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184 Designing Reseorch

in the proposal that convey a sense of the overall activities of qualitativedata analysis, su eh as th e following drawn from my own thaughts(Creswell, 20(7) and those af Rossman and Rallis (1998):

lt is an ongoing process involving continual reflection aboutthe data, asking analytic qucstions, and writing mClllOS throughout thestudy. 1 say that qualitative data analysis is conducted coneurrently withgathering data, making interpretations, and writing reports. While intervicws are going on, ror exanlple, the rescarcher 111ay be analyzing aninterview collected carlier, writing memos that may ultimately beincluded as a narrative in the final report, and organizing the s tructure ofthe final reporl.

Data analysis involves coUecting open-ended data, based on askinggeneral questi0118 and developing un analysis froID the information sup-plied by participants.

orten we see qualitative data analysis reportcd in jo urnal articles andbooks that is a gcneric fornl 01' analysis. [n this approach, the researchercolIects qualitalive data, analyzes it for themes or perspectives, ancl reports4-5 themes.! consider this approach to be basic qualitative analysis; today111any qualitative researchers go beyond ihis generic analysis to add a pro-cedure within one of the qualitative strategies of inquiry. For example,grounded theory has systematic steps (Corbin & Strauss, 2007; Strauss &Corbin, 1990, 1998). These involve generating categories of inl"ormation(open coding), selecting onc of the categories a nd positioning it within atheoretical model (axial coding), and then explicating a story from theinterconnection of these categories (selective coding). Case stw/!f ancl et/1110-gmplzie researe/ involve a detailed description of the sett ing or individuals,fallowed by analysis of the data for themes or issues (see Stake, 1995;Wolcott, 1994). Plzellonzellologieal researel, uses the analysis oi" significantstatclnents, the generation o' lneaning units. and the dcvelopn1cnt ofwhat Moustakas (1994) calls an essence description. Narrative researellemploys restorying the participant s' stories using strue!u ral devices, suchas plot, setting, activities, climax, and clenouement (Clandinin & Connelly,20(0). As these examples illustrate, the processes as well as the terms dif-fer from one analytic strategy to another.

! Despite these analytie differences depending on the type of strategyused, qualitative inquirers oftcn use a general procedure and convey in theproposal the steps in data analysis. An ideal situation is to blend thegeneral steps with the specific research strategy steps. An overview ofthe dala analysis process is seen in Figure 9.1. As a it'cea:rch ti!!" 1 urgeresearchers to look at qualitative data analysis as following steps from thespecillc to the general and as involving multiple levels of analysis.

Valldating theAccuracy of theInformation

Qualitative Procedures

Interpreting the Meaning ofThemes/Descriptions

Interrelating Themes/Description(e.g., grounded theory, case study)

Coding the Data(hand or computer)

Reading Through AH Data

Organizing and PreparingData for Analysis

Raw Data (transcripts,fieldnotes, images, etc.)

Figure 9.1 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

This fignre suggests a linear, hierarchical approach building li'om thebottom to t he top, but 1 see it as more interactive in practice; th e variousstages are interrclated and not always visited in the arder pl'esented. Theselevels are emphasized in the foUowing steps:

Slepl, Organize am! prepare the data for analysis. This involves transcl'ibng intel'views, optically scanning 111ateral, typing up field notes, ol'sorting and arranging the data into different types depending 011 thesources of infarmation.

Slcp 2. Read through aU the data. A first step is to obtain a general senseof the information ami to reflee! on its overal! meaning. What generalideas are partici pants saying? What is the tone 01" the ideas? What is theimpression 01" the overall depth, credibility, and use 01" the information?Sometimes qualitative reseal'chers write notes in margins or start record-ing general thoughts about the data at this stage.

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186 Designing Research

Stcp 3. Begin deLailed analysis with a coding process. Cuding is theprocess of organizing the material into chunks or segments of text belrebringing meaning to inf,mnation (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p, 171), Itinvolves taking text data or pietures gathered dn ring d ata collection, seg-l11cnting sentences (or paragraphs) Of in1ages inLo categories, and labelingthose categories with a term, ofren a term based in theactnallangnage al'the parti cipant (calledan in vivo term),

Befare proceeding to Step 4, eonsider some remarks that will providedetailed gui dance f Make a final decison on the abbreviation for each category andalphabelize lhese codesoAssemble the data material bclonging to each category in onc placeand perforro a preliminary analysis.

g. If necessary, recode your existing data.These eight steps engage a researcher in a s ystematic process of analyz-

ing textual data. Variations exist in this process. As a reseril.E',ch Op,1encouragc qualitative rcsearchers to analyze thcir data for material thatcan address the Ic)lIowing:

@; Codes on tapies thal reaclers would expect to flnd, based on the pastliteraturc and common scnse

Qualllullve Procedures

@; Codes that are surprising and that were not antieipated at the begin-ning of the study

@; Codes that are unusual. and that are, in and al' themselves, of con-ceptual interest to readers (e.g., in Asmussen and Creswell, 1995, we iden-lified retriggering as one of the codeslthemes in the analysis that suggesteda new dimension for us to a gunman incident on campus and that seeluedto conneet wit h experienees of others 011 campus)

@; Codes that address a larger theorelieal perspective in the researehAs an alternative conceptualization, consider the Iist by Bogdan and

Bilden (1992, pp. 166-172) of the types of codes that they look for in aqualitative database:

@ Settingand eontext codes@; Perspectives hel d by subjects@; Subjects' ways 01' thinking about people and obiects@; Process eodes Aetivity codes@ Strategy codes@; Relationship and social stmeture codes Preassigned eoding schemesOne further issue about coding is whether the researcher should

(a) develop codes o/JI!1 on the basis of the emerging infonnation collecledfrorn participants, (b) use predetermined eodes and then fit the data tothem, or (c) use some combination of predeterminedand emerging eodes.The traditional approach in the social sciences is lo allow the codes toemerge during the data analysis. In the health sciences, a popularapproaeh is to use predetermined codes based on the theory being cxam-ined. In this case, the researchers might develop a"""mav" n"l"h""k,atable or record that contains a listof predetermined eodes that researchersuse for coding the data. This eodebook might be composed with th e namesof eodes in one colurnn, a deflnition al' codes in another eolumn, and thenspecillc instances (e.g., line numbers) in which the code was iound in thetranscripts. Having sueh a codebook is invaluable when multipleresearchers are coding the data from different transeripts. This eodebookcan evolve and change durin g a study based on clase analysis of the data,even when the researcher is not starting from an emerging eode perspec-tive. Por researchers who have a distinct theory they want to test in theirproieets, 1 would reeommend that a preliminary eodebook be developed forcoding the data and permit the codebook to develop and change based on

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the informat ion learned during th e data analysis. The use of a codebook isespeciaUy helpful for ficids in which f/lIantitative research dominales am! an10re systematic approach to qualitative research is needed.

