Name of the student: Ana Rita Nseng Ada

Student Number: 12018954

Supervisor Name: Devinder Curry

Not Always a Perfect Match: Psychopathy

and Crime

Does psychopathy link to crime or it is a misconception?

Table of Contents

Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................3

1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................4

2. Preliminary Literature Review....................................................................................................5

3. Purpose of the Research...............................................................................................................8

3.1. Research Question.................................................................................................................8

4. Methodology................................................................................................................................9

4.1. Qualitative Research.............................................................................................................9

4.2. Literature Review Methodology.........................................................................................10

4.3. Research Methods and the Research Process.....................................................................11

4.3.1. Selection of Literature..................................................................................................13

4.3.2. Critical Tool.................................................................................................................14

4.4. Ethical Issues...................................................................................................................15

5. Literature Review......................................................................................................................15

5.1. Theoretical Fundamentals of Psychopathy.........................................................................15

5.2. Neurological and Genetic Characteristics of Psychopathy.................................................19

5.2.1. Neurotransmitters and Genetic Research.....................................................................23

5.3. Circumstances of expressed Psychopathic Behaviour........................................................25

6. Findings and Discussion............................................................................................................27

7. Conclusion and Recommendations............................................................................................30

7.1. Recommendations...............................................................................................................31

Bibliography.....................................................................................................................................33

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Appendix 1.....................................................................................................................................39

Appendix 2.....................................................................................................................................40

Appendix 3.....................................................................................................................................41

Appendix 4.....................................................................................................................................42

Appendix 5.....................................................................................................................................43

Appendix 6.....................................................................................................................................44

Appendix 7.....................................................................................................................................45

Reflective Report...........................................................................................................................45

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Abstract

This study investigates if psychopathy is linked to crime, or if this is only a misconception.

To investigate this topic, several perspectives on psychopathy have been considered,

including theoretical and biological perspectives.

A qualitative methodology was used in order to facilitate the exploration of this phenomenon

in depth, by analysing various different pieces of academic research conducted on theoretical

concepts of psychopathy, psychopathic behaviour, and biological causes of psychopathy.

This report concludes that the widely used approaches on psychopathy that link psychopathy

with crime are misleading. Early research on psychopathy and its theories no longer fit the

complex behavioural and biological patterns recently discovered to characterise psychopathy,

which demand for a more holistic approach. In this regard, the presence of a

multidimensional psychopathy has been proposed which may have underlying scientific

principles and may even be picked up by the controversial PCL-R scale.

In this regard, it can be argued that while psychopathy is a personality disorder, it does not

necessarily link to crime, as this connection may be created only under certain environmental

circumstances. It is thus recommended for future research to approach this issue accounting

for the various dimensions of psychopathy and to consider it outside the criminal spectrum.

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1. Introduction

Currently, psychopathy is used to predict non-violent and violent criminal behaviour.

Psychopathy is defined by a broad range of antisocial behaviours, excessive extroversion, and

a lack of empathy or remorse, and has been widely used as a criminological term rather than a

mental disorder (Shaw and Porter, 2012). However, with the publication of the Great British

Psychopath Survey (Dutton, 2012) and research conducted by Fallon (2013), an important

question has arisen in the field of criminology: does psychopathy link to crime, or is this only

a misconception?

Dutton (2012) ranked professions with the least and most number of psychopaths, and his

results were staggering, showing that surgeons, journalists, CEOs, salespersons, and even

police officers are among the professions with the highest number of psychopaths. These

people are individuals to whom the majority of the population must place their trust for their

health, their finances, their information, and their protection.

At the same time, well-established neuroscientist Jim Fallon discovered that he was a

borderline psychopath. He documented this finding in his extensive book (Fallon, 2013),

looking at how psychopaths can apparently lead normal lives without engaging in crime and

even construct successful careers and families.

On the other hand, Stevens et al. (2012) published a study contrasting the evidence of Fallon

(2013) and Dutton (2012) arguing that psychopaths generally have poor social relations, have

lower incomes, and are generally meant to fail in life and engage in criminal acts. While

Stevens et al. (2012) argued that psychopaths have poor social relationships, Shaw and Porter

(2012) argued that psychopaths possess outstanding interpersonal skills which they use in

order to manipulate legal decision makers and regain their freedom by making reviewers

believe that they are now rehabilitated and perfectly fit to be able to integrate within society.

These claims seem to support the idea that psychopaths can maintain social relations.

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2. Preliminary Literature Review

The initial accounts of the term psychopath date back to the time of Aristotle. At this time it

was defined as a person who is “mind sick” (Skodol, 1998). Later, in the 19 th century several

psychiatrists attempted to give a more robust definition to the term. These included Phillipe

Pinel, a French psychiatrist, Benjamin Rush, an American physician, and a German

psychiatrist named Julius Ludwig August Koch. These psychiatrists helped to attribute the

notion of moral inferiority, among which Koch even developed a new term known as

“psychopathic inferiority”. This was defined as the inability of the psychopath to adapt to the

natural world (Lykken, 1995).

Although a definitive definition of the term had not yet been established at this time, a series

of characteristics seemed to dominate psychopathic behaviour. These were noted as anti-

social behaviour, aggression, and impulsivity. Several categories of psychopaths also

emerged such as the violent psychopath, the inadequate psychopath, and the creative

psychopath. Henderson, the psychiatrist who devised the tripartite categorisation, argued that

Joan of Arc was an example of a creative psychopath (Berrios, 1996). This characterisation is

greatly disproportionate with the first accounts of the term as describing the socially and

morally inferior.

The basics of the modern approach on psychopathy were presented by Cleckley (1998) who

developed 16 criteria for producing a diagnosis of psychopathy. In the fifth edition of his

book, Cleckley (1998) describes what is referred to as an incomplete psychopath, to which

people who are in high standard professions, such as scientists, physicians, and psychiatrists

are analysed. The final conclusions of the case studies presented by Cleckley (1998) is that

these people relapse in antisocial behaviour, and even in violent behaviour.

At the beginning of the 21st and at the end of the 20th century, several models of predicting

psychopathic behaviour were developed, including the Psychopathy Checklist, the

Psychopathy Checklist–Revised, and the five-factor model of personality (FFM). These

models propose that the personality characteristics of a psychopath are agreeableness and

conscientiousness combined with a high degree of extraversion, and fluctuating neuroticism

characterised by low anxiety, vulnerability to stress, depression, and self-consciousness,

alongside anger, impulsivity, and hostility (Miller and Lynam, 2003).

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Other definitions of psychopathy focus on emphasising the fact that psychopathy is

comprised of a constellation of traits, behaviours, and characteristics that include grandiosity,

superficial charm, deceitfulness, lack of empathy and remorse, impulsivity, lack of

responsibility, and a parasitic life style (Dhingra and Boduszek, 2013).

