DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 092 332. SE 016 848

AUTHOR Creager, Joan G., Ed.TITLE AIBS Education Review, Vol, 2, No. 4.

INSTITUTION American Inst. of Biological Sciences, Washington,D.C. Education Div.

PUB DATE Oct 73NOTE 16p,

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$1.50 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS *Behavioral Objectives; *Biology; *Instructional

Improvement; Manpower Utilization; Newsletters;Occupational Surveys; *Scientific Manpower;Surveys

IDENTIFIERS American Institute of Biological Sciences; BIOTECHModules

ABSTRACTThis issue contains articles on experiences gained in

the construction of terminal performance objectives for introductorybiology courses, the impact of audiotutorial instruction on facultyload and departmental operating levels, an experiment designed toimprove the teaching of biology in large enrollment introductorycourses, a minicourse on making BIOTECH modules, and a report of the1972-1973 AIBS Manpower Survey. (PEB)

AMERICANINSTITUTE OFBIOLOGICAL

SCIENCESEDUCATION

DIVISION

VOL. 2NO.4

OCTOBER 1973

AIBSEDUCATION

1 W

o ; DtpAitrmCNT OF HEAt.THoursualiaisrLFARr

NATIO NAL INSilruTC uF-EDLJ,:ATIcN

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E s, F

PERMiSS>ON TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY.RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS SEEN GRANTED By

Richard A, DodgeTO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NATIONAL IN-STITUTE OF EDUCATION FtTITHER REPRO-DuCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM RE-QUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHTOWNER

AIBS Education Reviewto be Available to Members Only

Dear Readers:

For two years the AIDS Education Review has been sent to all AIBS members and over 13,000 non-memberswho expressed interest in biological education. This service has been made posssibte in part from a grantfor educational activities which will not be available after 1973. Therefore, it is necessary to limit our cir-culation to AIRS members effective January 1974. The quality of this publication has increased with eachissue and it is a valuable service AIBS provides its members. It is copyrighted, carries referenced ar-ticles, and has a review board.

While the Review represents a significant part of AIBS efforts on behalf of biological educators, there areother benefits of membership. BioScience, the official AIBS journal, is published monthly and contains ar-ticles on a wide range of topics of interest to biology teachers. Members are also entitled to use the AIRSPlacement Service.

Our President, Robert W. Krauss, has been instrumental in developing a Public Responsibilities Committeewith representatives from every state who are available for advice and consultation to legislators and otherpublic officials from the national to the local level on matters of import to the biological community.

National office projects include a study of natural ecosystems as a part of the International Biological Pro-gram, biomedical engineering workshops, and Project BIOTECH, through which modules for teaching tech-nical skills are being produced. This office also provides literature on careers, publications for depart-ment heads, and consultant services on facilities, curricula, meetings, and workshops.

Because part of our obligation to the biological community is to foster professional development of stu-dents, we charter AIRS Student Chapters in colleges and high schools providing guidance and support. Thereare 70 chapters and new ones arc currently being developed.

With its 40 Adherent Societies, AIBS is a professional organization which speaks for biology. Our currentactivities vouch for our dedication to serve biologists. The continuation and expansion of our services de-pends on our membership strength. We urge you to become an Alps member as part of your professionalresponsibility to the biological community. The timely receipt of your membership application will assurethat you continue to receive the Education Review. May we hear from you soon?

Sir,cerely.

1.4John R. OliveDirector

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CONTENTS:

AIBS Education Review to be Available toMembers Only, John R. Olive 49

Experiences in the Construction of TerminalPerformance Objectives, Eldon 0. Enger,J. Richard Kortnelink, Rodney J. Smith 51

Project BIOTECH Notes, Richard A. Dodge ..... 52

The Impact of Audio-Tutorial Instruction on FacultyLoad and Departmental Operating Levels,Thormrs C. Hahn 53

An Experiment on Improving the Teaching ofBiology, 11.T. Hendrickson 57

'Minicourse .n Module Making, Richard 8. Glazer,Joan G. C'reager 59

Bio-Student's Voice, Jane Lesti3 60

Report of the AIRS Manpower Survey,Joan G. Creager 61

Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not nec-essarily reflect the opinions of the American Institute of Bio-logical Sciences nor the institutions with which the authorsare affiliated.

AIRS EDUCATION REVIEW. Published by the MRS EducationDivision. 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016.Editorial Board: Robert Franke, Richard B. Glazer, StanleyE. Gunstream, Charles Morlang, Jr., Newell Younggren. Ed-itorial Staff: John R. Olive, Publisher; Joan G. Cleager, Ed-itor; Frances M. Talmont, Managing Editor. Subscription freeto AIRS members. Published February, April, June, October.and December. t American Institute of Biological Sciences1973. Vol. 2, No. 4, October 1973.

CUEBS PUBLICATIONS

The CUEBS publications listed here are still available for dis-tribution free of charge. Some are suitable for use in leachingmethods courses and for that reason requests for multiplecopies will be honored as long as supplies last. If you are in-terested in receiving copies of any of the publications, pleasemail your request to Education Division, AIRS, 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016.

NAME

ADDRESS

CITY STATE ZIP

_No. 23 Teaching and research_No. 24 Preservice preparation of college biology teachers_No. 25 The preservice preparation of secondary school

biology teachers_No. 26 Biology in the two year college

29 Funds for undergraduate biology departmentsand how to find them

._No. 30 Role playing and teacher education_No. 31 The use of modules in college biology teaching

No. 32 Guidelines and suggested titles for library holdingsin undergraduate biology

No. 33 The laboratory: a place to investigate_No. 34 The context of biological education: a case for

change_CUEBS Final Report_Environmental education: the adult public

SERVICES OF THE EDUCATION DIVISION

Cheek items about which you would like more information.

_Pioject BIOTECH._.Careers in biology__Handbook for AIBS student chapters_Information on meetings and workshop consulting

service

_The curriculum consultant bureau packet foryear colleges; ......_4 year colleges

_Guidelines for planning biological facilities_Directory of departmental chairmen

Handbook for departmental chairmen (Enclose$1.00, please.)

PLAN AHEAD!

25th ANNUAL AIRS MEETING

Arizona State University - Tempe

16-21 June 1974

AIRS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 ltfO. 4

EXPERIENCES IN THECONSTRUCTION OF TERMINAL

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Eldon D. Eager, J. RichardKormelink, Rodney J. Smith

Delta CollegeUniversity Center, Michigan 45710

For a number of years we have been in the process cfreevaluating the course content and methods employed inteaching our introductory biology course; however, we lackedspecific agreed upon objectives. Much of the disagreement wasnot in what should be covered but more in the individualfaculty interpretation of tilt depth of coverage and themethods to be used in presenting the information. Since theenrollment in our typical introductory biology course consistsof students with diverse backgrounds and a multiplicity ofgoals, we felt that we could function more effectively if we hadspecific objectives that had been developed collectively.

What follows is a technique that was valuable to us indetermining course content and in clarifying what were theessential, fundamental concepts. The resulting terminalperformance objectives specified how we expected the studentto demonstrate his mastery of these concepts.

Why We Did It

At community colleges we profess to In student centered butin fact we probably have not been as attuned to fostering.tudent success as we should be. The est ibtishment of studentoriented terminal performance objectives is of paramount im-portance in facilitating success in our course. If these objec-tives really work, the student should know what subject matterwill be coveted and how he will be requited to demonstrate hisunderstanding of the material. This eliminates the guessinggames about what is important and what is not. We feel thatit is inappropriate to reward students who are good atdeciphering how they will be evaluated, and penalizing thosestudents who aren't so gifted.

It was deemed advisable to establish uniform course contentwhile taintaining the individuality of approach. A guide tocourse content would be valuable to all instructors, but wouldbe of particular value to those instructors teaching the coursefor the first time. Uniformity of course content will alsofacilitate the subsiquent enrollment of students in advancedcourses.

An important external pressure being applied to state sup-ported institutions in the State of Michigan is the requirementof greater accountability to the state legislature for the fundsdispersed to these institutions. The development of measurableterminal performance objectives provides the legislature and thepublic with an unambiguous statement of what the course ac-complishes.