Returning lo lhe general coding process, some resea rchers have foundit use uI to hand eocle qualitative transcripts ar nformation, sometimesusing color codc schemes and lo cut and paste lext segments onlo notecanls. This is a labarious am! time-consuming appraach. Others tene! touse qualitative COlllputer software progrmns to hclp code, organize, andsort informalion lhal will be useful in writing the qualitative study. Severalexcellent computer software programs are available, and they have similarfeatures: gaod tulorials and demonstration CDs, abilily to incorporate bolhtexl and image (e.g., pholographs) dala, the feature of sloring am! organizing e!ala, lhe searc h capacity of locating aH texl associatee! wilh specificcoe!es, inlerrdaled codes for making queries of the relationship amongcodes, am! the imporl and export of qualilative data to '1l/(mtitative programs, such as spreadsheets ar data analysis programs.

The basic idea behind these programs is lhat using lhe computer is anefficient means for storing ami locating qnalitative data. Although lheresearcher still needs to go through each line of text (as in transcriptions)and assign codes, this proccss may be raster and nlOre efficient than handcoding. Also, in large dalabases, lhe researcher can qnickly locate al! passages (or lexl segments) coded the same am! determine whether participants are rcspnding lo acode idca in sil11ilar or different ways. Beyondlhis, lhe computer program canlcilitale comparing e!iI'ferenl codes (e.g.,How do males and females-lhe tlrsl code 01' gender-differ in lerms oftheir altitudes to smoking-a second code) These are just a few I'ealnres ofthe software progranls that 111ake them a logical choice for qualitative dalaanalysis over hand coding. As with any software program, qualitativesoflware programs require time ane! skill to learn am! employ efl'ectively,although books for learning the programs are widely available (e.g.,Weilzman & Miles, 1995).

Mosl 01' lhe programs are available only on the PC plattClrm. The computer software prognnl1s that lUy sLa1'1' and [ use in my research office arelhese:

@ MAXqda (http://www.maxqda.com/).This is an excellenl PC-basedprogram ihnn Germany that helps rescarchers systenlatically evalualeand interpret qualitative texls. It has aH of the features mentioned earlier.

@ Atlas.ti (http://www.atlastLcom).This is anolher PC-based prognllll fro111 Gernlany that enables a rescarcher to organize text, graphic,audio, and visual data 111es, along with coding, men10S and findings, intoa project.

iII QSR NVivo (http://www.qsrinternational.com/) This program, fromAustralia, featurcs lhe popular soflware program N6 (or Nud.ist) and NVivoconcepl mapping in eombination. It is available only for Windows PC.


@ HyperRESEARCH (http://www.researchware.com/).This is a program availahle for either lhe MAC or PC. It is an easy-to-use qualitativesoftware package enabling users to code, retrieve, build lheories, and conducl analyses of lhe dala.

Slcp 4. Use the coding process lo generale a deseriptioIl 01' the setting orpeoplc as well as categories or themes for analysis. Descriptiol1 involves adetailed rendering 01' information about people, places, or events in a setting. Researchers can generate codes for this description. This analysis isuseful in designing delailed descriptions fm case studies, ethnographies,and narrative research projects. Then use the cocling to gcnerate l s111a11nunlber of themes Of categories, perhaps five to seven categorics for aresearch study. These thelnes are the ones that appear as 111ajor findings inqualitative studies and are ol'len lIsed lo create headings in the findingssections 01' sludies. They should display multiple perspeetives fmm individuals am! be supported by diverse qnotations am! specific evidence.

Beyond identifying lhe themes during the coding process, qualitativeresearchers can do much wilh themes to build additionallayers of complex analysis. Por examplc, researchers interconnect thclnes into a storyline (as in narratives) or develop them inlo a thcorctical model (as ingrounded lheory). Thernes are analyzed for each individual case andacross different cases (as in case studies) or shaped into a general descrip-tion (as in phenornenology). Sophistcated qualitative sludies go beyonddeseription and theme identification and inlo complex theme eonnections.

Stcp 5. Advanee how the description ami themes will be representa! inthe qualitative narrative. The most popular approach is to use l narrativepassage to convey the findings 01' the analysis. This might be a discussionlhal mentons a chronology of cvenls, the e!etailed discussion 01' severalthemes (complete wilh subthemes, specific illustrations. multiple perspectives fro111 individuals. and quotations) or l discussion with interconnect-ing themcs. Many qualitative researchers also use visuals, figures, or tablesas adjuncts lo the discussions. They present a process mode! (as ingrounded theory), ae!vance a drawing 01' lhe specillc research sile (as inethnography), or convey descriptive inforrnation ahout each participanlin a table (as in case studies and ethnographies).

Stcp 6. A final step in data analysis involves making an interpl'ctationor meaning 01' lhe data. Asking, "What were the lessons learned?" caplures the essence of this ielea (Lincoln & Cuba, 1985). These !esson" couldbe the rescarcher's personal inlerpretation, couched in lhe understandinglhat the inquirer brings lo lhe study from her or his own culture, history,and experiences. It couId aIso be a meaning derived fro111 a comparison 01'the llndings with information gleaned lrom lhe litemtllre or t"eories. In lhisway, authors suggest thal lhe findings confirm pasl informati on or divergefrom it. It can also suggesl new 'lllestions thal need to be asked-questions

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190 Designing Reseorch

raiscd by thc data and analysis that the inquirer had 110t foreseen earlier inlhe sludy. One way elhnographers can end a sludy. says Wolcotl (1994).is to ask furthcr questions. 1'he questioning approach is also used inadvocacy and participatory approaches to qualtative rescarch. Moreover.when qualitative researchers use a theoreticallens, they can form inter-pretations that call ror action agendas ror reform and change. Thus, inter-pretation in qllalitative research can take lTIlny forms, be adapted rOl"differenl types 01' designs. and be flexible lo convey personal, researchbased, and action meanings.

RH.IA!m.HV, V.i,,'UL1Although validation 01' findings occurs throughout the steps in the process01' rescarch (as shown in Pigure 9.1). this discussion focuses on it to enablea researcher to write a passage into l proposal on the procedures ror vali-dating lh e findings thal will be underla ken in a sludy. Proposal developersneed to convey lhe steps they wiU take in lheir sludies lo check for theaccuraey and eredibility 01' their findings.