With the advances of modern medicine, it is now possible to not only study the behavioural

patterns of psychopaths, but also to gather accurate data on the functionality of their brains

and even to determine genetic characteristics of this group.

The first account of what is now referred to as “mirror neurons” was described by Di

Pellegrino et al. (1992). They found that mirror neurons were found in the F5 area (Appendix

1) of the monkey premotor cortex. Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004) provided a more recent

view of the mirror neuron system by focusing on the human capacity to learn language by

imitation.

Iacoboni (2009) found a converging point between cognitive models of imitation derived

from social psychology studies on mimic and empathy and the aforementioned neurological

findings with regards to mirror neurons. The author argued that mirror neurons function as an

evolutionary advantage, by which people can access and comprehend the thoughts of others

and hence these neuro-structures facilitate social behaviour. Iacoboni (2009) argues that this

type of convergence creates a consistent framework by which the available empirical

evidence (neurological findings) and existing theoretical models (Hebbian model of learning

by association) reinforce each other.

Research conducted by Fecteau et al. (2008) provides evidence of connections between the

presence/absence of neural activity in neuron mirrors system (MNS) in normal psychopathic

individuals. In their study, the researcher assessed psychopathic individuals through the

Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI). Healthy individuals were shown a clip of a needle

penetrating the skin on a human hand in order to produce a response in the MNS and another

control video showed a fruit being priced (Appendix 2).

Both groups were monitored by trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) which measured

and recorded the motor evoked potentials (MEP). Their results were compared to the TMS

results obtained for psychopathic individuals when showed the same clip. The study

concluded that individuals who were noted on the PPI scale as having the highest level of

cold-heartedness, also had the lowest levels of MEP. The authors further argued that “cold-

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heartedness is one of four PPI subscales significantly correlated with the Hare Psychopathy

Checklist - Revised which is a gold standard in the psychopathy diagnosis […]suggesting a

specific association with psychopathy characteristics rather than nonspecific behavioural

deviance” (Fecteau et al. 2008, p. 142).

A different approach was undertaken by Fallon (2006). The author analysed SPECT scans of

several psychopathic convicted murderers and determined that these people showed signs of

abnormalities in the ATO Circuit (amygdalo-thalamic-orbital circuit) (Appendix 3). The

author also notes that the malfunctioning of the parts of the mind involved in this circuit may

hypothetically have a genetic cause.

This link has been suggested by Brunner et al. (1993) who observed that a deficiency in

enzymatic activity of monoamine oxidase links to aggressive behaviour. Other research

(McDermott et al., 2008; Frazzetto et al., 2007) conducted on the MAOA gene and its

enzymatic activity has concluded that this genetic marker is able to predict both aggressive

behaviour and psychopathic behaviour. McDermott et al. (2008) noted that participants who

had low MAOA activity were even willing to pay more to secure punishment for other

people.

The preliminary literature review shows that there is substantial research in social behaviour,

anatomic construction, and the genetic makeup of psychopaths. A systematic literature

review will be used to assess the quality of this research as well as to determine the strength

of the link between psychopathy and crime and if this connection can be altered, hence

demonstrating that psychopathy does not necessarily link to crime.

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3. Purpose of the Research

Considering the contrasting evidence that has recently emerged surrounding psychopathy and

criminal behaviour, it is important to determine if psychopathy is permanently connected to

crime, or if there is a way around for people who are rated as psychopathic. This is an

important question for several reasons. Firstly, it is important to determine if people who are

convicted psychopaths have a chance at rehabilitation and in what circumstances might this

occur. Secondly, it is important to determine if psychopathy is associated with crime for

children who exhibit psychopathic-like behaviour and if their outcomes as adults can be

managed in a positive way. Thirdly, it is important to determine in what circumstances

psychopathy links to crime considering that the professions rated by Dutton (2012) as

drawing in psychopaths are of extreme social importance (police officers, surgeons, lawyers

etc.)

3.1. Research Question

Thus, the aim of this report is to establish the strength of the link between psychopathy and

criminal behaviour, and how this connection can be altered. In this regard, the main question

that this research report will try to answer is: “Does psychopathy link to crime, or is this a

misconception”. Five other research questions will be addressed in order to answer the main

question:

What are the theoretical fundaments of Psychopathy?

What are the neurological characteristics of Psychopathy?

What are the genetic characteristics of Psychopathy?

How do these neurological and genetic characteristics determine Social Behaviour?

What are the circumstances of expressed Psychopathic Behaviour?

The first question will assess the theoretical fundaments of psychopathy, including the first

accounts of this term, scales to measure psychopathy, and theories developed in the field of

criminology in regards to psychopathic behaviour (Theodorakis, 2013).

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The second question proposed by this study will explore the recent neurological findings with

regards to synaptic connections and neurotransmitters involved in empathy (Fecteau et al.,

2008; Fallon, 2006). The third question will explore the genetic characteristics of violent

psychopathic behaviour, namely the research conducted on the MAOA gene, also referred to

as the warrior gene (McDermott et al., 2009).

Fourthly, this study will explore the link between the genetic and neurological characteristics

in psychopathy, determining how these are evident in social behaviour, and finally,

determining what are the circumstances are in which psychopathic criminal behaviour is

expressed when genetic markers are present.

4. Methodology

The study will use a grounded theory approach, in which a theory is developed based on

systematically collected data (Johnson and Christensen, 2012). As this study will attempt to

test if psychopathy is linked to crime a qualitative methodology will be used.

4.1. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is used to gain more insight into a specific researched topic, as opposed

to quantitative methodology that only measures certain phenomenon. Qualitative research is

highly flexible, thus engaging in this type of research does not require extensive preparation

as in the case of quantitative research (Rubin and Babbie, 2010).

A limitation of qualitative research is its subjectivity. However, the author can acknowledge

this limitation and eliminate these biases. Another issue of qualitative research is its limited

ability to be generalised. This can be addressed by developing methods that account for this

(Rubin and Babbie, 2010).

By using this methodology, this research will be able to gain more insight into what

psychopathy is, and in what circumstances it links to criminal behaviour. Moreover, this

study design will enable the evaluation of current research as well as evaluate the direction of

current research, hence determining if the connection of criminal behaviour with psychopathy

is a misconception.

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4.2. Literature Review Methodology

A literature review is defined as a systematic approach to analysing the literature over a

specific topic and hence gaining new insight over a specific area of research. Conducting this

type of study has been connected to the idea of collected pieces of information, and

assembling them to extract new meaning from existing evidence (Bell and Stephen, 2014;

Davies and Hughes, 2014).

In conducting a literature review, the researcher can bias the results by excluding data that is

methodologically questionable based on subjective thinking. An additional issue in this case

is the researcher presenting the information as clear-cut when in fact the study analysed

shows little evidence of confirming these facts. To avoid this issue, clear inclusion and

exclusion criteria for selecting studies have to be devised (Mertens, 2015; Bell and Stephen,

2014; King and Wincup, 2008).