How We Did ft

In our particular situation the procedure followed was basedon a team approach in which each of the members of the teamwas recognized as being competent in the subject and alldeliberations were based on mutual respect and confidence.

Over a period of about a year a number of individualsattempted to Write "behavioral objectives" for the introductorybiology course. These were of limited success. A number of

OCTOBER 1973

people read Mager's_book (1962) dealing with the topic andfurther attempts were made to write "behavioral objectives." Aseries of workshops were held with a consultant. The con-sultant was very helpful in providing us with insight into thevalue of brainstorming and the technique of deferredjudgment. He also clarified the different stages in thedevelopment of termin,,1 performance objectives.

Following this initial period in which we gained an insight intothe construction of terminal performance objectives we beganin earnest. We started by holding a brainstorming session toestablish the broad general coverage for the course. In thistyps of brainstorming session each individual suggested anytopic that he felt appropriate for the course. A time limit wasimposed and observed. One of the members of the team serves.as recorder for the topics suggested. All topics were acceptedand judgment of their value was deferred until a later time.Some of the broad topics suggested were: respiration,evolution, survey of the plant and animal kingdoms, em-bryology, genetics, photosynthz,01., microbiology, homeo-stasis, and cells. After much discussion, persuasion, co-ercion, and argument, five major areas were established.

For each of these five major areas of the course we wrote abroadly based goal statement. This statement was a generalstatement of what we expected the student to learn in this sec-tion of the course. One of the major topic areas is ecology.The ecology goal statement reads as follows:

The student shall be able to describe and recognize (a)intra-species and inter-specks interactions in anecosystem; (b) biotic and abiotic interactions in anecosystem; and (c) how these interrelationships arechanged through lime.

We then selected each of the five major areas in turn and helda brainstorming session in which we listed the inforniation thatshould be covered in each major topic area within theconfines of our goal statements, An extensive list wasdeveloped without judging the value of any particular idea.These ideas were then placed in categories. At this point someof the suggested ideas were judged to be inappropriate andwere eliminated by mutual consent.

While we categorized ideas we solidified our thinking intospecific terminal performance objectives. There was a gooddeal of give and take and discussion about why somethingshould be included and what was important for the student tounderstand as well as why he should understand it. Particularattention was given to how we wanted the student to: demonstratehis understanding of the subject matter. The construction of theterminal performance objectives involved critical examinationof word usage and the meaning of the statement, so that thestatement was an unambiguous codification of our thinking.The terminal performance objectives which were constructedfor the ecology section follow:

Terminal Performance Objectives

A. Ecosystem the student shall recognize that the ecosystetnis a stable Collection of interacting ;biotic factors and_living organisms involved in the capture, utiliFation, andflow of energy..

I. There is a positive correlation between the complexityof interaction withal an eco ;y510%1614 stability ofthe ecosystem.

SI

2. The student shall recognize that materials are recycledin an ecosy.,tem.

3. The student shall recognize that energy flow followingthe laws of thermodynamicsproceeds through thetrophic level.

4. The student shall recognize that the living part of anecosystem is primarily determined by abiotic con-ditions.

5. The student snail recognize that ecosysi,.s o olvethrough a series of predictable changes from a pioneerto a climax community dependent upon the specificabiotic factors and the biotb history of the area.

6. The student shall recognize that man as an organism,with a complex social orde. and high level of tech-nology, has the capacity to cause changes in both thebiotic anti abiotic aspects of the ecosystem. Thesechanges brought about by man can be both acceleratednatural changes and changes unique to his influences.

B. The student shall recognize that a community is com-posed of a variety of populations which interact bothpositively and negatively with each other. The studentshall recognize that the ecological niche is the com-posite of all the roles which an organism plays in hisenvironment. The environment is considered to be thesum total of all the experiences of an organism, includingthe abiotic and biotic aspects of the habitat of the organ-ism.

C. The student shall recognize that a population is com-posed of a designated group of individual. of one speciespossessing characteristics above and beyond the cha--acteristics of its members.

I. The student shall recognize that the population is theevolutionary unit.

2. The student shall recognize that the carrying capacityis the number of individuals of a species which can besupported within the confines of a designated area. Thecarrying capacity is determined by the interactionswithin the ecosystem.

Was It Worth It?

As in any endeavor of this type there are both positive andnegative aspects. One of the major problems is overcoming theinertia and complacency that is a common feature of mostdepartments. A start can be made when a nucleus of interestedfaculty can be committed to spending the time required. Aconsiderable amount of time must be committed to learn thetechniques and apply these techniques. It is unrealistic toattempt to get all faculty involved in a project of this type. Inour case we were three of seven faculty involved in teachingthe introductory biology course. All of the seven were

Interested and spent some time on the project but were unableto commit the time throughout the entire project whichextended over two semesters,

In writing terminal performance objectives, we have ac-

-Complished the following goals:

1. Clarification of course content expedites justificationof dollar ,commitments for personnel, equipment,teaching- supplies, services, -and types of fledges re--quited to teach the course. 1

2. These goal statements and terminal performancejectives go beyond typical catalog descriptionsallow for more rational selection of coursescurricula. It should be of particular -value tocounseling staff.

°b-andforthe

3. Instructors teaching the course for the first time havea clear understaprling of what should be covered with-out having teac'ning techniques and methods dictatedto him.

4. With a clear statement of course content, the selectionof texts, lab manuals, films, other teaching materials,and the construction of evaluat,on devices can be madeto meet stated objectives.

5. A logical extension of this procedure is the constructionof specific behavioral objectives by each instructorwhich tell the student exactly what is required and howhe will be evaluated.

In addition to these values we gained a greater respect forone another and an esprit de corps among the members of thedepartment, which itself is well worth the effort expended.

Reference

Mager, R. F. 1962. Preparing Instructional Objectives. Fearon Pub-lishers, Palo Alto, Calif.

Er rataWe regret the following errors which appeared in recentissues of the A1BS Education Review. In the article"The phaseachievement system I, An instructional management systemfor large enrollment lecture sections," AIRS Education Review,2(2):24 -27 1973, one of the authors was erroneously listed asF.G. Covert instead of O.F. Covert. On page 27, the referenceto "Covert et al. 1973" should have been completed to read;"Covert et at, The phase achievement system Il. A computersystem for large enrollment lecture sections, unpublished."This article has subsequently been published in the AIRS Ed-ucation Review, 2(3):40-42 1973. The authors of this articleshould have been listed as G.F. Covert, W.D. Dolphin, and R.G.Franke instead of W.D. Dolphin, R.G. Franke, F.O. Covert,and C.D. Jorgensen.

PROJECT BIOTECH NOTES

Richard A. DodgeALBS Staff

Project *BIOTECH has recently been refunded and authorizedby the National Science Foundation to continue developingbiological single task skill modules. Sixty additional modulesWill be selected from skill topic areas such as allied health, en.vironmental sciences, field and museum techniques, foodtechnology, and animal handling. Writers are needed to helpdevelop these Modules. For information Concerning skill topicsbeing sought, proper format, and stipends offered, please write:Pickleet BRYT tCH, 'A itteliart Institute "of biological Sciences,3900 Wisconsin Avenue; N.W,, Washington, 20010.

52 A1BS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 4

THE IMPACT OF AUDIO-TUTORIALINSTRUCTION ON FACULTY LOAD

ANDDEPARTMENTAL OPERATING

LEVELS

Thomas C. HahnLife Science Department

Souttokestern CollegeChula Vista, California 92010

The educational revolution is upon us, with such educationaltechnologies as the instructional systems approach (audio-tutorial and audio-visual-tutorial), computer-assisted instruction(CAI), educational television and videotape, and instant res-ponse systems. Often, such technologies are touted by thehardware - software manufacturers as the "latest thing" ininstructional innovation, and "guaranteed" to improve instruc-tion. Coupled with the technology of the educationalrevolution are several distinct philosophical considerations: (I)the general feeling that instruction must be made relevant tothe contemporary scene, (2) that instruction must be "in-dividualized" with a goal of educating all students to theirfullest potential, (3) that no matter what instructional modalityis employed, student-teacher contact must be maintained, (4)that instructional costs must be lo.vered and the efficiency ofinstructional operations be maximized.

