the ages

Ancient Athens and Rome have inspired waves of �classical revival�:

♣ the Renaissance (15th century)

♣ the Baroque style (17th century)

♣ the Georgian style (18th century)

♣ the City Beautiful movement (19th and 20th centuries)

Much civic architecture in the Western world is in the classical style. The NationalLibrary of Australia is a modern version of the Parthenon in Athens.

� Renaissance and Baroque styles

During the Renaissance (broadly, the 15th century), city-states dominated by powerfulrulers emerged in Italy. The papacy based in Rome in the Vatican City was one ofthese. Florence was another.

� Rome

Rome had fallen into decay, and the Church needed to restore the faith of the peoplein its mission. From the 1470s, several popes began to remodel Rome. They aimed toglorify the Church and the papacy, and enable pilgrims to move more easily within thecity. They adopted straight axial streets terminating in vistas marked by columns,obelisks, fountains and views of grand buildings.

The most ambitious pope was Sixtus V (1585�90). His plan was to cover Rome with anetwork of straight streets and mark their intersections by obelisks. His legacy toRome is a classic example of Baroque planning.

The architect Leon Battista Alberti (1404�72) redesigned Rome�s water supply. By 1600it was the best of any city in Europe. The Baroque remodelling of Rome culminatedin the colonnade for St Peter�s Basilica by Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598�1680).

� Florence

The architect Giorgio Vasari (1511�74) remodelled Central Florence. He created adramatic vista towards the Uffizi Palace, and placed statues at the end of axialstreets.

� London

Baroque Rome inspired John Evelyn and Christopher Wren in their plans for a newurban form for London after the Great Fire in 1666.

� Versailles

Louis XIV�s Palace of Versailles (built 1668�74), with its famous gardens by André leNotre, had bisecting land and water axes that created impressive vistas. It inspiredPierre L�Enfant when he designed Washington DC as the new capital of the UnitedStates of America in 1791.


� Paris

When Baron Haussmann reordered Paris between 1853 and 1869, he also looked backto Versailles for inspiration. By 1870, Paris was the �wonder of the world�. Haussmanndrove a network of boulevards through the city, straightened other roads, createdpublic squares, vistas and sites for important public buildings, and also made the Boisde Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes into public parks.

5. The Modern Metropolis � New Directions for PlanningThe modern profession of town planning mainly arose in response to the urban problemscaused by rapid industrialisation from the late 19th century. The rapid growth of towns�shook contemporary habits and concepts�3 . Social reformers recognised the need forcorrective intervention to deal with the growth forces unleashed by modernisation.

Pioneering professionals often worked first in another built environment area likearchitecture, surveying, engineering or landscape architecture. Planning was a chance toexercise a distinctive overall spatial and social vision that drew on specialised inputs.

Town planners could either design entirely new urban areas (such as suburbs and gardencities), or develop ways to reform and reorder existing ones to provide plenty of spaceand light, clean water and adequate drainage (through urban renewal).

Early town plans concentrated on securing adequate provision for key urban needs:

♣ housing

♣ commercial and industrial uses

♣ railways and roadways

♣ water, sewerage and energy supply

♣ open space and recreational areas

Each element of a well-planned urban environment would work alone and as part of thewhole. A town plan also had to be affordable, and to fit the designated site. The visionof what the town or city could become was critical. The drawings produced were asimportant as the vision itself.

Planning today retains its commitment to ideal urban environments, but has to work withinchallenging political contexts. The task of reconciling competing development andenvironmental goals in the interests of �sustainability� usually falls to the planning functionin government. Much attention is now directed at better managing existing cities thancreating completely new ones. Some important considerations for effective urban planningare:

Ideal industries

The squalor of industrial slums motivated some enlightened British employers to createmodel villages and towns to provide better housing and living conditions for their workers.Soap manufacturer William Lever created Port Sunlight near Liverpool, England. And George

3 Benevolo, 1967.


Cadbury sponsored Bournville near his chocolate factory outside Birmingham. Theseemployers linked decent living conditions with industrial productivity, but their communitiesalso provided design ideas for others to follow and improve upon.

Legislating improvement

Recognition that frameworks were needed to ensure the orderly development of towns andcities led to new planning laws. A variety of new rules covered issues such as land usezoning, population density and building height limitations. Along with these �statutory�regulations came detailed city studies with strategic recommendations. Scottish plannerPatrick Geddes is associated with the influential mantra of �survey-analysis plan�.

The skyscraper

Innovative construction methods changed the scale of urban development. The new methodsallowed highrise buildings supported by steel frames rather than load-bearing walls. Theskyline of the central city changed dramatically. Futurists such as Swiss architect LeCorbusier envisaged entire new cities as tower blocks in parkland settings.

Cities built for cars

The motor car also had a dramatic impact on the structure of modern cities and theirplanning. New philosophies of road design emerged in the United States and Britain in theearly 20th century.

In 1906, the first limited access motorways appeared in New York with the Long IslandMotor Parkway (1906�11) and the Bronx River Parkway (1906�23).

In 1938, British policeman Alker Tripp refined the idea of the road hierarchy. The widthand capacity of a street would be determined by its traffic function � whether it wascatering for through-traffic, industrial or residential traffic.

Drive-in shopping

The motor car�s major impact was felt from the mid-1920s. In the United States, aneconomic boom led to major retailers building department stores in the new suburbs. In1923, the Country Club Plaza, one of the first automobile-oriented shopping centers,opened in Kansas City. Another significant 20th-century development was the invention ofthe enclosed climate-controlled shopping mall. The first � Southdale Shopping Center nearMinneapolis � opened in 1956. These developments expanded the scale of planning andhighlighted the interrelationship of land use and transport development.