Another issue in conducting a literature review is the ability of the researcher to synthesise

the literature. The most important aspect of this methodology is that it should be critical and

evaluative of previous research. In conducting this process, the researcher must be able to

disseminate which investigation has been conducted in the field of study and what needs to

be done, as well as place the issue investigated in the broad spectrum of scholarly literature.

At the same time, the researcher must articulate the important phenomenon and variables that

are relevant to the topic while synthesising and gaining a new perspective over the literature

(Mertens, 2015).

Secondly, in conducting a literature review it is important for the researcher to acknowledge

the significance of the researched problem as well as to provide a clear rhetoric by which the

author will show an ability to organise and coherently write about the findings of the

literature in order to support the claims initially made (Mertens, 2015; Aveyard, 2014).

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4.3. Research Methods and the Research Process

To conduct the literature review, a series of specific keywords and inclusion and exclusion

criteria were devised prior to the research process. Three databases were selected to conduct

this research: MEDLine, Google Scholar, and Research Gate. Starting from the theme

selected for this study, a preliminary literature review was conducted to determine if there are

any factors which may determine psychopathy to be linked to criminality or not. The first sets

of keywords devised for this purpose were natural language keywords that arise from natural

vocabulary (Cooper et al., 2009).

Table 1. Natural Language Keywords

To select from the papers located through the database search, a series of inclusion and

exclusion criteria have been noted.

Table 2. Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

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The use of the inclusion and exclusion criteria has been conducted by reading the title section

of the articles. A total number of 12 studies have been included in the literature review based

on the pre-established criteria. Considering that this study aims to also review the theories

surrounding psychopathy, no time limit was set for the inclusion of the studies. However, in

the second stage of the research process, a historical view over certain topics will be

maintained, hence enabling the monitoring of a specific research over psychopathy through

time. Following the first stage of the research, the additional identified studies selected were

also included based on their research topic dynamic through time. Therefore an additional

inclusion criterion was created to reflect this aspect.

Through conducting the preliminary literature review, a new series of keywords have been

developed. These new keywords are referred to as controlled vocabulary keywords and

derive from the research initially analysed (Cooper et al., 2009). The keywords developed as

well as the search results obtained through each of the databases are listed in the table below.

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Table 3. Controlled Vocabulary Keywords

4.3.1. Selection of Literature

Following the removal of duplicates, and the reading of the title section of the articles, a total

number of 578 articles were seen as potentially viable to answer the research question of this

study. A second selection process was applied to these articles by reading through the

abstract section of each article, and specifically locating articles that tracked the development

of research over psychopathy. Upon the application of the inclusion/exclusion criteria, a total

number of 41 articles were considered to be valid based on their abstract sections matching

the research question of this study as well as the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

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4.3.2. Critical Tool

In order to critique the selected literature by using a proper framework, the ‘”six questions to

trigger critical thinking” developed by Aveyard et al. (2011) was used. As specified by the

tool, it is important to note “where”, “how”, “when”, “what”, “who”, and “why”.

Thus, it can be noted that the literature was found through a systematic search process that

encompassed no time variable as all theoretical research was also included to provide a

historical perspective over the development of psychopathy research. To ensure the validity

of this information, other more recent studies on the same topic were also investigated.

The methodologies used in these studies will be critiqued by signalling any issues in their

research that derive from the methods used. Secondly, any conflict of interests or limitations

will also be noted. The findings and their purpose will be assessed through the review.

Additionally, no websites were used in conducting this study. Only research studies or

professional opinions were considered for inclusion.

Aveyard et al. (2011) Six Questions To Trigger Critical Thinking

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4.4. Ethical Issues

Considering that this study employed a literature review methodology, no ethical issues

concerning privacy of individual participants arise. However, literature reviews are

characterised by a separate set of ethical concerns.

The main issue in this methodology which has ethical implications is misinterpreting the

existing data. In order to avoid this, a critique tool was pre-established and a full citation of

the authors has been given (Mertens, 2015). At the same time, providing a complete reference

in text and a full reference list eliminates the issue of plagiarism, thus giving proper credit to

the author of the original study (Aveyard, 2014).

5. Literature Review

The literature over the theoretical principals of psychopathy is formed mainly out of

secondary research. The same aspect has been observed in research over the circumstances of

expressed psychopathic behaviour. This literature is characterised by a handful of primary

studies, with secondary research and expert opinions being more dominate.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, the literature over the genetic and neurological markers

of psychopathy is dominated by primary research, with quantitative and qualitative

methodologies that build upon and connect the theoretical principles of psychopathy with the

underlining biological causes, closely documenting these events.

5.1. Theoretical Fundaments of Psychopathy

Several theories have been developed in an attempt to conceptualise and manage

psychopathy. For the purpose of this study, theories that connect to social learning and

biological aspects of psychopathy will be considered.

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One of these theories is referred to as the arousal theory, and was first proposed by Hare

(1970). In his theory, Hare (1970) argued that psychopaths have low levels of cortical arousal

and high levels of hyperactivity. Therefore a psychopath will be in a constant state of chaotic

stimulation and will not become aroused by stressful stimuli such as fear or stress.

The neurobiological theory (Raine, 1993) argues that there is a corresponding brain region for

each function. This is referred to as the principle of localisation and stipulates that

psychopathic individuals have brains that are structured differently than normal people.

Psychopathy has even been linked with the social learning theory developed by Bandura,

with some aspects of learning being connected to the development of psychopathic

personalities. This theory was initially tested by Lykken (1957) in order to demonstrate that

psychopaths in general have poor avoidance learning, which means that faulty learning

resulting in punishment is irrelevant for psychopaths. Eysenck (1998) later demonstrated that

poor avoidance learning tends to be a characteristic of criminality, and not necessarily of

psychopathy.

The most dominant debate in the area of theoretical framing of psychopathy seems to debunk

the so called “gold standard” of psychopathy (Fecteau et al., 2008, p. 142). This debate

concerns the PCL-R (psychopathy checklist revised) which is a scale of 20 items meant to

assess and predict psychopathic behaviour and recidivism (Appendix 4).

Hare and Neumann (2008) argued that prior to the implementation of PCL-R, research of

psychopathy was chaotic, and the tool did provide some construct to approach research over

this topic. However, the authors also acknowledge that the use of this tool in research has

become problematic as no critique has been brought to the tool since its development.

Consequently, Skeem and Cooke (2010a) argue that the PCL-R is subject to conceptual

confusion and is confused with a theoretical construct of psychopathy. Skeem and Cooke

(2010a) approached this in a qualitative methodology, establishing the parameters of the

debate prior to initiating their argument. The authors concluded by arguing that PCL-R

cannot produce a theory of psychopathy and it simultaneously gives rise to a myth according

to which psychopaths are seen as violent criminals; an aspect that is not always encountered

in psychopaths. Finally the authors state that measurement does not equal theoretical practice

and thus there is an acute need for the creation of a formal process between theoretical

development and empirical validation.