These philosophical viewpoints are essentially derived from two"opposing camps"the student body on one hand, insisting onrelevancy, individualization, and maximum teacher contact,and the public and/or taxpayer on the other, visa -vis thetrustees and administrators, demanding efficiency and a

lowering of instructional costs. Positioned squarely betweenthese two groups are the teaching faculties attempting to carryon with the educational process and simultaneously fulfill theexpectations of both sides. To meet these challenges, educatorshave been encouraged by students, administrators, boards oftrustees, the public, and the hardware-software manufacturers,to experiment with a wide variety of multi-media and in-dividualized approaches to the learning environment.

A great deal of the "success" of such programs rests with howparticipating faculty and departments are treated when in-dividual work schedules and group operational levels arenegotiated with, or mandated by, administrative personnel. Themajority of faculty participating in the development or ap-plication of an innovative instructional technique express thedesire for preferential treatment in the creation of their in-dividual and group work load schedules. This stems from anobvious increase in faculty time commitments when conventionalcurricula are restructured as multi-media and individualizedinstructional modalities According to Hinton (1970), "anenormous amount of work is required for faculty who engagein the A-T method, and one would be hard pressed to find anaudio-tutorial instructor who seriously considered his "load."Administrators often make minor concessions in loading policyas incentives to stimulate the development of new programs.However, as programs are developed, Made operational, andbecome a part of the established curricula, modificatioas inboth the program structure and in staffing needs occur.

Administrative evaluation of such programs typically involvesa cost benefit analysis, i.e., "Is the program paying for itself"

OCIO)IER l973

or, "Are we doing a better job for less money?" Often, thereare no concrete answers to these questions. The lack of sub-stantive evaluation data may result in administrative attemptsto more effectively amortize the initial "hardware" costs andalso cut staffing expenses. In an attempt to create a "financialrationale" for the program, adjustment of original "temporary"concessions in the loading policy and other staffingmodifications may create bitter atmosphere among theprogram faculty. They perceive their workload increased by thenecessity far continual program modification in view of facultyand student evaluation. Both sides, administrators and faculty,often fail to see educational innovation as a continuingprocess, based on feedback data from evaluation instruments.

Often a new technology is applied without an adequateassessment of its impact on issues such as the faculty work-load and departmental operational level, in conjunction withfaculty involvement in continuing evaluation and programmodification. In the initial planning stages, such parametersare "lost" as peripheral issues when compared to otherweightier prof lems of instructional innovation and change.

This paper will examine the basic assumptions, philosophy,and procedures involved in establishing faculty loading policyand departmental operating levels at Southwestern College.The application of these policies to a specific individualizedinstructional modality (i.e. Audio-Tutorial Biology (Biology I))will be reviewed. The objective of this analysis and review, andthe primary purpose of this papa, is to derive a generalizedloading model which will allow prospective innovators topredict the effect that adoption of certain instructionaltechnologies will have on the workloads of participating facultyand on their departments' operating level.

The Audio-Tutorial Biology Program

The audio-tutorial program in biology at Southwestern Collegebegan operations in the fall semester 1968. Over its four yearhistory the program has maintained the essential features ofthe Postlethwait Model (1967), with modifications in responseto local requirements. A detailed history of the program isavailable in the current literature (Hahn 1971). The programcurrently enrolls 320 students each semester, handled by a 16station facility. The course structure includes four major com-ponents: the general assembly session, the small group session,the audio-tutorial or independent learning session, and the quizsession.

In addition to these formal components/activities, the audio-tutorial program also includes the following informal activities:

Group tutoring: Interested students are encouraged to gettogether informally in the evenings for unstructured discussionsessions, with an instructor "on call" for consultation.

Croup review sessions: Pre-examination group review sessionsare held during the late afternoons and evenings for the benefitof all students who wish to participate.

Bilingual study materials: A complete library of Spanishtranslations of the major life science textbooks is available forstudent loan. In addition, special bilingual (Spanish) tapes anda Spanish tronslation of the biological vocabulary are Currently.under development.

53

The Concept of Operating Level

Operating level (01) is a term applied to "index data" whichgive "management" the opportunity to evaluate the relativeefficiency of an instructional program. Typically, a departmentchairman or area dean will compute a departmentaloperational level by dividing the number of faculty (full-time,part-time, and paraprofessionals) into the total number ofweekly student contact hours for the department. For example,the life science department at Southwestern College was ratedin the fall of 1972 as having 5,56 Full-time InstructorEquivalents (FTIE). This included five full-time instructors, twopart-time instructors, and five paraprofessionals (tutors). Full-time equivalencies for part-time and paraprofessional staff arecomputed on the basis of cost per hour compared to a stan-dardized mean annual salary of $14,500.00. Weekly StudentContact Hours (WSCH) are computed course by course, Forexample, Biology I includes one hour of general assembly, onehour of small group discussion, and four hours of audio-tutorial instruction per week. Thus, each enrolled studentgenerates six contact hours per week in the course.

Operating level- is generally considered to be related toteaching efficiency and cost effectiveness. However, there areno generally agreed upon criteria set for what constituteseither ''efficient" or "low cost instruction as one moves fromcurriculum to curriculum, department to department, or fromcampus to campus. Historically, at Southwestern College,operating lesel(s) have been used as suggested guidelines. Theset level for campus-wide attainment is 500, although in-dividual departments fall far below and far exceed this meanlevel. There are no statewide (e.g., as in California) rationalesfor any specific operational level and many schools excludemandated, small-enrollment courses from their calculations.Thus, a statewide guide for comparative purposes is lacking.

Fundamentally, departments at Southwestern College areallowed the option of managing their own curricula within theframework of a "suggested" operating level, based on historicalrecord. Therefore, a department may opt to teach several low-enrollment courses or experiment with a new instructionaltechnique as long as they strive to maintain an annual OLcommensurate with the established guideline. Eachdepartment's OL is reviewed annually by department chairmenand area deans. New OL's may be set based on changes inenrollment patterns, instructional methods, staff needs, etc.

Since innovative instructional methods can have such asignificant effect on stalling, faculty loads, and consequentlydepartmental operating levels, a review of the impact that theAT instructional mode has had on these areas is in order.A sample analysis of faculty load and operating level is givenbelow.The following abbreviations are used:

FTIE = Full-Time Instructional EquivalentsLHE = Lecture Hour EquivalentsWSCH = Weekly Student Contact Hours01 = Operating Level

Conventional instruction (Fall 1966)4 sections x 3 hours = 12 LHE311 students 32 = 10 labs @ 3 hours 30 hours30 lab hours x 2/3 credit per hour r. 20 LHE32 LHE .15 (full-tirne teaching) = 2.11 FTIE

311 x 6

54

1866 WSCH01 - 876.056

2.13 FTIE 2.13 FT1E

Audio - Tutorial Instruction (Fall 1968)

1 General Assembly Session = 3 LHE20 Small Group Sessions =20 LHE40 hours A-T lab x 2/3 =27 LHE

TOTAL: 50 LHE

50 LHE + 15 = 3.3 1-T1E

295 x 6 1770 WSCHOL - - 536.363

3.3 FTIE 3.3 FTIE

Data for all terms from 1966 to 1972 are given in Fig. 1.

An analysis of the data presented in Fig. 1 indicates that im-plen.entation of the audio-tutorial program initially resulttd ina severe reduction in the operating level of the course (and thedepartment). The conventional lecture-laboratory mode ofinstruction used prior to implementation of the A-Tcurriculum generated a it OL of 898.2. During a five semesterperiod after the A-T program was initiated, the 01. for thecourse averaged 559.95, as a result of staffing the program en-tirely with full-time personnel. It was not until 1971 thatparaprofessional tutor assistance was employed in the A-Tlearning center. The progressive shift in staffing of the centerfrom full-time faculty to tutors culminated in the spring of1972 where the OL reached its all time peak (1137.423).