Validity does not carry the same connotations in qualitative research asit cIoes in quantitative research, nor is it a companion of reliability (cxam -ining stability or consistency 01' responses) or generalizability (lhe externalvalidity of applying results to new settings. people. or samples; both are discussccl in Chapter 8). mean s lhat lhe researcherchecks I"r the aeeuraey 01' the Ilndings by employing certain procedures.while indica tes that the rcseareher's approach isconsistent across differcnt researchcrs and dil'ferent projects (Gibbs, 20(7).

How do qualitative researchers check to determine if their approachesare consiste nt or reliable? Yin (2003) suggesls thal qualilative researchersneccl to doeumcnt the proeedures 01' lheir case sludies and lo document asmany 01' the steps 01' lhe procedures as possible. He also recommends setting up a detailed casc study protocol anel database. Gibbs (2007) suggeslsseveral

@ Check lranscripls to make sure that they clo not eont ain obvious mistakes macIe durin g transcription.

, Make sure lhat there is not a drift in lhe definition 01' cocles. a shift inthe meaning 01' tbe codes during the process 01' coding. This ean be accomplished by conslantly comparing dala with the codes anel by writingmemos aboul t he codes ancl lheir definitions (see the discussion on a qualitative codebook).

@ For tcam research. coordnate the cOlnmunication among the cocIersby regular clocumentecl meetings and by sharing the analysis.

@ Cross-check cocles developed by ditTerent researehers by eomparingresults that are inclependently clerivecl.

Quolitotive Procedures

Proposal writers need lo inclucle several 01' these procedures as evidencelhal they will have consistent results in t heir proposed sludy. 1 recommendthat several procedures be menlioned in a proposal and that singleresearehers find another person who can cross-check their codes, for whatr call i " t c , ~ n " l e l ' ag"(,e"",,,1 (or cross-checking). Such an agreemenlmighl be based on whether 11'.'0 or more eoders agree o n codes used for thesame passages in the lext (it is not thal they code the same passage 01' texl,bu t whether another codel' would code it wilh the same or a similar code).Slatistical procedures or reliabilily subprograms in qualitative computersoftware packages can lhen be used to determine the level 01' consistencyof coding. Miles and Huberman (1994) recommend that lhe consistency01' the coding be in agreem ent at least 80% of the time for good qualitativereliability.Validity. on lhe other hand, is one 01' the strengths of ql1alitativeresearch. ancl il is based on delermining whether the findings are accuralefrom the standpoi nt 01' the researcher. lhe participant. 01' the readers of anaccount (Creswell & Miller. 2000). Terms abound in the qualitative lilerature lhat speak lo lhis idea. sueh as trustworthiness, autllentieit!!. and ered-ibility (Creswell & Miller, 2(00). ancl it is a ml1eh-discussed topie (Lineoln &Guba. 2(00).A procedural perspective lhal r recommend I"r research proposals is loidentify amI discuss one or more strategies available to check lh e acc uracyof the findings. The researcher actvely incorporates vaUidH:y t.rratcgies

, inlo their propasa!. 1 recommend the use 01' mulliple strategies. an d theseshould enhan ce lhe rese archer's abilily to assess lhe accuracy of findingsas well as convince readers 01' that accuracy. There are eight primarystrategies. organized from thosc most frequently used and easy lo implemenl to those oeeasionally used ancl more diftleult to implement:

@ TrianlluZate different data sourees of information by examining evidence from the sources ancl using it to build a coherent justification forthemes. If thernes are established based on converging several sources ofdata or perspectives from part icipanls. then this process can be claimed asadding to the validity of lhe study.

@ Use memIJer chec1dng to determine the accuracy of the qualitativeIlndings thro ugh ta king lh e Ilnal report o r speeific descriptions or lhemesbaek to participants and determining whether these participants feel thalthey are aecurale. This does not mean taking back lhe raw transcripts locheck for accuraey; instead. the re searcher takes baek parls of the polishedproducl, sueh as the themes. the ease analysis. the grounded theory. thecullural clescription. amI so forth. This procedure can involve eondue tinga follow-up interview with participants in the sludy amI providing anopporlunily fol' lhem to comme nt on the fmdings.

@ Use rieh. tlliek description to convey the findings. 1'his description maylransport readers to the setting and give the discussion an element 01'

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shared experiences; When q ualitative researc hers providc detailed descrip-tions 01' lhe setting, for example, or provide many perspectives about alheme, the results become more realistic and rieher. This procedure ca nadd to th e validity of the findings.

i!> Clarify the bias the researeher brings lo lhe study. This s e l f ~ r e f l e e t i o ucreates an open and honest narrative that will resonate well with readers.Refleetivity has been mentioned as a core characteristic 01' qualilativerescarch. Goad qualitative rcsearch contains COl1Ullcnts by the rcscarchersabout how lheir inlerprelation 01' the nndings is shaped by their background' su eh as their gender, culture, history, and socioeconomic origino

i!> Abo presenl negative or discrepan! inJ(mnation lhal runs eounter tothe themes. Because reallife is composed of differenl perspeetives lhat donot always coalesce, discussing contrary information adds to the creclibil-ity 01' an account. A researcher can accon1plish this in discussing evidenceabout a theme. Most evidence will build a case for the theme; r esearcherscan aIso prcsent infonnation that contradicts the general perspective oflhe lheme. By presenling lhis contradictory evidenee, the aecount beco mesmore realstic and hence valido

i!> Spend pmlollged time in the field. In lhis way, the re seareher developsan in-depth underslanding of the phenomenon uuder sludy aud can eonvey detail about the site an d the people tbat lends credibilily to lhe narrative account. The 1110re experience that a researcherhas with participantsin their actual setting, tbe more accurate or valid will be the findings.

i!> Use peer delriejillfl lo enhanee the aeeuraey 01' the aeeount. Thisprocess involvcs locating a person (a peer debriefer) who reviews and asksquestions aboul the qualilativc sludy so thal lhe aeeount will resonatewith people other than lhe researcher. This strategy-involving an interpretation beyond the researcher and invested in anolher person-addsvalidity to an account.

Use an externaI auditor to review the entire project. As distinct from tIpeer debrieler, tbis audit or is not familiar with the researe her or the projeetamI can provide an objective assessment 01' the project throughollt theprocess of research or at thc conclu sion af the study. The role is similar tothat of a fiscal auditor, ami specinc questions exist that auditors might ask(Lineoln & Guba, 1985). The proeedure of having an independent investigalor look over mauy aspeets 01' the project (e.g., aeeuraey af transcription. the relationship betweeu the research questions and the data, thelevel of data analysis from the raw da ta through interpretation) enhancesthe overall validily 01' a qualilative study.