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Hare and Neumann (2010) responded to this paper by arguing that PCL-R should indeed not

be confused with theory and that psychopathy should not be confused with criminal

behaviour, however Skeem and Cooke (2010a) did not provide any directions for theoretical

research. Skeem and Cooke (2010b) hence proceeded to argue that:

“[…] progress in understanding the unobservable construct of psychopathy hinges upon

setting aside procrustean dependence on a monofocal PCL–R lens to test (a) actual theories

of psychopathy against articulated validation hierarchies and (b) the relation between

psychopathy and crime. In specifying these conceptual and applied directions, we hope to

promote constructive dialogue, further insights, and a new generation of research that better

distinguishes between personality deviation and social deviance” Skeem and Cooke (2010b,

p. 455).

The central idea emerging from the debate between Hare and C. Neumann (2010) and Skeem

and Cooke (2010a; 2010b) is the lack of new theories that would encompass empirical

evidence and provide some theoretical progress in psychopathy.

This aspect is also pointed out by Buzina (2012) who argued that there is a lack of clarity in

diagnosis, with even empirical biological evidence showing differences between the normal

brain and the psychopathic brain. The author draws upon literature that is decades old in

presenting theories over psychopathy, such as the theories developed by J. L. Koch and

Cleckley but also on new research in the neurological construct of the psychopathic brain.

However, it should be noted that the author did not provide a theoretical framework for these

findings.

While Buzina (2012) presented a potential core stone in the development of theories over

psychopathy, Gowlett (2014) presents a more comprehensive approach to this issue.

Similarly to Buzina (2012), the author draws upon theoretical and empirical evidence to

create a potentially new theoretical framework for psychopathy (Appendix 5).

Gowlett (2014) suggests that there may be two types of psychopathy: primary psychopathy;

and secondary psychopathy. These can overlap but are only prototypical representations of

individuals. The author draws upon empirical evidence to suggest that secondary

psychopathy may be the result of environmental factors, weighing substantially more than

genetic ones, including early childhood trauma. This differentiation is based upon theoretical

concepts of psychopathy characterised by high levels of anxiety and negative emotions, as

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opposed to fearlessness, emotional stability, and resilience present in primary psychopathy.

While Gowlett (2014) acknowledges the limitations of this research, the author also argues

that more research over this topic would confirm or debunk this theory, as well as

determining if secondary psychopathy is indeed a form of psychopathy or another form of

mental illness.

Another similar study (Skeem et al., 2011) proposed that there are more than just two types of

psychopaths, addressing not only primary and secondary psychopathy, but also what the

authors refer to as successful and unsuccessful psychopaths. Skeem et al. (2011) drew on a

considerable amount of empirical research to argue that even the research community is

facing the threat of stereotyping psychopaths through the spectrum of old theories, posing

psychopaths as violent, psychotic, or antisocial. Seeing the contrast of these beliefs is not

difficult, especially by considering that some psychopathic people possess interpersonal skills

and are highly manipulative. These personality traits cannot manifest in a poorly social

skilled persona. Moreover, psychopaths can “be made’ (Skeem et al., 2011, p. 98) hence

supporting the existence of a secondary psychopathy caused by environmental factors.

Looking into what motivates highly successful psychopaths, it is important to mention

Schwartz Value Theory (Appendix 6) (Parks and Guay, 2009). Schwartz places values into

four categories, each containing sub-values. The values described by Schwartz in one of the

groups and consequently its sub-groups are representative of psychopathic traits. The value

group is referred to as self-enhancement and contains values such as power defined by

authority, wealth and social recognition, competence, success; and hedonism (the pursuit of

pleasure, gratification, and enjoyment) (Parks and Guay, 2009). Another group of values is

also characteristic of psychopathy. This is stimulation characterised by the need of variety,

novelty, and excitement (Parks and Guay, 2009).

At the present time, there are no studies assuming this relationship between psychopathy and

the aforementioned values, yet it is important to acknowledge that being driven only by these

motivations will lead to a psychopathic behaviour, but a behaviour that may achieve success

rather than a life in prison.

The literature over theoretical aspects of psychopathy seems to have been recently

progressing towards the development of a more comprehensive framework for defining,

assessing, and measuring this condition. Nevertheless, the early theories over this

psychological disorder, such as the ones developed by Cleckley, drew a violent, morally

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depraved, and fearless image of psychopathy. Recent progress shows that the condition is far

more complex than initially described, hence new theoretical approaches will be necessary to

frame the current findings in neurobiology and genetics of psychopaths.

5.2. Neurological and Genetic Characteristics of Psychopathy

One of the most comprehensive neurobiological approaches was undertaken by Fallon

(2006), who connected environmental factors, genetic markers, and neurological

abnormalities in the psychopathic brain. The author drew upon clinical images (SPECT

scans) measuring blood flow to the ATO circuit, and genetic evidence to pinpoint the

physical traces of psychopathy. Finally, the author argued that the trans-disciplinary field of

imaging genetics will prove to be a consistent tool in diagnosing and treating behavioural

disorders.

Fallon (2006) stated that prenatal faulty migration of neurons as well as damage to the

aforementioned areas in the first 2-3 years of life results in psychopathic violent behaviour

without the person realising the gravity of his/her actions. Secondly, damage caused to the

specific brain areas prior to three years of life results in violent behaviour in adolescence with

the person knowing that the behaviour is wrong but not being able to control the impulses.

Finally, damage to the aforementioned brain areas later in life translates to violent behaviour

being carried out in full knowledge of consequences, yet with variability in choice to inhibit

the behaviour under certain circumstances.

While this research shows clear signs of neurobiology abnormality in psychopaths, a strong

limitation of this study is that it only focuses on violent psychopaths, and thus the research

may not be applied to other types of psychopaths, who may lack empathy and remorse but are

fully functional members of society, including Fallon (2013) himself.

Another study using brain imaging conducted by Decety et al. (2013) assessed the brains of

121 prisoners in a medium security facility in the US. The inmates were rated as highly,

moderately, and weakly psychopathic by using the PCL-R scale and were subsequently

divided into three groups of approximately 40 subjects.

The researchers then proceeded to show each group scenarios of physical pain. Control

images were also shown in which no painful situation was depicted. The participants were

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asked to imagine that the painful scenario happed to them and then imagine if the painful

scenario happened to others (Decety et al., 2013).

Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to monitor the brain activity of the

participants during the process of seeing and imagining these scenarios. The researchers

found that people who were rated highly on the PCL-R scale did register brain activity in the

empathy structure of the brain consisting of the anterior midcingulate cortex (it is a cognitive

process that involve decision making, emotion, and pain processing), anterior insula (Play a

role in Emotional awareness), the right amygdala (fear and sadness) and somatosensory

cortex, it is explain how our brain process external stimuli such as colour. This indicated that

psychopathic people are sensitive to their own pain (Decety et al., 2013).

However, when asked to imagine pain on others, the aforementioned brain regions did not

activate. Instead of this, the ventral striatum area of the brain became active, suggesting that

these people found pleasure in imagining physical pain in others rather than empathy. This

area of the brain is also linked to motivational behaviour based on reward, thus suggesting the

idea that at least imagining pain onto others provided motivation and reward.

Considering the research methodology of this study as well as the comprehensive exclusion

criteria set out for participants (non-fluency in English, younger than 18, older than 50, low

IQ score, prior head injury, diagnosed mental disorder) the result of this research can be seen

as valid. The small sample size makes it difficult to generalise, considering that from the

initial 121 participants only a quarter rated highly on the PCL-R checklist.

Additionally, the same results were obtained by Meffert et al. (2013) using a similar

methodology with 18 psychopathic offenders and 26 normal control group participants.

However, the authors emphasise that the empathic response is not automatic in psychopaths

but nevertheless present as when specifically instructed to empathise with the actors of the

video showing a painful situation, the areas in the brain connected to empathy were activated.

The findings of Decety et al. (2013) may contradict the findings of Meffert et al. (2013) by

simply arguing that psychopaths may have thought of themselves in pain hence gaining the

same neural activation as the control group. At the same time, both studies argue that

empathy in psychopaths may be conditioned by self-imaging, thought and hence learned.

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On the other hand, Glenn and Raine (2009) argued that psychopathy is the way in which

certain people gain an evolutionary advantage over others. By instrumental aggression these

people seek to gain economic or social advantages, carrying out a strategy that would be

impossible to execute in the presence of empathy, in order to follow a specific goal that

would led to some advantage. This proposal contrasts early theoretical research (Cleckley,

1998) according to which psychopaths cannot follow a goal directed life, and have difficulties

in setting objectives.

While Glenn and Raine (2009) may provide a different perspective on psychopathy, the

authors fail to acknowledge the difference between successful and unsuccessful psychopaths,

which may explain why some psychopaths have an evolutionary advantage by carrying out

strategies in the absence of empathy. This may differentiate the successful CEO’s from the

prolific serial killers.

Several studies have set out to determine this difference (Yang et al., 2005; Raine et al., 2004;

Gao et al., 2010; Gao et al., 2011). Yang et al. (2005) used structural magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) to measure the prefrontal grey; gather information like emotions, speech in

the brain, and white matter (how the mind learns and functions) volumes in 16 unsuccessful

psychopaths and 13 successful psychopaths. The authors also used 23 control subjects. The

authors found that unsuccessful psychopaths had a 22.3% reduction in the prefrontal grey

matter volume. Successful psychopaths did not show this abnormality. The area of the brain

studied in this case has been associated with impulsiveness, instability as well as arrogance

and deceptiveness.

Raine et al. (2004) used a similar methodology and concluded that unsuccessful psychopaths

show an asymmetry in the hippocampus (is a part of the brain where we can retrieve all our

past events and experiences), with the right side being larger than the left. The authors argued

that due to the fact that this side of the brain is involved in regulating fear and interpreting

cues, unsuccessful psychopaths are more likely to be caught, while successful psychopaths do

not face the same issues. The authors use the term successful psychopath not to define a

person who is clinically diagnosed with psychopathy and who is a functioning individual, but

to define a person that has engaged in criminal behaviour but has not been caught.

Moreover, the findings of Gao et al. (2010) and Gao et al. (2011) demonstrate that childhood

abuse in unsuccessful psychopaths results in a reduced P3 (parietal lobe; process data relating

with sense of touch and vision) amplitude in unsuccessful psychopaths only. The authors

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argue that the poor cognitive function in these types of psychopaths makes them more prone

to violent, antisocial behaviour and experiencing difficulties in reading cues. Moreover, the

authors hypothesise that successful psychopaths will tend to score lower on F1 (arrogant and

manipulative) and higher on F4 (antisocial behaviour) on the PCL-R list, resulting in more

blue collar criminal offences. Overall, the authors conclude that “better executive

functioning, increased autonomic reactivity, and normal frontal and amygdala volumes may

serve as factors that protect successful psychopaths from conviction, and allow them to better

achieve their life goals.” (Gao, et al., 2010, p. 205).

Fecteau et al. (2008) found that “sensorimotor cortexmodulation elicited by the painful

stimulus is correlated with sensory empathy as opposed to emotional, state or trait empathy”

(Fecteau et al. 2008, p. 142). This indicates that the quality of the pain in the observed model

is what produces a decrease in the MEP amplitude. For the psychopathic individual, this

means that he/she has to be well aware of the physical state of the other people, and this is

needed in order to engage in manipulative behaviour. Fecteau et al. (2008) thus argued that

knowing and simulating what empathy is does not equal empathy.

As previously mentioned, the MNS system was initially likened to the acquisition of

language (Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004). Research by Fecteau et al. (2008) showed that as

some abnormal activity in this system occurs in the brains of psychopaths, it is thus important

to determine if there are any reflections of these neurological traits in psychopathic speech.

Hancock et al. (2011) used statistical text analysis in order to analyse the features of crime

narratives and establish differences between 14 psychopathic narratives and 38 non-

psychopathic narratives of homicide offenders. To measure psychopathy, the PCL-R was

used. To measure the semantics, the authors used Wmatrix linguistic analysis tool while for

measuring emotional characteristics of these narratives, the Dictionary of Affect and

Language (DAL) tool was used.

The authors found that psychopaths, unlike the control group of non-psychopathic homicide

offenders, use rational cause and effect descriptions, focused more on material needs and less

on social needs, while their speech is characterised by “frequency of disfluencies” (longer

speech pauses and using interjections such as “uh”, “um”). Furthermore, psychopaths seem to

focus more on the past tense and less on the present tense, signalling detachment from the

incident, whilst their speech was rated as less emotional and less pleasant in comparison to

22 | P a g e

the other group. The authors argue that these findings support the idea that psychopaths

function on a primitive yet rational level (Hancock et al., 2011).

However, it can be argued that Broca’s region, connected to speech and a part of the MNS

system (Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004), is clearly affected by psychopathy. These links

suggest that more research should be conducted in the area of speech acquisition and

psychopathy, particularly since manipulative psychopaths can use manipulation due to good

emotional readings and appropriate speech. This may reinforce the idea that psychopathy is

further divided into more subtypes (i.e. such as successful and unsuccessful psychopath).