At the same time that the department was increasing its use oftutors in the A.r center, full-time staff were increasing theircommitment to specialty courses. For example, in fall 1971,

additional sections were offered in Botany 1 (General Botany)and Zoology 8 (Human Anatomy); while in spring 1972, additional sections of Biology 7 (Microbiology), Zoology 22(Human Physiology), and Zoology 2013 (Anatomy-Physiology)were offered. This increased commitment to specialty coursesalso substantially increased the weekly student contact hours(WSCH) in each course, i.e., Botany 1: 32 students x 6 contacthours (CFO/wk. = 192 WSCH; Zoology 8: 32 students x 8CH/wk. = 256 WSCH; Biology 7: 32 students x 8 CH/wk. =256 WSCH; Zoology 2013: 24 students x 4 CH/wk. 7.! 106

WSCH; and Zoology 22: 24 students x 6 CH/wk. = 144WSCH.

The increased tutor use in Biology 1 and enrollment gains inspeciality courses raised the overall departmental 01 in a

fashion which parallels the gains in the OL for the Biology 1course (See Table

Table I.A Comparison of Biology I and Overall Departmental

Operating Levels (1970-1972)

Semester Biology I OL Departmental OL

Fall 1970 559.766 595.23,..

Spring 1971 657.831 588.67

Fall 1971 787.5 719

Spring 1972 1131.423 707

Fall 1972 872.727- = 611

AlBS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 4

1150

1100

1050

1000

950

900

850

800

750

.00

650

600

550

500

CONVENTIONAL INSTRUCTION

= 898.20

Fall Sprg Fall Sprg Fall Sprg1966 1967 1967 1968 1968 1969

AUDIO-TUTORIAL INSTRUCTION1137.423

518.709 559.766

Fall Sprg Fal! Sprg Fall Sprg Fall1969 1971) 1970 1971 1971 1972 1972

Fig. L Life Science Department: Analysts of Faculty Load/Departmental Operating Level as Related toBiology I. Comparison of Conventional (Lecture - Laboratory) and Audio-Tutorial Instruction Modes.

Essentially, the department had opted to substantially increaseits OL (1 OL 863.87 for the period spring 1971-fall 1972) byreducing the level of faculty-student contact in the A-T learningcenter. Thus, the overall efficiency of departmental operationsgained dtariatically as a result. Although these are laudableachievements, there are certain negative features col,pled tothem. Use of tutors to operate the A-T center may releaseinstructors to other duties, but also reduces student contacttime with the full-time staff. It also tends to foster an "out-of-sight-out-of-mind" attitude on the part of the faculty, whobecome increasingly involved with their specialty courses, Thistrend was reviewed by the departmental staff in spring 1972with the central issue being a consideration of. efficiencyweighed against the effect of total faculty withdrawal from theAT center in relation to the educational values of theprogram. A faculty concensus plan to modify tutor use and in-crease staff-student contact in the A-T center was im-plemented in the fall semester 1972. This involved adjustingtutor loads in the center end assigning additional part-timestaff to teach some of the small group sessions (SOS). Full-time staff relieved from selected SOS assignments were thenreassigned into the AT center on a three for two lab-lecturehotir equivalent ratio. Table I reflects the effect that this planhis had on both course and departmental operating levelsboth decreased significantly from previously establishedhighs". Thus, although departmental "paper efficiency" has

decreased, staff Attitudes about the program have improvedMarkedly.

OCTOBER 1973

Cenvalited Loading Model

Production of a generalized model to predict the impact ofvarious instructional technologies on the loads of participatingfaculties and on their departmental operating level is an ex-ceedingly difficult task, especially when one is attempting togeneralize from a data base consisting of one case study.However, although a complete "model" cannot be realized,several significant component parameters of such a model canbe identified.

Three such parameters have been revealed in this study,namely: (1) Faculty load does not decrease with implementationof audio-tutorial methods, but substantially increases in viewof the continuing evaluation and modification of the programs.Teaching load only decreases when paraprofessionals (tutors,lab assistants, teachers' aides, etc.) personnel are utilized in the"individualized" and "programmed" portion of the instructionalprocess in lieu of full-time (and more expensive) faculty. (2)Restructuring conventional instructional programs into in-dividualized, programmed modes involving both hardware andsoftware can result in substantial reductions in equipment andfacilities use costs However, this must be tempered with therealization that programmed instructional units My heavily onmass "demonstration" rather than individual "experimental"approaches. Although financially beneficial, the educationalvalue of_ such_ prActices in* be questioned.. (3) Instructionaltechnologies in the form of individually programmed systemi

$5

appear to facilitate the "handling" and "processing" of largenumbers of students with essentially no substantial increases infaculty or facility costs. The problem of increasing enrollmentsdisappears when one works with audio-tutorials. A slight in-crease in learning center hours, supplies, and paraprofessionalhours are all that is required to accommodate a relatively largeenrollment gain. Thus, operation costs progressively shrink asenrollment and operating levels gain. However, once again theeducational value of handling large numbers of students in an"efficient", but in a mechanical and impersonal manner, mustbe considered. The "dehumanizing" effects of the instructionalsystems approach to teaching has been discussed by Monroe(1972) in his consideration of the future prospects of suchinstructional modes. He states:

In

.. at the present, there is little evidence that studentswould welcome innovation which would decreasepersonal contacts with a live personality. if the systemsapproach retains the close relationship between teacherand student, and its advocates ctaim an even closer one -to-one ratio between student and teacher, then studentswill accept the mechanization process. However, any newsystem of teaching which places a greater distancebetween teacher and learner is destined to be rejected.The impersonality of large lecture sections and thetendency for a minority of the teachers to reject studentsas human btings who need personal attention areprimary incentives for students to be unhappy with theircollege experience. The community college student whodoes not come to college with a high degree of built-inmotivation revires a use creative, and stimulatingteacher as a prime mover. Even though it has beendemonstrated that students can learn independentlywithout a teacher tlirough the use of televised classes,programmed learning manuals, or correspondencecourses and that students would welcome the opportunityto progress at their own rate in their studies, in reality,most community college students continue to prefer todo their learning in the company of other students andeven in an atmosphere of competition with theirclassmates. Any form of instruction in which the contentis formalized or "canned," and the learning process isroutinized into a formal step-by-step procedure, althoughpsychologically sound as interpreted by the beharioristschool, is enjoyed by students no more than they enjoylecturers who repeat the same dull lectures year afteryear.

summary, faculties who int-id on implementing audio-tutorials (and possibly other instructional technologies) in theirdepartmental curricula, should expect some major adjustmentsin individual loading and in departmental operations. Aschematic flow chart illustrating the possible effects of instruc;tional technologies on faculty load and depattment 01. in-clud;ng alternative plans are given in Fig. 2.

SHORT COURSES TO HOFFER EDAT 1974 ANNUAL MEETING

Since the Minicourse on Module Making, which was offered atthe 1973 meeting, was an extremely successful venture, weare offering five courses at the 1974 meeting at Arizona StateUniversity, 16.21 June. The course titles ye:

How to Develop a MinicourseHoW to Write for Scientific JournalsCommunity Dynamics of Desert VertebratesCommunity Dynamics of Deiert InvertebratesCommunity Dynamics of Higher Desert Plants

Registration Wins a Sae-auk-of course'Meetings will appear in a future issue, Min now t6 attend.

Prozram Development Cycle(PDC)

ProgramImplementation

InformalEvaluationFeedback fromStudents

FormalEvaluationStudent-Faculty

Program modificationand Production ofnon Materials

Plan A - Full staffing byfaculty (work load substan-tially increased: OL reduced)

Plan El - Partial staffingIV faculty shared withparaprofessionals

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Plan C - Full staffing ofprogrammed portion byparaprofessionals

1st year operation: Implement Plan C - shift full-time facultyto Program Development Cycle in view of the "first run"status of the program.

2nd year (?) operation: Implement Plan B achieve a balancebetween full-time faculty and paraprofessional staffing, split,"excess" time of faculty between PDC and expansion ofspeciality areas or experimental course work. Every 2.3years, shift back to Plan C for total faculty involvement in pro-gram revitalization and updating.

Fig. 2. Schematic flow chart (and recommendations) illus-trating the Vissibte effects of implementing instructionaltechnologies on faculty work load and departmental operatinglevel.

References

Hahn, T. C. 1971. Audio-tutcrial instruction: a case study. BioScience21 (15): 814-819.

Hinton, J. R. 1970. Audio-tutorial practices in California communitycolleges. Researek Office, Diablo Valley College.