The megalopolis emerges

In the 1930s, the powerful New York municipal official, Robert Moses, developed the HenryHudson Parkway down the western side of Manhattan. As leisure parkways became urbanfreeways they helped to define a new dispersed and multi-centerd urban form. Driven byrapid population growth after the Second World War, big cities sprawled and ofteninterconnected with each other to form what geographer Jean Gottman dubbed�megalopolis�. The growth pressures faced by western cities in the 20th century are nowbeing surpassed by Asian cities in the 21st century.


Sustainable Cities

A sustainable city should ideally be a very people-friendly city. It would be a city with goodpublic spaces and a city that is rather compact. It would be a city that really invitespeople to walk and bicycle as much as possible. A good walking and cycling environmentwith a good public realm is also a good environment for public transport, so there is animportant connection here as well. Strengthening public transportation will be essentialin the future, in order to become less dependent on private cars and also in order for thecity to become more people-friendly.

A further, definitive quality to stress is that we need to make sure that cities becomegreener and that they have a substantial amount of vegetation, which can clean the airand help cool the city. Certainly, a sustainable city would be quite green. I am also awarethat a sustainable city ought to have many green buildings as well. But, green buildingsalone do not create a sustainable city. You could place an endless number of greenbuildings in Dubai, for example and yet it would hardly ever become a sustainable city,the way it looks now. It would only be a collection of sustainable buildings.

6. ConclusionUrban regeneration is the attempt to reverse the decline of a city, by both improving thephysical structure, and, more importantly and elusively, the economy of those areas. Inall regeneration programmes, public money is used as an attempt to pump prime privateinvestment into an area.

Towards this initiative, over the past two decades there have been an array of governmentprogrammes have been launched. Unfortunately, over the years later programmes havetended to be quietly dropped or replaced. Because regeneration schemes often take yearsto complete, by the time they have finished the government programme that initiallyfunded them has usually been replaced. This means that current programmes are oftenconfused with past projects.

One important trend has emerged over the years: the earlier projects tended to focus onphysical regeneration, usually housing, whereas later programmes have attempted tostimulate social and economic regeneration. More recently, much of the responsibility forregeneration initiatives, especially economic regeneration, has switched to the new regionaldevelopment agencies. The schemes have also been given more cash and flexibility tospend on regional priorities.

There are currently two main regeneration funds: the new deal for communities and theneighbourhood renewal fund. But there are also a raft of other funding streams focusedon specific activities that used to help regeneration initiatives, such as funding for alleviationof poverty and slums, cash for the education, employment and health action zones, etc.

The main goal of these programmes are to reduce disadvantages in the poorest areas byfocusing on five issues: unemployment, poor health, sanitation, crime and education.Other issues such as improvement to the physical environment are secondary to thesemain priorities.

A number of perennial questions remain about the effectiveness of regeneration schemes.The important questions are that How can top-down government programmes gain the


backing and involvement of local people that is usually crucial to their success? Can publiccash really stimulate local economies and create jobs? How can regeneration schemesprevent displacing problems from one area to another? The number of separate regenerationfunding packages that have been launched but then not fully being implemented showsthat these questions have still not been satisfactorily answered.

7. References and Recommended ReadingsAsoka B., Agricultural Development in Ceylon. In Rural Development in a Changing World,

Edited by Raahan Jeitz. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971.

Atal, Yogesh, Local Communities and National Politics, A Study in Communication Links andPolitical Involvement. Delhi: National Publishing House, 1971, l428p.

Averch, Harvey A., J. E. Koehler, and F. H. Denton, Crisis of Ambiguity: Political andEconomic Development in the Philippines. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corp., 1970,31iip.

Badgley, John H., Asian Development: Problems and Prognosis. New York: Free Press, 1971,210p.

Bahri, H. P. Traditional, Housing Study in India. Urban & Rural Planning Thought, 153-170,July 1971.

Bahrin, T. S., Policies on Land Settlement in Insular South East Asia: A Comparative Study.Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge, 1971.

Balakrishna, S., Family Planning: knowledge, Attitude and Practice; A Simple Survey inAndhra Pradesh. March 1971, 13 9p.

Ban, Sung Hwan. Long-Run Productivity Growth in Korean Agricultural Development, 1910-1968. Minnesota, 1971, 2ii3p.

Bannister, Jerry B., Urban Development and Housing the Urean Poor: The Case of India.Economic Affairs Division Staff Paper, U. S. Agency for International Development, NewDelhi, India, 1971, 65p.

Bansil, Puran Chand, Agricultural Planning for 700 Millions; A Perspective Study. Bombay:Lalvani Publishing House, 1971.

Barai, Daksha C., Hierarchy of Settlement in Tamil V-cdxa A Case Study. The IndianGeographical Journal US�. 65-72, July-September and October-December 1970.

Barakbah, Syed Mansor, Problem of Illegal Settlers in Urban Areas of Kedah State, Malaysia.Journal of Administration Overseas 10: 201-209, July 1971.

Das Gupta, Jyotirinda and Joshua A. Fishman, Inter-State Migration and Subsidiary-LanguageClaiming: An Analysis of Selected Indian Census Data. International Migration ReviewS: 227- 2li9, Summer 1971.

Das, Amritananda, Political Economy of Development. Calcutta: Minerva Associates, 1970.

Dator, James Allen, Futuristics and the Exercise of Anticipatory Democracy in Hawaii.Honolulu, 1970.

Davies, B. V., Administration of the Rural Development Programme in Fiji. Journal ofAdministration Overseas, October 1971.

course 5: urban development and ......conditions in these poor urban areas, both by facilitating...

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