Koenigs (2012) points out some significant methodological issues that emerge from research

conducted on the brains of psychopaths. The author argues that most research uses the Hare

PCL-R to define psychopathy, where a score of 30 or higher indicates psychopathy with

scores of 21 to 29 being intermediary, and in the absence of access to imprisonment facilities

to gain access to potential subjects, authors use lower scores. In the study conducted by

Fecteau et al. (2008), only 4 of the subjects rated higher than 30 on the PCL-R scale, however

for this study and the other studies measuring brain abnormalities in psychopathy, access to

forensic sites was granted.

Other issues are also signalled by Koenigs (2012) in terms of the sample used, as non-

psychopathic individuals may differ greatly from the psychopathic sample selected in terms

of age, education and drug use. Additionally, Koenigs (2012) suggests that using a

community sample may not produce the same results as with using a sample of medical

diagnosed psychopaths. This was the case of the Raine et al. (2004), where the authors used

psychopaths from a community sample to assess successful and unsuccessful psychopathy.

5.2.1. Neurotransmitters and Genetic Research

An important piece of neurobiological research related to psychopathy which has received

little attention is the integration of research over specific neurotransmitters present in the

psychopathic brain. This research has focused on serotonin, dopamine, testosterone (when

engaged in neural activity within the brain), cortisol, and their receptors.

Previous studies have found that there is a connection between psychopathic behaviour and

the regulation of serotonin. Soderstrom et al. (2003) concluded that there is an increased ratio

in the dopamine metabolite HVA and the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA in psychopathic

23 | P a g e

individuals which leads to aggressive impulsiveness and loss of inhibition. This study also

implies that medication to regulate dopamine and serotonin could be used to treat

psychopathy. More recent evidence (Estrella et al., 2012) suggests that serotonin modulates

impulse versus instrumental aggression.

Additionally, Sobczak et al. (2001) found that cortisol, the stress regulating hormone, is low

in psychopathic brains. Additionally, evidence (Birger et al., 2003) suggests that a low level

of serotonin creates aggressive behaviour by regulating testosterone levels. With this

abnormality, the deregulation of serotonin may be one of the causes, however this is an

interconnected system in which cortisol affects serotonin and vice versa, posing a significant

difficult to further study. Other research (Liening andJosephs, 2010) suggests that aggression

is not exclusively connected to testosterone, and that complex neuro-pathways and

neurotransmitters that are interdependent contribute to the creation of this type of behaviour.

An important link between serotonin and psychopathy was conducted by Glenn (2011). The

author argued that whilst the short allele of the serotonin transporter is connected with mental

disorders such as depression, the long allele of this transporter translates in behaviours that

match psychopathic traits.

From this research some significant issues emerge. Firstly, if psychopaths cannot manage

stress, as suggested by theories (Hare, 1970) and research (Miller and Lynam, 2003), how can

there be successful psychopaths, or in fact, how is it possible for them to become important

people? Secondly, whilst recent research has examined the role of the aforementioned

neurotransmitters, research has focused only on aggressive behaviour, while psychopathy has

been mostly excluded or presented from a theoretical perspective (Estrella et al., 2012). As

previously shown, psychopathy does not necessarily equal violence hence understanding

when or under what circumstances this phenomenon occurs is important for determining if

psychopathy links to crime.

On the other hand, genetic research has been given much attention, particularly in recent

years within the debate of nature versus nurture. Shih et al. (1999) were amongst the first

researchers to document the MAOA enzyme’s (a part of the serotoninergic system) impact on

aggressive behaviour. The researchers found that a low production of this enzyme results in

aggressive impulsive behaviour. In this regard, Frazzetto et al. (2007) further studied this

phenomenon linking it to behaviour and certain upsetting events in the first 15 years of life.

In male subjects who had suffered such events there was a clear expression of low activity in

24 | P a g e

the MAOA gene and hence a low production of the MAOA enzyme. This research thus

demonstrates that environmental factors in early life can shift behaviour towards psychopathy

by affecting genetic activity. This suggests that there is a genetic difference in how males and

females are affected by these environmental factors, and that the androgen receptor may be

involved in how males and females act aggressively (Craig and Halton, 2009). Additional

research (McDermotta et al., 2008) suggests that this enzyme is also obvious in provoked

aggression, but that people with low levels of this enzyme will seek punishment for others at

the expense of their loss, suggesting a faulty motivation.

Another gene that has been recently linked with psychopathy is the OXTR gene, or the

oxytocin receptor system (Arias and Jaramillo, 2013). This gene regulates both the

dopaminergic systems and the serotonergic systems, which have both been documented to

result in some form of mental incapacity when functioning abnormally. While the

polymorphism in the OXTR has been shown to have effects over the expression of molecular

dynamics of other genes involved in forms antisocial behaviour, more research is needed to

determine specific genetic networks that prone individuals to psychopathic behaviour (Arias

and Jaramillo, 2013).

5.3. Circumstances of expressed Psychopathic Behaviour

By considering the biological research conducted on psychopathy, it can be argued that for

psychopathy to occur, certain genetic markers (that are still under research) must be present.

While these markers may led to visible abnormalities within the brain, there are still evident

differences in the behaviour of successful and unsuccessful psychopaths as well as in their

brain anatomy (Yang et al., 2005; Raine et al., 2004), thus it is important to determine what

drives the behavioural differences when biological markers are similar.

Lilienfeld et al. (2014) set out to measure how psychopaths manage in society. The

researchers devised an internet survey in which 3388 members of the general population

participated. Psychopathic traits were measured by a self-report measure and assessed against

occupational choice, religion, geographic location, and political orientation. The authors

found that fearlessness and dominance are associated with leadership positions or a risky

occupation.

Although the findings in this study can be regarded as weak due to the measuring tool used,

the findings seem to support the list of jobs that draw in the most psychopaths proposed by

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Dutton (2012). This, corroborated by the risky behaviour characteristic of psychopathy,

indicates that these people can successfully function in today’s society by engaging in

occupations that demand the traits of psychopathy, such as dominance and fearlessness.

However, such findings stress the need to determine under what circumstances psychopathy

relates to crime. In other words, what separates the violent psychopathic criminal from the

highly functioning psychopath?

Domes et al. (2013) investigated if there were any differences between cognitive and

emotional empathy in psychopaths, specifically to determine if psychopathy is linked

exclusively to lack of emotional empathy. The authors found no differences in the scores for

cognitive and emotional empathy of the participants, hence suggesting that psychopaths may

lack both these empathic elements. Additionally, Gilbert (2014) argued that compassion

focused therapy (CFT) can produce significant behavioural changes especially in developing

people’s capacity to organise the “tricky brain”. The author states that whilst humans used to

be driven by basic instincts, the new acquired capacity to foresee events and rationalise poses

significant difficulties in organising emotional and motivational systems. Therefore, gaining

access to the minds of others can generate altruistic behaviour for additional motives.