Monroe, C. R. 1972. Profik of the Community College. Jossey-BassInc. Publishers. San Francisco, Calif.

Postlethwait, S. N. 1967, Teaching tools and techniques: an audio-tutorial approteh to teaching. Pac. Speech 1 (4): 57-62.

=1CNEEDED: PICTURESPICTURES FOR NEW CAREER BROCHURE

If you have pictures of typical employment or learning sit-uations, please send glossy photographs at least 4 x 5 inches,but no larger than 8-1/2 x II inches. Prints for our newcareer brochure will be selected on 7 Novembee. $10 will beawarded and credit printed for each picture used. Prints can-not be returned.

NEW STUDENT CHAPTER HANDBOOKConsider forthing an AIRS Student Chapter.JSix ALES studentmembers and a Faculty Advisor, Who is an Individual AIRSmember, can form the nucleus of a new chapter. High school,undergraduate, and graduate- students are all eligible. A re-Aged ildiulbok for AIRS-Stadmi Chivies will be 'avaiiablesoon. Write fora free copy.

AIDS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL, 2 NO. 4

AN EXPERIMENT ON IMPROVINGTHE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY

H. T. Hendrickson

Department of BiologyUniversity of North Carolina at Greensboro

Greensboro, North Carolina 27412

Introduction

Everyone these days is talking about the problems of largeenrollment introductory courses in biology and proposingsolutions. Usually some theory is applied to a course, tried afew times, and, if no loud screams of protest develop and theprofessor is reasonably happy, it is called an innovative stepforward. Very seldom is the concept of a controlledexperiment applied by science teachers to their "experimental"teaching.

At the University of North Carolina at Greensboro we have alarge (900-1000 students), three credit hours course in in-troductory biology with all the standard complaints from allconcerned parties. Lectures are given in five lecture s.clions byfive different lecturers with about 200 students in each Since1970 we have used an audio-tutorial type laboratory; studentsfrom all five lecture sections report once a week at theirconvenience to a uniform programmed laboratory assignment.Some staff members are in the laboratory at all open hours toprovide whatever assistance may be required. Becausetof theopen, unscheduled nature of audio-tutorial labs it was con-sidered difficult, if not impossible, for a lecturer to coordinatehis laboratory instruction time with the appearance of amaximum number of students from "hie' lecture section, thusmaximizing reinforcement of ideas presented in laboratory andlecture.

We assumed that it would be "better" if students could workwith the same staff people in both lecture and laboratory andthen set out to test this assumption. More precisely, wehypothesized that increased contact of the lecturer in thelaboratory context would improve student performance. In ad-dition, if the laboratory support staff attended lectures with thestudents and heard exactly the same information as presented,then this should result in more reinforcement in thelaboratory. The expected improvement should be apparent ingrades on laboratory quizzes, grades on hourly exams, and"student attitudes."

Materials and Methods

The control group met in lecture Tuesday and Thursday,mornings at 9.30 and went to lab at any time their schedule

allowed except from 8.00 a.m. to 6.00 p.m Tuesday. Twograduate student teaching assistants attended this lecture sec-tion all term and assisted in the laboratory at scattered hours.The lecturer assisted in the laboratory on Monday afternoons.

The experimental group met in lecture on Monday andWednesday mornings at 10.00 and attended the audi6-tutOriallab betWeen 8.00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. ittesday. Three graduatestudent teaching assistants and one instructor attended this lec-ture section and assisted in the laboratory all day Tuesday.

The possibility bf*ISers6rtality affecthig the out-come,' the same lecturer gave the same lecturis to both the

OCTOBER 1973

control and experimental groups. Every practical effort wasmade to discourage experimental students from attending labat a time other than 8-6 on Tuesdays. One factor we could notcontrol, which may have had an effect, was that the studentsin the experimental group were aware of being treated in anunusual manner. Having to come to laboratory during a res-tricted time quickly identified them as being something"special."

Three hourly exams were given during the term. Each oneconsisted of 50 multiple-choice questions. Approximately 25percent of the questions on each test were based on materialspecifically treated in the laboratory. Both the experimentaland control sections were given the same test at the same time

A final examination of 100 multiple-choice questions (25percent of which were on laboratory material) was given toboth sections at the end of the term. The experimental andcontrol sections took sequentially opposite copies of the sameexam at the same hour on different days.

An attitudinal survey consisting of fire-part graded responsesbased on some of the more common statements made byprevious students in the course was given to both sectionsduring the tenth week of the term. Additional room wasprovided for comments. This was an attempt to determine howboth sets of students felt about'the lectures, text, laboratory,and examinations.

Finally, an informal note was posted in lab during the finalweek of classes soliciting comments on student reactions to labin general.

Results

In comparing the make-up of the two sections we found thatthere were no significant differences in class composition, sex-ratio, drop rates, proportion on Pass/Not Pass Option, or anyother definable criteria. For all intents and purposes, it wouldappear that we are dealing with two randomly selected sub-populations of students enrolled in our introductory biologycourse (see Table 1).

On all four of the examinations given the experimental sec-tion averaged higher grades, but in no case was the differencestatistically significant (prob < 0.05). The same thing held true of

Table I.Composition of Control and Experimental Classes

ControlNo.

Experimental

No.

Freshman 122 67.7 115 56.9Sophomore 45 25.0 72 35.6Junior 11 6.1 9 4.4Senior 2 1.1 6 2.9Total* 180 202

Male 19 10.4 19 9.2Withdrewor

Incomplete 8 4.4 I1 5.4Pass/Not Pass 30 16.4 32 15.6

Includes seniors, graduate students, andspecial students

**Thisitidicates final size of the ctass afterthe removal of all withdrawals and incompletes.

57

the final averages of all four exams weighed equally. Therewas no significant difference between the averages of theexperimental and control sections (see Table 2). if one assumesa theoretical grade distribution of 5 percent F, 20 percent D,40 percent C, 25 percent B, and 10 percent A, then X2 testsreveal that neither of the sectionsileviates significantly fromthis expectation. (X2 = 9.179 for controls and 1853 forexperimentals, 4 degrees of freedom).

When one considers only those questions derived fromlaboratory work, the trend is similar. Only on the secondhourly exam was the proportion of experimentals missinglaboratory questions significantly smaller than the proportionof controls. On the other two hourly exams and on the finalexam, there was no significance to the difference in proportionof people missing laboratory questions for the two sections.

There was no apparent difference in the reaction of the twosections to the lectures based on the attitude survey. However,there were significant differences found on most of the other;ems tested, The experimental section was much less likely toconsider the reading assignments excessive; conversely, morepeople in the control section found the readings burdensome.The experimental section gave consistently more positiveopinions to questions about the lab than did the control sec-tion. The difference in response was highly significant on fourof the five points graded. The experimental group also ratedthe fairness of the hourly exams higher than did the controls(both sections had taken two exams at this time), and theexperimentals were more inclined to consider the tests

reasonable though hard and to notice the stress on principlesand details than ssere the controls.

The informal invitation to comment on lab offered in the lastweek of classes yielded no noticeable difference in proportionof favorable responses from the experimental vs. non-experimental sections but the response rate itself was dras-tically lopsided. A much greater proportion of students in theexperimental section wrote in comments and suggestions thanwas true for the course as a whole.

Discussion and Conclusions

In light of these data, it seems safe to conclude that theheavy investment of faculty time used to maximize lecture-

58

Test Class n

laboratory coordination and continuity has produced nomeasu4able intellectual benefits based on grades. Having thesame personnel in laboratory as you have in lecture in no wayaffects the student's chances of getting a good grade.However, this continuity of faculty between lecture andlaboratory does seem to improve the way the student feelsabout the courseparticularly the laboratory part of thecourse. Students under our experimental conditions were muchmore inclined to believe in the ability, preparedness, andconcern of the laboratory staff and the value of the lab as apart of the biology course than were the students under ourcontrol conditions. Despite all these differences, and the ob-vious differences in treatment, both sections gave virtuallyidentical responses in evaluating the degree of coordinationbetween lecture and laboratory.