QuaHvaUve generaib:aHon is a tenn that is used in a limited way inqualitative research, sinee the inlenl 01' this form of inquiry is nol to

QUCllilatlvo ProCoclurOli

generalize findings to individuals, sites, or plaees oulside 01' those undersludy (see Gibbs, 2007, for his cautionary note aboul qualitative generalizability). In fact, the value of qualitative researeh lies in lhe particulardeseription and themes developed ill cOlltext of a specinc site. Particularityrather than generalizabWty (Greene & Caracelli, 1997) is the hallmark ofqualitative research. However, there are a 1'ew discussions in the qualita-tive literature about generalizability, especially as applied to ease studyreseareh in w hieh the inquirer studies several eases. Yin (2003), for exampIe, feels that qllalitative case study results can be generalized to somebroader theary. 'fhe generalization occurs when qualitative rcsearchersstudy additional cases amI generalize findings lo the new cases. It is thesmne as the replicllton JaBie used in experimental rescarch. Howcver, torepeat a case study's findings in a ncw case setting rcquires good docu-rnentation 01' qualitative proccdures, such as a protocol 1'or dOCU111entingthe problem in detail amI tbe development 01' a thorough case study database (Vin, 20(3).

THE QUAUTATlVE WRmA,lpA plan for a qllalitative procedure should end wilh some comments aboutthe narrative that emerges from the data analysis. NumerOllS varietics of

, narratives exist, amI examples from scholarly jOllrnals illustrate m odels.Ina plan ror a study, consider advancing several points about the narrative.

The basic procedure in reporting the results 01' a qualitative study are todevelop e!escriptions and themes fram the data (see Figure 9.1), to presentthese descriptions amI lhemes that convey multiple perspectives 1'rom participants amI detailed descriptions 01' the setting or individuals. Using aqualitative strategy of inquiry, these results may also provide a chronological narrative ol' an individual's lite (narrative research), a detailed descrp-tion 01' their experienees (phenomenology), a theory generated I'rom lhedata (grollnded theory), a detailed portrait 01' a culture-sharing group(ethnography), al' an in-deplh analysis 01' one or more cases (case sludy).

Civen these different strategies, the findings ane! interpretation sectionsof a plan Illr a study might discuss how lhe seelions will be presented: asobjective accounts, fieldwork experiences (Vau Maanen, 1988), a chrouology, a process' lnodel, an extended story, an analysis by cases or acrosscases, or a detailed descriptive portrait (Creswell, 2(07).At the specifie level, so me wrHing ,trteg;cs might be as follows:

i!> Use quotes amI vary theil' length from short to long embedded passages.$) Script cOl1versation and report the conversation indif1'erent langl1ages

lo reneet cu ltural sensitivity.

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Present text information in tabular [orrn (e.g" matrices, comparisontables of different codes).

'i!l Use the wording from participant s to form codes and theme labels.i!! lntertwine quotations with (the author's) interpretalions.i!! Use indents 01' other special fi::>rmatting of the manuseript to eaU

attention to quotations from participants.i!! Use the first person ''l'' 01' coUective "we" in the narrative formoi!! Use metaphors amI analogies (see. for example. Richardson. 1990.who discusses sorne of these ()rms).i!! Use the narrative approaeh typicalIy used within a qualitative strat

cgy 01' inquiry (e.g., dcscription in case sludics and cthnographics, ldetailed story in narrativc research),

Describe hol'! the narrative outcome will be compared wi th theoriesand lhe general lileralure on the topie. In Illlny qualitative arUcles,researchers disc:uss the lileratllre at the end of the stlldy (see the discussionin Chapler 2).

Qualitative ProceduresThe following is an example 01' l qualitative procedure written as part of adoctora l proposal (Miller. 1992) . Miller's projec t was an ethnographic studyof first-year experienees of the president of a 4-year eoUege. As 1 present thisdiseussion. 1 refer baek to the seclions addressed in this chapt er and highlightthem in boldfaced type. Also. 1 have maintaine d Miller's use of th e term in/or-Inant. althou gh today. the more appropriale termo participilIlt. should be used.The Qualitative Research Paradigm

The qualitative research paradigm has its roots in cultural anthropology andAmerican sociology (Kirk & Miller. 1986). It has only recently been adoptedby educational researchers (Borg & Gal!. 1989). The intent 01 qualitativeresearch is to understand a particular social situation. event. role. group. orinteraction (Locke. Spirduso, & Silverman, 1987). It is largely an investigativeprocess where the researcher gradually makes sense of a social phenome-non by contrasting. comparing. repllcating. cataloguing and classifying theobject of study (Miles & Huberman. 1984). Marshall and Rossman (1989) sug-gest that this entails immersion in the everyday lile 01 the selting chosen lorthe study; the researcher enters the inlormants' world and through ongoinginteraction. seeks the inlormants' perspectives and meanings. (Qualitativeassumptions are mentoned,J


Scholars contend that qualitative research can be distinguished from quan-titative methodology by numerous unique characteristics hat are inherentin the designo The following is a synthesis of commonly articulated assump-tions regarding characteristics presented by various researchers.

1. Qualitative research occurs in natural seltings. where human behaviorand events occur.

2. Qualitative research is based o n assumptionsthat are very different romquantitative designs. Theory or hypotheses are not established a priori.

3. The researcher is the primary instrument in data collection rather thansome inanimate mechanism (Eisner, 1991; Frankel & Wallen. 1990; Lincoln& Guba. 1985; Merriam. 1988).

4. The data that emerge from a qualit ative study are descriptive. That is.data are reported in words (primarily the participan!'s words) or pic-tures. rather than in numbers (Fraenkel & Wallen. 1990; Locke et al..1987; Marshall & Rossman. 1989; Merriam. 1988).

5. The locus 01 qualitative research is on partlcipants' perceptions andexperiences. and the way they make sense 01 their lives (Fraenkel &Wallen. 1990; Lockeetal . 1987; Merriam. 1988). Thealtemptisthereforeto understand not one. but multiple realities (Lincoln & Guba. 1985).

6. Qualitative research locuses on the process that is occurring as well asthe product or outc ome. Researchers are particularly interested in under-standing how things occur (Fraenkel & Wallen. 1990; Merriam. 1988).

7. Idiographic interpretation is utilized. In other words. attent ion is paid toparticulars; and data Is interpreted in regard to the particulars 01 acase rather than generalizations.