Some functioning psychopaths may have the capacity to understand the benefits of

cultivating relations, even at a superficial level, to gain some form of advantage. This

rationalising process also assumes that psychopaths possess cognitive empathy; hence they

are able to understand what empathising means, and even simulate it at a neurological level

(Meffert et al., 2013).

However, to gain this rationalising capacity, psychopaths must also have the proper

environment to develop it. Fallon (2013) argued that even with the genetic markers and the

brain abnormalities linking him to violent psychopathic killers, he is a high functioning

psychopath. One of his arguments for the difference between his social life, and the lives of

the criminals he studied, is early childhood. Fallon had a happy childhood and no history of

abuse.

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On the other hand, the notorious female serial killer Aileen Wuornos’s life as a young child

was traumatic, abusive, and left her with an incapacity to feel empathy, emotional pain or fear

(Myers et al., 2005). This then continued when she became an adult.

Salekin et al. (2010) set an emphasis on motivation to change, arguing that for young

criminal offenders who have been diagnosed with psychopathy, the motivation to change has

been an accurate predictor of future violent behaviour. In other words, psychopathic

behaviour can be modulated by motivation both positively as negatively. In the present case,

a motivation to change led to decreases in violence.

It can thus be concluded that expressed violent psychopathic behaviour will occur when the

environmental component leads to such behaviour and the presence of neurological and

genetic markers is also obvious. This is the case of psychopathy gained in early life through

experiencing traumatic events, and the individual capacity to be motivated against violence. It

is also worth mentioning that such events can impact on the genes of an individual, and

modify their functionally, as in the case of the MAOA gene (Frazzetto et al., 2007).

Nevertheless, psychopathy does not always equal violence; it can also imply the presence of

genetic and neural pathways that drive the need for power at any cost and hedonism

alongside with the need for constant stimulation. In a pleasant childhood environment, the

psychopath may develop to become a manipulative and successful adult, without engaging in

criminal behaviour, due to his/her acquired capacity for decision making and rationality,

exhibiting control over actions in order to reach a certain goal (Gao et al., 2010).

6. Findings and Discussion

This research report set out to investigate if psychopathy is linked to crime, or if this is a

misconception. In order to answer this question, several aspects of this topic have been

investigated. Secondly, neurological and genetic factors that have been identified to be

markers of psychopathy were analysed. Finally, an attempt to determine what drives

psychopathic behaviour has been made.

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The first area of research focused on theoretical approaches. The neurobiological theory

stipulated by Raine (1993) has been found to have a strong scientific background as

numerous authors (Yang et al., 2005; Raine et al., 2004; Fallon, 2006; Fecteau et al., 2008;

Decety et al., 2013; Meffert et al., 2013) pointed out specific brain regions that are connected

with psychopathology. Furthermore, research also indicates that there are differences in brain

abnormalities that differentiate a successful psychopath from an unsuccessful psychopath.

The social learning theory stipulates that learning can occur by observation as well as through

direct instruction, even in the absence of reinforcement (Lykken, 1957). This theory has been

tested for psychopathy by Lykken (1957) through the spectrum of avoidance learning. This

approach has also been noted to link to criminality rather than psychopathy (Eysenck, 1998).

However, several studies (Decety et al., 2013; Meffert et al., 2013) have demonstrated that

empathy can be learned or at least simulated. This suggests that a different approach may be

needed in social learning theory and psychopathy.

Additionally, one of the biological markers of psychopathy, the MAOA gene, shows

abnormal functionality when exposed to traumatic events in early childhood (Fecteau et al.,

2008) which may indicate actual biological transformation when observing and experiencing

negative behaviour. No studies have linked this theory with the environmental factors (other

than trauma or faulty neuron migration) that may lead to the creation of a psychopathic brain.

Additional findings (Soderstrom et al., 2003) related to neurotransmitters imply that

psychopathy can even be treated by using medication to manage serotonin and dopamine

levels. Moreover, a CfT approach can also be used to facilitate treatment through therapy

(Gilbert, 2014) especially when considering empathic learning (Meffert et al., 2013).

Finally, one of the most important findings of this study links to the theories developed by

Cleckley (1998; 1941). These theories were the fundamental basis for developing the PCL-R,

devised by Hare (2003), which has been extensively used in both qualitative and quantitative

studies analysing psychopathic behaviour. While Cleckley (1998) was the first individual to

document cases of successful psychopaths, he also focuses greatly on the violent and chaotic

behaviour of these people, arguing through his case studies that these people will finally give

in to their instincts and fail in social life.

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This basic approach on psychopathy is also evident in the PCL-R which has been used in

qualitative research as a theoretical framework, rather than a measurement tool (Skeem and

Cooke, 2010a). This instrument, according to both Hare and Neumann (2008) and (Skeem

and Cooke, 2010a), fuelled the myth that psychopaths are always violent criminals, thus

leading research into a vacuum of faulty assumptions and a failure to analyse the other side of

psychopathy.

At the same time, a growing body of evidence (Skeem et al., 2011; Buzina, 2012; Gowlett,

2014) suggests that psychopathy is not unidimensional and that subtypes of this condition

may exist, which makes for the application of the PCL-R problematic for various reasons.

Initially the tool was meant to focus only on scores of above 30, considering that scores of

21-29 are an intermediary state. No studies have applied this tool to determine if this

intermediary state links to successful psychopaths, while Gao et al. (2010) have only

hypothesised that successful psychopaths may rank differently in F1 and F4 compared to

unsuccessful psychopaths.

Secondly, in the absence of access to imprisonment facilities, authors will use this

intermediary score to label psychopathy and link it to lack of empathy (Koenigs, 2012) hence

disregarding other aspects of psychopathy, such as dominance and the need for power or

hedonism, that may lead to the creation of what referred to as a hig functioning psychopath

(Dutton, 2012; Fallon, 2013; Lilienfeld et al., 2014). This in return creates a wide spectrum of

this condition to be understudied and for multiple research questions related to the

manifestation of psychopathy to arise.

This aspect is evident from contradictory research, such as research arguing that violent

psychopathic killers will have less advanced speech (Hancock et al., 2011) while other

research suggests that high functioning psychopaths will have the necessary interpersonal

skills to be manipulative and deceitful (Dutton, 2012; Fallon, 2013; Lilienfeld et al., 2014).

This contrasting evidence points out to the existence of different types of psychopathy; one

that is characterised by violent and criminal behaviour, and one that is characterised by the

need for power, dominance, constant arousal, and social status.

At the present time, genetic research (Frazzetto et al., 2007; Arias and Jaramillo, 2013) and

neurological research Raine et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2005; Fecteau et al., 2008; Gao et al.,

2010; Gao et al., 2011) has contributed to answering if psychopathy is always linked to

crime. According to this research, some brain differences in successful and unsuccessful

29 | P a g e

psychopaths have been found, while genetic markers of psychopathy will activate in the

presence of an abusive early childhood environment.