It is possible that the differences in response to the survey onattitudes are not due to the actual differences in treatment butonly to the belief on the part of the students in the experimen-tal group that they were somehow different and "special."Theoretically, this belief of being better than ordinary studentsin the course could cause a different feeling for the course andstaff, and particularly for the laboratory where they havemaximum close contact with the people who have identifiedthem as unusual. Because of the way this experiment was setup, there is no way to separate these two factors. Theexperimental group did get treatment which was different andspecial so that their self-identification as exceptional, with itsattendant expectations and modified perceptions, could be pos-sible. It would be interesting to design an experiment to testthis idea.

While this more positive outlook towards the course, thelaboratory, and the staff may be very gratifying and improvethe general working conditions for all concerned, it probablyhas no meaning in an educational sense. The students in theexperimental section may be more content (or less "turnedor) but they haven't learned any more of the subject.

I think it is safe to conclude that to improve the transfer ofinformation from instructor to student, it will be necessary todo something other than increase the amount of time spent byfaculty in classes with students.

Table 2.

Analysis of Test Scores in Controland Experimental Classes

er, 2 S e+.

S2 n difference z exp. z cont.

1 Experimental 202 80.61 109.12 0.543 1.74 1.09

Control 180 78.87 117.14 0.6502 Experimental 202 66.81 131.55 0.651 0.16 1,23

Control 180 66.65 158 02 0.877

3 Experimental 202 73.73 121.02 0.599 0.49 1,17

Control 180 73.24 143.51 0.7974 Experimental 202 69.15 114.69 0.567 0.54 1.09

Control 180 68.61 112.05 0.622

Total Experimental 808 72.57 146.40 0.181 0.73 0.62

-- - Control , 720. - 71.84 154,41 0.214

AIRS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 4

INFORMATION FORCONTRIBUTORS

Correspondence: All correspondence should be directed tothe Editors, AIRS Educalion Review, American Institute ofBiological Sciences, 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20016.

Editorial Polley: The Editors will welcome manuscripts onbiological education from administrators, faculty, students,and those outside academe who are engaged in educationalpursuits. Articles describing research studies in biologicaleducation, new learning programs, and viewpointsstimulating dialogue in biological education are requested.

'The usual length of feature articles is 3,000 words. Manu-scripts must conform to the C.B.E. Style Manual. Illus-trations are acceptable, but text length should be adjusted toaccommodate them. The recommendations of reviewers willbe considered for each manuscript submitted. The Editorsreserve the right to edit manuscripts, but authors will havean opportunity to approve galleys.

Papers are accepted for publication on the condition thatthey are submitted solely to the AIRS Education Reviewand that they will not be reprinted or translated withoutthe consent of the Editors.

Preparation of Manuscript: In the preparation of copy,manuscripts should be neatly typewritten in 57 charaeterlines, double-spaced throughout, including references,tabular material, footnotes, etc., on one side only of 81/4 x11 inch white bond paper. No abstract is required. Pleasesubmit the original plus two additional copies. The authorshould retain a copy. A separate title page should beprovided, and footnotes, figure descriptions, and tablesshould be typed on sheets separate from the text. At leastone of, the copies must be complete with figures, tables, andreferences. Please convert all weights and measures to themetric system.

Illustrations: Illustrations such as photographs, maps, linedrawings, graphs, etc., should be submitted, unmounted,with the manuscript. Only black and white illustrations willbe accepted. Number figures consecutively and identify onthe reverse side. Glossy photographs are required and mustbe at least 4 x 5 inches but not larger than 81/2 x 11 inches.Originals of drawings are requested. Generally, drawingslarger than 811/2 x II inches are not acceptable. Lettering onall illustrations must be sufficiently large to allow reductionto a single column. Figure captions for each illustrationshould be typed on a separate page and accompany theillustration.

References: In the text, references to literaturecitations should be designated by the author's name andyear of publication in parentheses. If there are more thantwo authors, only the senior author's name should be listedin the text with the abbreviation "et al.," for example:(Smith et al. 1963). Only published references should begiven in-the References section, and each should conform instyle to the -name-and-year- system of the C.B.E. StyleManual.

OCTOBER 1973

MINICOURSE ONMODULE MAKING

Richard B. Glazer andJoan G. Creageryi AIRS Staff

As a way of providing a new alternative for meeting-goers, theEducation Division presented a "Minicourse on ModuleMaking" at the 1973 Annual Meeting. This course was offeredin two hour sessions five successive mornings under the direc-tion of Robert N. Hurst of the Purdue University MinicourseProject. Dr. Hurst was assisted by Darrei L. Murray of theUniversity of Illinois, Chicago Circle Campus, and by theauthors of this report. A $5 registration fee was paid by theparticipants. The additional costs of the minicourse weredefrayed by the AIBS Consultants Bureau which operatesunder a grant from the Nationil Science Foundation.

Registration for the minicourse was held to a maximum of 30.Of the 28 actual participants, seven registered for and receivedone hour of graduate credit for their participation in thecourse. Arrangements were made through the University ofMassachusetts Division of Continuing Education for theawarding of graduate credit by the Zoology Department. In-dividuals desiring credit paid an additional $15 to theUniversity, attended sessions three hours per day, and engagedin study and previewing of BIOTECH modules ondemonstration. We mention the details of the academic creditarrangements because this event marked the first occasion thata biologist could receive academic credit for participating in acourse white attending an AIBS meeting. In view of the trendsin higher education for providing alternative ways in whichacademie credit may be earned and the acceptability oflearning taking place in many diverse settings, we feel that thiscourse has set the stage for the AIBS Annual Meeting tobecome a legitimate setting for these programs.

Because this minicourse was a new venture and becauseevaluation is an important component of any learningsituation, new or established, we asked participants to com-plete an open-ended evaluation form. Eighteen participantsvoluntarily completed the form. Of those responding, 17 in-dicated that the course directors had provided sufficientguidance to allow them to learn how to prepare a module.Some respondents did feel that more time or more facilities,particularly audio-visual equipment, would have improved theeffectiveness of the course.

Some of the merits of the course mentioned most frequentlyby the participants inctutied, the opportunity to work withpeople who were experiencirin the preparation of modules,the exposure to a new type of teaching, and the differentperspectives they gained through group activities with both thecourse directors and the other participants. The small groupdiscussions and writing sessions, the "hands-on" experience ofpreparing a module under the guidance of course directors,and the self and groUp evaluations were considered to besignificant aspects of the course by many of the participants.

The major problem perceived by the participants-was the lackof time to do a thorough job of preparing a module. The

_,several suggestions f9r solVing this-problem included beginningwith a full day pre-meeting session with shorter daily sessions,four-hour daily sessions, or extending the course several days

59

beyond the end of the meeting. Another significant recommen-dation was that participants should receive prior to themeeting a kit of materials with specific information on whatwas expected of them and what kinds of materials to bringwith them. These suggestions are being given careful con-sideration in the development of course offerings for nextyear's meeting.

Since this course was offered on a "let's see what happens"basis, we were encouraged to find that 14 of the 18 re-spondents indicated the minicourse was the major or sole fac-tor in,,their decision to attend the AIRS meeting. This findingprovides significant impetus for the development of similarofferings at future meetings. We take this opportunity to inviteour readers to send us suggestions for the kinds of coursesthey would like to see offered at future meetings.

BIO-STUDENTS VOICETo All MRS Members:

For any AIRS student chapter that is trying to get off theground in getting organized and in attempting to find someideas for fund raising or for general chapter activities, here area few projects that those of us in the Ladycliff College StudentChapter tried this year and found successful:

I) Stationery sales. We realized over $100 on each of twosales.

2) Volleyball game. Our chapter members challenged ourcollege's faculty. Even though we didn't come out on topscorewise, our event made everyone at our college aware thatour AIRS chapter is active, and players and spectators enjoyedthe victory party at the Student Union.

3) Newspaper. "Vulture" is the title of our publication, namedfor its unique perspective presented 6y its contents which con-sist of factual articles concerning topics of current biologicalinterest, science anecdotes, and ecology cartoons. Thenewspaper served as an opportunity for our chapter membersto be creative and to share our ideas with our fellow students.

4) Christmas party. This was a get-together for our chaptermembers and friends with Christmas carols provided by ourmembers.

5) Donation of funds to other clubs on campus.6) Sponsorship of chapter members to attend conferences.Some of our members attended the AIRS Regional Conferenceheld at Western Connecticut State College on 14 April 1973.We really appreciated the experience of meeting members fromother chapters, exchanging ideas, and sharing research in-formation which was afforded by the Conference.