8. Quolitative research is an emergent design in its negotiated out-comes. Meanings and interpretations are negotiated with humandata sources because it is the sUbjects' realities that the researcheraltempts to reconstruct (Lincoln & Guba. 1985; Merriam. 1988).

9. This research tradition relies on the utilizotion01 tacit knowledge (intuitiveand lelt knowledge) because often the nuances 01 the multiple realitiescan be appreciated most in this way (Lincoln & Guba. 1985). Therefore.data are not quantifiable in the traditional sense 01 the word.

(Continued)

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(Continucd)10. Objectivity and truthfulness are critical to both research traditions.

However, the criterio lar udging a qualitative study differ Irom quantitative research. First and foremos!, the researcher seeks believability, based on coherence, insight and instrumental utility (Eisner, 1991)and trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) through a process of verification rather than through traditional validity and reliability mea-sures. (Qualitotive choracferisfics are mentioned.)

The Elhnographic Research DesignThis study will utilize the ethnographic research tradition. This designemerged from the field of anthropology, primarily from the contributions ofBronislaw Malinowski. Robert Park and Franz Boas (Jacob, 1987: Kirk & Miller,1986). The intent of ethnographic research is to obtain a holistic picture 01the subject 01 study wlth emphasis on portraying the everyday experiences01 individuals by observing and interviewing them and relevant others(Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). The ethnographic study includes in-depth interviewing and continual and ongoing participant observation of a situation(Jacob, 1987) and in attempting to capture the whole picture reveals howpeople describe and structure their warld (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). (Theauthor used the ethnographic approach.)The Researcher's Role

Particularly in qualitative research, the role 01 the researcher as the primarydata collection instrument necessitates the identilication 01 personal values,assumptions and biases at the outset 01 the study. The investigator's contribution to the research setting can be uselul and positive rather than detrimen tal(Locke et al" 1987). My perceptions 01 higher educoti on and the college pres-idency hove been shaped by my personal experiences. From August 1980 toMay 1990 1served as o college administrator on private campuses 01 600 to5,000. Most recently (1987-1990), I served as the Dean lor Student Life at a smallcollege in the Midwest. As a me mber of the Presiden!'s cabine!, I was involvedwith al! top level administrative cabinet activities and declsions and workedclosely with the faculty, cabinet officers, president and board of trustees. Inaddition to reporting to the president, I worked with him through his first yearin office. 1 believe this understanding of the context and role enhances myawareness, knowledge and sensitivity to many 01 the challenges, decisions andissues encountered as a first year president and will assist me n working with theinformant in this study. 1 bring knowledge of both the structure of higher education and of the role the co llege presidency. Particular attenti on will be paidto the role of the new president in initiating change, relationship building, decisien making, and providing leadership and visiono


Due to previous experiences working c10sely with a new college presiden!, 1bring certain biasesto this study. Although every effort will be made to ensureobjectivity, these biases may shape the way 1 view and understand the data1 collect and the way I interpret my experiences. 1 commence this study withthe perspective that the college presidency is a diverse and often difficultposition. Though expectati ons are immense, I question how much power thepresident has to initiate change and provide leadership and visiono I view thefirst year as critical: filled with adjustments, frustrations, unanti cipa ted surprisesand challenges, (Author reflected on her roJe in the study.]Bounding Ihe StudySalling

This study will be conducted on the compus 01 a stote college in the Midwest.The college is situated in a rural Midwestern community. The institution's 1,700students nearly triple the town's po pulation of 1,000 when c1asses are in session.The institution awards associate, bachelo r and master's degrees in 51 majors.

AclorsThe informant n this study s the new Presidentof a state college in the Midwest.The primary inlormant in this study is the President. However, 1will be observinghim in the context of administrative cab inet meetings. The president's cabinetinciudes three Vice Presidents (Academic Aftairs, Administration, StudentAftairs) and two Deans (Graduate Studies and Continuing Education).Evan!s

Using ethnographic research methodology, the locus 01 this study will bethe everyday experiences and events of he new college presiden!' and theperceptions and meaning attached to those experiences as expressed bythe informant. This includes the assimilation of surprising events or informo-tien, and making sense of critical events and issues that orise,

Processes

Particular attention will be po d to the role 01 the new president in initiatingchange, relationship building, decision making, and providing leadershipand visiono (Aufhor mentioned data collection boundaries.)E!hical Consideralions

Most authars who discuss qualitative research design address the importance of ethical considerations (Locke et al" 1982: Marshall & Rossman,1989: Merriam, 1988: Spradley, 1980). First and laremos!' the researcher has

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(Continued)an obligation to respect the rights, needs, values, and desires of the informant(s). To an extenl, ethnogra phic research is always obtrusive. Participantobservation invades the life of the informant (Spradley, 1980) and sensitiveinformation is frequently revealed. This is of particular concern in this studywhere the inforrnan!'s position and institution are hi ghly visible. The followingsafeguards will be employed to protect the informan!'s rights: 1) theresearch objective s will be articulated verbally and in writing so that they areclearly understood by the informant (including a description 01 how data willbe used). 2) written permission to proceed with the study as articulated willbe received from the inlormanl, 3) a research exemption lorm will be liledwith the Institutional Review Board (Appendixes B1and B2). 4) the inlormantwill be inlormed 01 all data collection devices and activities, 5) verbatlmtranscriptions and written interpretations and reports will be made availableto the inlormant, 6) the inlorrnan!'s rights, interests and wishes will be considered first when choices are made regarding reporting the data, and7) the inal decision regarding inlormant anonymity will rest with the informant.(Aulhor addressed elhical ssues and IRB review.)

Dala Colleclion SlralegiesData will be collected Irom February through May, 1992. This will include aminimum of bi-monthly, 45 minute recorded interviews with the informant(initial interview questions, Appendix C), bimonthly two hour observations 01administrative cabinet meetings, bi-monthly two hour observations 01 dailyactivities and bi-monthly analysis of the presiden!'s calendar and documents (meeting minutes, memos, publications). In addition, the inlormanthas agreed ta record impressions 01 his experiences, thoughts and leelingsin a taped diary (guidelines for recorded reflection, Appendix D). Two followup interviews will be scheduled for the end of May 1992 (See Appendix E forproposed timeline and activity schedule). (fhe authorproposed lo use faceto-face interviews, participate as observe!, on d obtoin privote documents.)To assist in the data collection phase I will utilize a lield log, providing adetailed account of ways I plan to spend my time when I am on-site, and inthe transcription and analysis phase (olso comp arin g this record to how timeis actually spent). I intend to record details reloted to my observations in alield notebook and keep a lield diary to chronicle my own thinking, leeling,experiences and perceptions throughout the research process. (fhe outhorrecorded descriptive ond reffective informotion.)