A basic conclusion from the analysed literature is that psychopathy has various forms and

that psychopathy does not necessarily link to crime. In fact, as this research suggests, it can

even link to a successful social status. However, to put a solid theoretical framework on this

conclusion, as well as to use this theory to connect the dots of scientific data, new approaches

should be considered that are not exclusively based on the research conducted by Cleckley.

The absence of a definitive definition of psychopathy is also problematic for creating a

theoretical framework, especially since some definitions strongly focus on violent or criminal

behaviour. This may suggest a need to shift the paradigm of psychopathy from the criminal

justice conceptuality to a mental health paradigm which would enable the current research to

come together in a holistic approach on psychopathy.

7. Conclusion and Recommendations

This report set out to investigate whether or not psychopathy is linked to crime. Considering

the analysed literature, it can be argued that psychopathy and its consequent connection to

crime or violence are misconceptions. These misconceptions seem to have arisen from the

early research in psychopathy and early theories, as well as from the current instruments to

measure this behaviour developed based on these theoretical frameworks.

Indications have been found that even some scores in the PCL-R list may indicate different

forms of psychopathy. This implies that while some psychopaths will act violently and

engage in different types of crimes, others will not. Neurological research shows that these

types of psychopaths, also referred to as successful psychopaths, will be able to rationalise

and make proper decisions that will lead to them either having successful lives, or not being

caught.

These types of complex patterns require further investigation and new applications of theories

that would explain psychopathic behaviour other that the initial work conducted by Cleckley.

30 | P a g e

An important finding of this study refers to the variety of research that is now present in

assessing various conditions including psychopathy. There is a growing body of research on

specific genes which may have a role in psychopathy as well as a growing body of research

on neurological determinants. This evidence seems to point out some important aspects of

psychopathy, including environmental and genetic triggers which may provide an explanation

for which psychopathy is not always linked to crime.

It has also been observed that only a few studies engage in theory connected to scientific

evidence that is both of a genetic and a neurological nature. This leads to authors focusing on

specific parts of this condition, in a reductionist approach on psychopathy, when it is actually

important when theorising and researching on whether or not psychopathy links to crime, and

under what conditions this occurs, to follow a holistic approach that encompasses a clear

definition of psychopathy. This would help to facilitate a connection between the existing

evidence surrounding psychopathy in a context unrelated to crime.

It has been noted that when the literature over psychopathy is brought together, important

findings emerge, such as the existence of a cognitive empathic function in some psychopaths,

serotonin management treatments, and clear distinctions in brain functionality and biology

between successful and unsuccessful psychopaths. These findings, set besides the fact that

successful psychopaths may be differentiated by unsuccessful psychopaths strictly by

environment causes, create significant social research questions. For example, it could signify

that managing children from abusive environments through a CFT approach may increase

their motivation to not engage in violent behaviour.

Finally, it can be concluded that by building upon the existing evidence on the dimensions of

psychopathy a new approach in research can be achieved, and clear connections will be

possible in determining why psychopathy does not always link to crime. The implications of

such research are vast, transcending criminology and entering the realm of sociology and

mental health.

7.1. Recommendations

Based upon the collected evidence, it is recommended that future research should engage in a

holistic approach on psychopathy.

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Secondly, it is recommended that future research will acknowledge the differences in the

PCL-R scale scores which may signal different forms of psychopathy and thus produce

different results.

Thirdly, it is recommended that researchers acknowledge the multidimensional spheres of

psychopathy in their research, and differentiate between them when conducting studies.

Fourthly, it is recommended for future research to take note of the fact that psychopathy does

not necessarily link to crime. Not all criminals commit crime because they are manipulative

or arrogant. Crimes such as rape, murder, paedophiles are not commit by psychopath.

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Appendix 1

Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004) MNS in Monkey Model

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Appendix 2

Fecteau et al. (2008) Video Image of visual Pain stimuli

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Appendix 3

Fallon (2006) SPECT scans of ATO Circuit (amygdalo-thalamic-orbital circuit)

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Appendix 4

Hare (2003)PCL-R (psychopathy checklist revised)

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Appendix 5

Gowlett (2014) Primary and Secondary Psychopathy

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Appendix 6

Schwartz Value Theory- reprinted in Parks and Guay (2009)

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Appendix 7

Reflective Report

To engage in a reflection process over the project conducted, Kolb’s experiential learning

cycle will be used. This cycle assumes that when learning from experience people recall their

observations and events they took part it, analyse the experience, and conceptualise it by

articulating the event and thus set into practice what they have learned (Johnston and

Nahmad-Williams, 2014).

When I first started this project I already had some knowledge over the debate that

psychopathy may not be linked to crime, particularly from the work of Fallon (2013) which

has been strongly mediatised. This made me question whether or not there are concrete

scientific evidences in regards to this phenomenon. I decided that a qualitative desk study

may answer my question.

I thus began my search in the theoretical field to determine when and how has psychopathy

been documented. I later on discovered that that this is a problematic approach for my

selected methodology. My critique tool demanded my research to be up-to-date. As I

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believed that theory was of high importance, I decided to include studies that were recent but

had a historical fundament to psychopathy.

In determining how I will conduct my research process, the books recommended were helpful

in part. Through them I have found additional books, such as the books on literature reviews

written by Aveyard (2014) and Aveyard et al (2011). The directions found in this book also

helped me select my critique tool.

However, when I reached the part in which I actually had to undertake the process of

critiquing the literature I found myself to be on an impasse. I did not specifically understand

what the methodological issues were, if any. Upon reading through several articles, and

beginning to better understand the limitations of the tools used as methods, I was able to

undertake the process of critiquing the literature.

The skills that I have gained through conducting this research will help me better analyse

future topics and obtain a complete understanding over a certain area of criminology

research, as well as to acknowledge the limitations of such research.

In terms of ethical concerns, the major issue I have faced in conducting the project is

maintaining objectivity while reporting and analysing the studies. Although I have followed

the inclusion/exclusion criteria established, I did not find much help in these when actually

analysing the literature. The critique tool was more helpful in this regard.

In some cases, particularly in the genetic studies, I found it difficult to rationalise the findings

in the absence of knowledge over the topic. Therefore, I also studied the terms involved in

this research, which has helped me to better understand what the authors found, how did they

find this and how it impacted on the current view of psychopathy.

Another issue I have encountered in interpreting data was deductive thinking and

subjectivity. At times, I felt that the research connected from different areas of investigation

over psychopathy, which to my best knowledge I have interpreted and noted in my literature

review.

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To address the issue of plagiarism, I studied the guide on Harvard referencing which enabled

me to properly reference the resources used within the text, as well as within the reference

list. This skill will also be helpful in other research projects or academic work.

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