7) Veterans' Hospital entertainment. Sponsored by our chapter,a singing group with guitar accompaniment performed folkand- rock selections. The vets were an enthusiastic audience,and we all left With a feeling of accomplishment.

The members of the Ladycliff College.Chapter of AIRS shareour projects with you in the hope that they might give yonionte idehi for mote activities for your own chapters. We hopethat you- will be ai fortunate as we have beery in being able toCatry-out these projects.

Respectfully submitted,Jane Lewis, Past President

- Caifyiliff College AIES Student ChapterHighland Net;i- York 1028

NEWS SERVICES AVAILABLETHROUGH THE CONSULTANTS

BUREAUJoan G. Creager

AIRS Staff

As has been the case for a number of years, consultantservices are still available for the improvement of facilities andthe evaluation of curricula. Last year's workshops proved to bean effective and successful addition to the consultant services.As a result, there are consultants now prepared to offerworkshops on the following topics:

Population and Pollution - how to prepare college students tooffer instructional programs in elementary and secondaryschools,

Investigative Laboratory how to plan, organize,and execute aninvestigative laboratory in which students carry out experi-ments of their own design.

Modules - how to prepare modularized instructional packagesfor the teaching of skills, concepts, and effective learning.

Ethics for Environment - how to incorporate ethical im-plications of environmental issues into the teaching of biology.

Most workshops consist of two full days of participation, oftenon a Friday and Saturday. If you find one of the above topicsparticularly appealing, or if you have an idea about anotherkind of workshop, please let us know your interests.

Agricultural Consultants

Because the AIRS is concerned about the need to offer servicesto a broad spectrum of educators in the life sciences, we havesolicited the services of agricultural scientists who are willingto provide consultant services to life science departmentsinterested in developing or improving programs in variousareas of agriculture. if your department might profit by theservices of a consultant, please write us describing the natureof your programs and your needs.

Allied Health Consultants

While the AIRS does not provide services in this area, werecognize that many colleges maintain, or are developing, alliedhealth programs related to, or in conjunction with, biologydepartments. We have learned that allied health consultantservices are available through the Association of Schools ofAllied Health Professions, One Dupont Circle, N.W., Wash-ington, D.C. 20036. For further information, contact theirExecutive Director, Mr. William Samuels.

Is th'oSefenee Available to Your Students?

BioScience Carries frequent articles of interest not Onlyto biology students but to those in other fields as Well.Instlititidnal` Subseriptiorti fof your library are available-at $24 per year- by writing Prank LOVerde, AIRS:3S900WiscOnsitiaMenu'e,-N,W., Washington; D.C. 20016.

AIRS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 4

Report of the AIBS Manpower SurveyJoan G. Creager

AIBS Staff

This study was partially supported by the National ScienceFoundation and the National Academy of Sciences.

The American Institute of Biological Sciences has beenconcerned with manpower In the life sciences, with thequestions of supply and demand, graduate school, employ-ment :xperiences, and, in particular, with the problem ofunemp oyment. Since virtually no current manpower infor-mation was available about biologists, the AIBS feltcompelled to survey the manpower situation within itsmembership and that of selected adherent societies.

In December 1972, a questionnaire was distributed byAIBS to 26,000 individuals, 13,000 of whom are members.Four adherent societies assisted with this survey bydistributing the questionnaire to their members during thefirst three months of 1973. The societies, selected tomaximize the diversity of the biological community repre-sented, were: the Botanical Society of America, theAmerican Society of Microbiologists, the Ecological Societyof America, and the American Society of Zoologists. Sincethere was no way within the budgetary constraints of thisstudy to eliminate overlap among the mailings created byindividuals who are members of two or more societies, it isimpossible to determine the overall rate of response. Whilethis problem was recognized at the planning stage, it wasfelt that the advantages of distributing the questionnaires tothe members of the several societies outweighed thedifficulties of overlap. Table 1 provides the percentresponse for each society and selected characteristics of itsmembers.

Table 1,Response rate for societies and selected

characteristics of their members

Sockty

Approx.Number ofMembers

Number ofResponsesto Survey

PercentResponse

Percent of ResponsesBy Degree By SexPhD. M.S. Male Fern..

Total -* 7,153 73 19 82 18AIDS 13,000 4,164 32 75 17 82 18BSA 3,200 886 28 79 13 80 20ASM 16,000 994 6 68 11 74 26ESA 4,100 1,152 24 81 12 91 9ASZ 3,975 1,586 40 90 6 83 17

*These data omitted for reasons described in text.

The variations among societies in percent response to thequestionnaire ate probably a function of the proportion -ofmembers concerted With education, Even though thequestkinnakctiPtained that we were carkerned about allmanpoviet(hi the Roloikal Sciences, a grealer propbition ofreSpollieS were received 'frOm petso_ntief in -educationalinstitiitiOnithan troiifthose In goVethinent and flaunty.

For the entire sample, 73% of the respondents hold a Ph.D.,although there is variation by society from 68% for theASM to 90% for the ASZ. Most of the remainder ofrespondents hold Master's degrees except for 439 Baccalau-reate holders, 137 M.D,'s, and 17 Associate degree holders.With respect to sex, 18% of the entire sample are women,while 26% of the ASM members are women, and 9% of theESA members are women. The number of respondents whoare members of ethnic minorities is too small to yieldreliable statistics. There are 74 blacks, 19 Puerto Ricans, 13Mexican-Americans, 21 other Spanish speaking people, and15 American Indians.

By far the greatest majority of respondents (73%) areemployed by an institution of post-secondary education.Since American Science Manpower 1970 (National ScienceFoundation, 1971) reported that 60% of biologists werethen employed in educational institutions, it appears that inour sample the employer category "institutions of highereducation" is over-represented. The percent employed ineach of several employer categories is shown in Fig. I

Among the categories included in "other" are elementaryand secondary education, government, business, and indus-try. The relatively large proportion of ASM members fallingin the "other" category is attributed to the large number ofmembers employed in industry.

TOTALSAMPLE

Al BS

BOY.SOC.

ASA,

ESA

EMPLOYER

ASZ :1 .

10 E0 30 40 50 60 70 Do 96 100pecint

0 Mr' Univen/iy Othir

Fig, 1

Important to an understanding of the expertise available Inthe" life sciences is information on -the graduate schooleitN,riences.-tke field highest degree'ol respOndenti is-given In /. As can be seen figuit-i overOrreAlid -Air the respondents- field thek

111111

140-ytarc40111194

bGtOB[R 1973 61

relatively unspecialized fields of general biology, botany,and zoology. The apparent generality of degrees may bedue to a preponderance of Masters level individuals in thesecategories and to the practice of awarding a degree in ageneral field even though the individual's research may havebeen highly specialized. A more detailed study of this issuewould be needed to ascertain the degree of specializationwithin this component of the biological community,

FIELD OF HIGHEST DEGREE

Intsf0i1c191i NA+ 76

Arts HumanitietEducation 108

Fig, 2

Sources of graduate school support affect the manpowersupply. Data pertaining to sources of graduate schoolsupport are provided in Fig. 3, Among Ph.D. candidates,government funds account for about 40% of the supportfor both men and women. Universities provide about 34%,with a greater proportion going to men than to women.Women appear to have made up this deficit out of personalfunds. For Ph.D.'s there has been a tremendous variationover time in the proportion of support from these differentsources. Before 1950 only 8% of support came fromgovernment sources; since 1960 over 50% came fromgovernment sources. All other sources of support haveshown relatively proportional decreases over time. Withrespect to Masters candidates, there has been less govern-ment support and less consistent patterns of support, bothwith respect to sex of candidate and with respect to tinietrends. Masters candidates do, however, -tend to financemore of their education from personal funds.