Dala Analysis ProceduresMerriam (1988) ond Marshall and Rossman (1989) contend that data collection and dota analysis must be o simultaneous process in qualitative

Qualilullve F'rococluros

research. Schatzman and Strauss (1973) claim that qualitative data analyslsprimarily entails classifying things, persons, and events and the propertieswhich characterize them. Typically throughout the data analysis processethnographers index or code their data using as many categories as possi-ble (Jacob, 1987). They seek to identify and describe patterns and themesIrom the perspective al the participant(s). then allempt to understand andexplain these pallerns and themes (Agar, 1980). During data analysis thedata will be organized categorically and chronologically, reviewed repe atedly. and continually coded. A list 01 major ideas that surlace will be chronicled (as suggested by Merrlam, 1988). Taped interviews and theparticipan!'s taped diary will be transcribed verbatim. Field notes and diaryentries will be regularly reviewed. (Author described sleps in data analysis.)In addition, the data analysls process will be aided by the use 01 a qualitativedata analysis computer program called HyperQual. Raymond Padilla(Arizona State University) designed HyperQual in 1987 lor use with theMacintosh computer. HyperQual utilizes HyperCard software and lacilitatesthe recording and analysis 01 textual and graphic data. Special stacks aredesignated to hold and organize data. Using HyperQual the researcher candirectly "enter field data, including interview data, observations, researcher'smemos, and illustrations .. (an d) tag (or code) all or part 01 the source dataso that chunks of data can be pulled out and then be reassembled in a newand illuminating configuration" (Padilla, 1989, pp. 69-70). Meaningful datachunks can be identified, retrieved, isolated, grouped and regrouped loranalysis. Categories or code names can be entered initially or at a later date.Codes can be added, changed or deleted with HyperQual editor and textcan be searched for key categories, themes, words or phrases. (Author men-tions the proposed use of computer software for dota analysis.)

VerificolionIn ensuring internal validity, the lollowing strategies will be employed:

l. Trlangulation of data-Data will be collected through multiple sourcesto include interviews, observations and document analysis;

2. Member checking-The informant will serve as a check throughout theanalysis process. An o ngoing di alogue regarding my interpretations01 theinlorman!' s reality and meanings will ensure the truth value 01 the data;

3. Long terms and repeated observations at the research site-Regularand repeated observations 01 similar phenomena and sellings willoccur on-site over o four month period of time;

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(Continued)4. Peer examination-a doctoral student and graduate assistant in the

Educational Psychology Department will serve as a peer examiner;6. Participatory modes of research-The informant will be involved in

most phases of this study, from the design of the project to checkinginterpretations and conclusions; and

6. Clarification of researcher bias-At the outsel of this study researcherbias will be articulated in writing in the dissertation proposal under theheading, "The Researcher's Role."

The primary slralegy ulilized in Ihis projecl lo ensure exlernal validity will bethe provision of rich, thick, detailed descriptions so Ihat anyone interesled Intransferability will hove a solid framework for comparlson (Merriam. 1988).Three techniques to ensure reliability will be employed In this study. Firsl. theresearcher will provide a detailed account of the focus of the study, theresearcher's role, the informant's position and basis ter selection, andthe context from which dala will be gathered (LeComple & Goetz, 1984).Second, Iriangulation or multiple methods of data collection and analysiswill be used, which strengthens reliability as well as internal validity (Merriam,1988). Finally, data collection and analysis str ategies will be reported in detailin order to provide a clear and accurate picture of the methods used in thisstudy. AII phases of Ihis projecl will be subjecl lo scruliny by an external audi-tor who ls experienced in qualitative research methods. (Aufhor idenfifiedstrategies 01 validity to be used in the study.]

Reporling Ihe FindingsLofland (1974) suggesls that although data collection and analysis st rategiesare similar across qualitative methods, the way the findings are reported isdiverse. Miles and Huberman (1984) address the importance of creatlng adata display and suggest that narrative text has been the most frequentform of display for qualitative data. This is a naturalistic study. Therefore, theresults will be presented in descriptive, narrative form rather than as a scien-tific reporto Thick description will be the vehicle for communicating a holisticpicture of the experiences of a new college president. The final project willbe a construction of the informan!'s experiences and the meanings heattaches lo Ihem. This will allow readers lo vicariously experience the chal-lenges he encounlers and provide a lens Ihrough which readers can viewthe subjec!'s world. (Outcomes 01 the study were mentioned.]

SUMMARYThis chapler explored the steps that go into developing and wriUng aqualitative procedure. Recognizing the variation that exists in qualitalivcstudics. the chapter advances a general guidcline 1'01' procedures. Thisguidclinc includes a discussion about the general characteristics 01' qual-itative research if audiences are not familiar with this approach toresearch. These characteristics are that the rescarch lakes place in thenatural setting, relies on the rescarcher as the instrument [or data col!ection, employs multiplc melhods al' data collection, is inductive, is bascdon participants' rneanings, is erncrgent, oftcn involves the use of a theo-retical lens, is interpretive, and is holisUc. The guideline recommendsrnentioning a strategy of inquiry, such as lhe study 01' individuals (narra-tive, phenomenology), the exploration al' processes, activities and events(case study, grounded theory), or the examination of broad culture-sharingbehavior o[ individuals 01' groups (ethnography). The choice (J[ stralegyneeels lo be presented ami defended. Further, lhe pro pos al needs toaddress the role of lhe researcher: past experiences, personal connecUonsto the site, steps to gain entry, and sensitive ethical issues, Discussion ofdata col!eelion should includ e lhe purposeful sampling approach amI the[orms of dala to be collected (i.c., observations, interviews, documenls,audiovisual materials). Tt is usefiJl to also indicate lhe types of datarecording protocols that will be used. Data analysis is an ongoing proccss'Iduring research. It involves analyzing participant information, andresearchers typically employ general analysis sleps as wel! as those stepsfound within a specific stralegy of inquiry. More general steps includeorganizing and preparing the data, an initial reading through the infor-malion, coding the da la, dcveloping from the codes a description and lhernatic analysis, using computer programs, reprcsenting the findings intables, graphs, and figures, amI int erpreti ng the findings. Thcse interpretations involve stating lessons learned, cOlllparing the findings with pastliteraturc and theory, raising questions, an d/or advancing an agenda forreformo Thc proposal should also contain a seeUon on the expeeted oulcomes for the study. Finally, an additional importanl step in planning aproposal is to mentan the strategies that will be used to validate lhe aeenraey al' lhe findings, clcmonstrate the reliability uf procedures, and diseuss the role al' generalizability.