'There are significantly More Ph.D. candidates than Masterscandidates auppbrted by competitive fellowships. For Mas-ters; candidatertheprOportion of Individuals supported hasrisen oveitlini from 24% before 1930, to 31 %-dllring thefi1tleg1- to 40 since'1060,=The pattern- of support forPli.1)-N is leis consistent and ranged around -0% befoie1060016U aftei 060. -

62

TOTAL

MEN

WOMEN

Wow 1960

1960.1.611

1980S Sim

TOTAL

MEN

WOMEN

Solo» 1%0

1960-10%

19601 Sim

SOURCES OF SUPPORT FOR GRADUATE STUDY

MOM"SNMOW . EMIS

iige% l MaMASTERSMa" /

MOWMaignir /=Mogan /SUMMV/ /14

30 10pecont of degree tOcpiants

90 1%

U S.othrtail Goverment f2 Univirtitiff

Fig. 3

Postdoctoral fellowships serve as a measure of the degree ofhighly specialized training obtained by respondents. Of the5,019 Ph.D.'s responding to the questionnaire, 44% haveheld postdoctoral fellowships. The percentage of womenwho have held postdoctoral fellowships (48%) is higherthan that for men (43%).

The current manpower situation in the biological sciences isreflected by employer category and by the degree ofunemployment. Pig, 4 shows the percentages of all respon-dents by employer category and the variations in employercategory by sex and by highest degree held, Women andMasters level respondents held relatively fewer positions inuniversities and relatively more positions in two yearcolleges.

TOTALSAMPLE

MALE

S (MALE'

PhD

MASTERS

0

EMPLOYER CATEGORY ererreetary 6 wondsryothir savtAniont

Wert pirarroostbusing** istikstry

kinkA0001..e

1.1)4111AV:A I...M*11.1114i

1

/0 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 00 100

glier' ,f,..r.::-Pm.ntL1 uoi"itY

Flo. 4

Of all respondents 9% indicated that they had beenunemployed at some time in 1972. Of this 9%, abOut halfwere unemployed three months or less; the remainder wereunemployed for more- than'three-rnonths. As indicated in

3,1wice as many women as hien were tinempi6yd andthose- holding higher level` dew-ea Wet* tens li)ceiy tb heunemployed- thin theiSeiholdinf lower leitidegliekinitkeunder- SO age '004 unemployment was -eXtrernilir

00.

AIDS REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. a

probably because of the large number of full time studentsIn this age group, Of the 731 respondents in this group, 144(20%) indicated that they were students. Variations in thepercentage of unemployment for other age categories areprobably due to there being at least some students In the30-39 age group and a number of retired individuals in the60 and over age group. Thus, unemployment in 1972 wasapproximately 6% overall, slightly lower for individualsbetween 40 and 60 and slightly higher among the youngerand older respondents.

UNEMPLOYED AT SOME TIME DURING 1972

2iii IsFig. 6

Of those currently employed, 21% indicated that they wereseeking new positions. While these individuals do notcontribute to the unemployment problem, they do indicatea degree of dissatisfaction with current employment. Withrespect to current employment status, 78% of the respon-dents hold one full-time position. Among Ph.D.'s, 83% holdone full-time position, but the proportion holding onefull-time job drops by degree level to 59% for Laccalaureatedegree holders. The proportion of respondents holding oneor more part-time jobs is inversely related to degree, varyingfrom 1.5% among Ph.D.'s to 11.4% among Baccalaureateholders, Six percent hold a part-time position in addition totheir full-time position and 3% hold one or more part-Omejobs. About 3% of the respondents are students, almost 2%hold postdoctoral positions, and slightly more than 1% areretired. About one -third of the retired persons hold apart-time position. Of greatest import among the statisticspertaining to the currently employed is that I% are onnotice of termination.

Of the 6,224 individuals who responded to the item aboutretirement programs, 50% have a vested interest in theirprogram, 32% do not have, and 18% don't know whether ornot they have a vested interest in their retirement program.

The type of work activity engaged in by the majority ofrespondents is teaching,'eltheras the primary activity or

-Combination With research or administration, as is shown inrig. 6. The nriajor diffireke between the work activities ofmen and women is that wb-rniti- hold relatliely morepositions-- irivAiting fu6-tittle tea-thing While Men holdrelailiely more positions Involving a 'eninbinatiOn of

earth and teaching:rbifferences Wit respecftorespect highestegret' held are -that- half of the .b.117-"are -engaged

aCtOBER 1973

In research-and-teaching and only 11% of the Mastersholders are so engaged. Over one-fourth of Masters holdersreported work activities falling in the "other" category,Included in the "other" category are professional services,fellowships, development and design, and technical andsupport services. Variation in work activities by employercategory show that half of those employed in two yearcolleges are engaged in full time teaching; one-third ofthose in four year colleges and only 8% of those Inuniversities are so engaged, These differences are mote thancompensated by the increase in teaching and researchpositions from 6% in two year colleges to 36% in four yearcolleges to 64% in universities, The work activity of thoseemployed by business and industry and of those employedby the federal government differ markedly from those ineducational institutions. As would be expected, there isalmost no teaching and a much larger proportion ofresearch and administration. Among those employed inbusiness or industry, 44% hold positions falling in the"other" category.

TOtALSAMel

RALE

FEMALE

PhD

MAST FAS

EMPLOYERNC roof Cod*

Four vow ConFoo

Uoiroesilo

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TTORg ACTIVITY

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.44Plia051...)" .."9 ,46/ '011! itsr* -?/././17/71 A599.1

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Fig. 6

111Os ..

too

With respect to federal support for current employment,16% of respondents reported full support and 22% reportedpartial support, By far the greatest proportion of federalsupport goes to Ph,D,'s in universities as is indicated in Fig.7. The primary sources of federal support are the healthrelated divisions of the Department of Health, Education,and Welfare, which provided funds for nearly half of thosereceiving support, and the National Science Foundation,which proiidid funds for slightly more than one-third ofthose receiving support.

Salary data were obtained for the calendar years 1972 and1971, Data on income other than salary for calendar year1972 were also obtained. Variations in 1972 salaries arereported in Fig. 8 by degree level, sex, and age. Salariesincrease significantly with age up to the age of 60 and thenlevel off. Meall women's salariei are from )1,800 to 0,100lower than these of men, depending eti' degreeVariation-I in I9-12 salary -_antortg geographlo region arilamong fields are' relatively snit% -There are too feWrespooderitt among Minority groups' -to "Ohtain reliablesalary: rt. I Sala-rick 46111' $50-07to$1,006reit 146072 gala es.

63

FEDERAL SUPPORT FOR CURRENT EMPLOYMENT

Partial supportFull support

OCO

TOTAL

MASTI MS

11AOCALAUREATE

2

Fig. 7

117I SAEANY

EDACC Si, CTX IVO ,E03 Ls 000 0)0,000t -1

i

MEN

*OMEN i

,t WOMEN

MEN

MEN

EY AGE

WOMEN

1.....00 30.Xt 00 01/14

Vrombm md.cetm Um mom ind thl *writ AP *PM sroNMffl&M.., Mont *xi Wow th. trymo.

Fig. 8

Sole

-10 MtM .10ara.

Variations in the number of respondents specifying selectedfields by highest degree, professional identification, employment during the last five years, and current employ-ment are reported in Table 2. Among respondents ingeneral fields a much smaller proportion identify them-selves as generalists than are employed or received degreesin general fields. In contrast, a significantly larger propor-tion of respondents identify themselves as ecologists andenvironmentalists than received degrees or are employed inthis field. For several fields (plant physiology and pathol-ogy, biochemistry, biophysics, and entomology) there is aconsistent decrease in the number indicating a given fieldfrom degree to current employment. Conversely, there hasbeen a constant increase in the number of respondentsindicating interdisciplinary activities.

Table 2.

Field Affiliations

FieldHighestDegree

Proles. Employment(dent.' Five yrs. Current

General biology, botany& zoology 2,681 1,555 2.442 2,222

Anatomy, histology,cytology & embryology 420 533 462 445

Ecology & environment 602 895 640 676Animal physiology &

pathology 423 575 419 41.1Plant physiology &

pathology 384 321 232 214Microbiology 778 865 710 693Biochemistry & biophysics 265 261 231 209Entomology 306 258 185 183Genetics 262 -283 204 195Agriculture 307 309 333 327interdisciplinary 76 124 196 226

ReferenceNational Science Foundation. 1971. American science manpower

1970. A report of the National Register of Scientific andTechnical Personnel. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-ton, D.C.

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