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l. Write a plan fol' the procedure to be used in yaur qualitatvestudy. Arter wriling lhe plan, use 'rabIe 9.1 as a checklist lo delerminethe comprehensiveness of your plan.

L Develop atable that lists, in a column on the left, the steps youplan to takc to analyzc your data. In a column on thc right. indicatethe steps as they apply directly to your project, the research strategyyou plan to use, and data that you have collected.

ADDlTIONAL RfADiNGSMarshall. e.o & Rossman, C. B. (20(6). IJes{fllin{f l![/{!!taLve research (4th ed.).

ThoLlsand Oaks, CA: Sage.Cat,llCr,inc Marshall and Crctchcn Rqssman introduce the proccdurcs ror dcsigning

a quahtatlvc study ane! qualitative proposaL The topies covcred are comprchensive.'[.'hey j ~ c 1 1 1 c l e building a conceptual framevvork around a st.udy; the logic and a s s u m p ~tlOns 01 the overall design ami methods; methods of data coHection amI procedures rormanaging, recording, ami analyzing qualilative dala: ami tbe resources needed ror a~ t u d y , such as time, personncl, and funding. This is a comprehensive ami insightful texttrom which both beginners ami more experienced qualitative researehcrs learn.Fliek. O. (1\eI.). (2007). '['he ,)'age Qllalitativc Hesearch Kit. London: Sage.

This is an cight-volume kit edited by Uwe Flick thal is authored by dil'l'ercnt worldclass qualitative researchers and was ereated to collectively address the eore issues thatarise vvhcn rcsearchcrs actuaHy do qualil.alive rescarch. It addrcsscs how 1.0 plan andd . e s i ~ n l q ~ L a l i . t a t i v e stue!y, the collcetion ami production 01' qualitative data, tbe analySIS ni. qu.ailtatwe dala (e.g . visual data, discoursc analysis). ami t be issucs 01 quality inquahtatlve rcsearch. OveraU, it prescnts a recent, up-lo-date window n lo lhe ncld 01'qualitative research.

Creswcll, J. W. (2007). QualitaUve jru{uiry wul researd! desi{jll: CllOosill{j (/frlOr/{j .live(Ipproaches (2nd cd.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Sometimes those \ovho write about qualitative research take a philosophical stanceloward the topic and rcaders are leJ't without an undcrstanding oI' thc procedures and

~ ~ r a c t i c e s actually tlscd in designing ane! conducti ng a qualitative study. My book takeshve approachcs Lo qualitalive i n q u i r y ~ ~ n a r r a U v e research. phenomc!1o!ogy, groundcdtheory, ethnography, ane! case study-and discusscs how the proccdures I'or conducting these forms 01' inquiry are both similar and elilTerenL In the cnel, readers can moreeasily choose \ovhich ot' thc Ove would best suit thcir rcscarch problems as weH as theirpersonal stylcs 01' rescarch.

Mixed MethodsProceduresith the development and perceived legitimacy ol both qual-itative and quantitative research in the social and humansciences, mixed methods research. empl oying the combina

tion of quantitative and qualitative approaches. has gained popularity.This popularity is because research methodology continues to evolveand develop. and mixed methods is another step forward. utilizing

I the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research. Also, theproblems addressed by social and health science researchers are com-1, plex. and the use of either quantitative or qualitative approaches bythemselves is inadequate to address this complexity. The interdisciplinarynature of research, as well. contributes to the formation of researchteams with individuals with diverse methodological interests andapproaches. Finally. there is more insight to be gained from the combination ol both qualitative and quantitative research than either lorm byitself. Their combined use provides an expanded understanding 01 researchproblems.This chapter brings together many 01 the threads inlroduced inthe earlier chapters: It extends the discussion about the philosophicalassumptions 01 a pragmatic philosophy. the combined use ol qualita-tive and quantitative modes 01 inquiry. and the use of multiple methodsintroduced in Chapter l. It also extends the discussion about researchproblems that incorporate the need both to explore and explain(Chapter 5). It lollows a purpose statement and research questionslocused on understanding a problem using both qualitative and quantitative methods (Chaplers 6 and 7). and it advances the reasons lorusing multiple forms 01 data collection and analysis (Chapters 8 and 9).

COMPONENTS Of MIXED MEl'HODS PROCEDURESMixed methods rescarch has evolved a set al' procedures that proposal dcvelopers can use in planning a mixcd methods study. In 200}, lhe Handbook 01' 203

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Mixed M etilads in the Social & llehavim' Sciences (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003)was published, providing the llrst comprehensive overview 01' this strategy ofinquiry. Now several journals emphasizc 111ixed lnethods research, such asthe ournal oI Mixed Metilads Researe/, Qualit!! "miQuantit!!, and Fie/d Mel/lOds,while numer aus o thers actively encourage this 10rm01' inquiry (e.g" lntemalionalollmal oI Social Researe/ MetllOdolayy, Qualitalive Healtil Researe/, Armals oIFamily Medicine). Numerous published research sludies have incorporatedmixed method s rescareh in the social and human sciences in diverse fieldssuch as oeeupational therapy (Lysaek & Krefting, 1994), interpersonal eommuniealio n (Boneva, Kraut, & Frohlich, 20(1), AIDS prevention (Janz et al"1996), demenlia carcgiving (Weitzmau & Levkoff, 2000), mental health(Rogers, Day, Randall. & Bentall, 2(03), and in middle-sehool scienee (Hautz,1995). New books arrive each year solely devoled lo mixed melhods research(Bryman, 2006; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Creene, 2007; Plano Clark &Creswell, 2008; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998).

A ehecklist 01' questions for designing a mixed methods study appearsin Table 10.1. These components call1or advancing the nature 01' mixedmethods research and the type 01' strategy being proposed for the stndy.They also inelude the need I'lr a visual model 01' this approaeh, the specifieprocedlll'es o f data collection and analysis, the rescarcher's role, ami thestructure for presenting the final reporl. Following the discussion 01' each01' these components, an example 01' a procedures section 1'ro111 a mixedmethods study is presented to show how to apply these ideas.

Of MIXED MHHODS RESEARCHBecause luixed methods research is relatively new in the social and htnnansciences as a distinct research approach, it is useful to convey a basic clcll-nition and deseription 01' the approach in a proposa!. This might includethe 1()lIowing:

Trace a brief history 01' its evolution. Several sourees identify itsinception in psychology ancl in the multitrait-multimethod matrix 01'Campbell ami Fiske (1959) to interest in convcrging or triangulating d i l ~ferent quantitative and qualitativc data sourees (lick, 1979) amI on to thedevelopment of a distinct methodology of inquiry (see Creswell & PlanoClark, 2007; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998).

liI Define mixed mcthods researeh by incorporating the definition inChapter 1 that locuses cm combining both quantitative and qualitativeresearch and methods in a rcsearch study (see a more expancled vicw 01'defining mixed methods research in johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Tumer,20(7). Highlight lhe reasons why researchers employ a mixed methodsdesign (e.g., lo broaden understanding by incorporating both qualitative

Mixed Methods Procedures

Is a basic delinition 01 mixed methods research provided?Is o reason given lar using both quantitative ond qualitativeapproaches (ar dota)?Does the reader hove a sense lar the potential use 01 a mixedmethods design?Are the criteria identilied lar choosing a mixed methods strategy?Is the strategy identilied, and are its criteria lar selection given?Is a visual model presented that illustrates the research strategy?Is the proper notati on used in presenting the visual model?Are procedures 01 data colleclion and analysis mentioned as theyrelate to the model?Are the sampling strategies lor both quan titotive and qualitativedata colleclion mentioned? Do they relate to the strategy?Are specilic data analysis procedures indicated? Do they relate tothe strategy?Are the procedures lor validating both the quantitative andqualitative data discussed?Is the narrative structure mentioned, and does it relate to the type01 mixed methods strategy being used?

and quantitative rcsearch, or to use Dne approach to belter understand,explain, or build on the results fl'Om the other approach). AIso note thatthe mixing of the lwa might be within one sludy al' among several sludiesin a prognuTI of inquiry. Recognize that many diffcrent tern1S are used forthis approaeh, such as illtegmtillg, ''Ynthesis', ijllantitative "",1 qllalitativemetllOds, multimetllOd, and mixed metllOdalogy, but that reeent writings usethe term mixed lIlet/oi!s (Bryman, 2006; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 20(3).

liiI Briefly diseuss the growth 01' inlerest in mixed methods researeh asexpressed in books, journal articles, diverse disciplines, ami funded projeets (see CresweIl & Plano Ciad" 2007 for a discussion about the manyinitiatives that contribllle to mixed methads today).

liI Note the chaIlenges this I()rm of research poses for the inquirer.These inelude the need lar extensive data coIlection, lhe time-intensivenaturc of analyzing both tcxt and numcric data, and the rcquirement forthe rescarcher to be familiar wilh both quantitativc ami qualitative forms01' rescarch.

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TYPES Of MIXEO METHOOS STRATEGIES ANO VISUAL MOOHSThere have been several typologies lr classifying and identifying types ofmixed methods strategies that proposal developers might use in their pro-posed mixed methods study. Creswell and Plano Clark (2007) identify 12classification systems drawn l'rom the fields 01' evaluation, nursing, publichealth, education policy and research, and social and behavioral rcscarch.[n these classifieations, aut hors use diverse terms I'or their types al' designs,and a substantial amount 01' overlap exists in the typologies. Por purposes01' this di scussion 1 will identify and discuss the six types that my calle aguesand 1advanced in 2003 (Creswell et al., 20(3).

Planning Mixed Methods PlOcedureIt is helpful, however, belre discussing the six types, to consider several

aspects that inlluence the design 01' procedures for a mixed methods study.Four in1portant aspects are timing, weighting, mixing, and theorizing (asshown in Figure lO.1).

TimngProposal developers need to consider the Urning af their qualitative andquantilative dala collection, whelher it will be in phases (sequentially) or

gathered at lhe same lime (concurrently). When the data are collected inphases. ether the qualitative 01' the quantitative data can come first. Itdepends on the initial intent of the researcher. When qualitative data arecollected first, th e inten t is to explore the topic with participanls at sites.Then the researcher expands the understanding through a seeond phasein which data are collected from a large nnmber of people (typically a sam-pie representative 01' a population). When data are collected concurrently,both quantitative and qualitaUve data are gathered at the Saine time andthe implementution is simultaneous. In many projects it muy be unwork-able to collecl data over an expanded time period (e.g . in the health sci-enees when busy medical personnel have limited time [or data collection inthe ficld). In this case, it is more manageable to eolleet both quantitalivcand qualitative data at roughly the same time, when the researeher(s) is inthe field collecting data, rather than to revisit the field multiple times lrdata collection.

WeighlingA second factor that gaes into designing procedures is the 1/V'dght ar pri-

arity given 10 quantitative ar qualitative research in a particular study. Insome studies, the weight might be equal; in olh er studies, it might emphasize

Mixed Melhods Procedures

Timing Weighting Mixing

No Sequence Equal lntegratingconcurrent

Sequential-Oualitative first Oualitative Connecting

Sequential-Quantitative first Quantitative Embedding

figure '10.1 Aspects to Consider in Planning a Mixed Methods DesignSOURCE: Adapted from Creswell et al. (2003).

Theorizing

Explicit

lmplicit

one or the other. A priorily lr one lype dcpends on the interesls of theresearcher, the audience I'or the study (e.g., l'aculty committee, professionalassociation), and what the investigator seeks to emphasiz:e in the study..,ln practical terms, wcight OCCUl'S in a mixed methods sludy through suchstrategies as whelher quantitative or qualitative inforn1ation lS C111phasizedIlrst, the extent of trcatm ent 01' one type al' dala or the olher in the project,or the use 01' primarily an inductive approach (Le., generating then1es inqualitative) or a deductive approach (i.e . testing a theory). Sometimes therescarcher intentianally uses one fornl 01' data in a supportive role to a largerstudy, as is found in some expe rimental trials (see Rogers et al .. 2(03).

MxngMixing the dala (and in a larger sense, mixing the research quesUons.

philosophy, th e interp relation) iB difficult al best when one considers thatqualitative data consists 01' text and images and quantitalve data, num-bcrs. There arc two di1'ferent quesUons here: Whc/l cines a researcher 111xin a mixed melhods study? And !ww does mixing occur? The first questioIlis mnch easier to answer than the second. Mixing of the two types 01' data111ight occur at several stages: the data collection. the data analysis. inter-pretation, or at al! three phases. For proposal developers using mixedmethods, il is import ant lo discuss amI present in a proposal when the mix-ing will occur.How the data are mixed has received considerable recent attcntion(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2(07). Mbng means either t:hat lhe qualitative

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