crisis & emergency risk communication barbara reynolds, ph.d

Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication

Barbara Reynolds, Ph.D.

Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication

Barbara Reynolds, Ph.D.

Communicating in a crisis is different

Communicating in a crisis is different

In a serious crisis, all affected people . . .– Take in information differently– Process information differently– Act on information differently

In a catastrophic event: communication is different

Be first, be right, be credible

The Risk of Disasters Is Increasing

The Risk of Disasters Is Increasing

Increased terrorism Population density Aging U.S. population International travel speed Emerging diseases

What the public seeks from your communication

What the public seeks from your communication

5 public concerns. . .

1. Gain wanted facts

2. Empower decisionmaking

3. Involved as a participant, not spectator

4. Provide watchguard over resource allocation

5. Recover or preserve well-being and normalcy

Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication impacts

Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication impacts

5 organizational concerns -- you need to. . .

1. Execute response and recovery efforts

2. Decrease illness, injury, and deaths

3. Avoid misallocation of limited resources

4. Reduce rumors surrounding recovery

5. Avoid wasting resources

Crisis Communication LifecycleCrisis Communication Lifecycle

Precrisis

• Prepare• Foster alliances• Develop

consensus recommendations

• Test message • Evaluate plans

Initial

• Express empathy• Provide simple risk

explanations• Establish credibility• Recommend

actions• Commit to

stakeholders

Maintenance

• Further explain risk by population groups

• Provide more background

• Gain support for response

• Empower risk/benefit decisionmaking

• Capture feedback for analysis

Resolution

• Educate a primed public for future crises

• Examine problems• Gain support for

policy and resources• Promote your

organization’s role

Evaluation

• Capture lessons learned• Develop an event SWOT• Improve plan• Return to precrisis

planning

Precrisis PhasePrecrisis Phase

Prepare Foster alliances Develop consensus recommendations Test message Evaluate plans

Initial PhaseInitial Phase

Express empathy Provide simple risk explanations Establish credibility Recommend actions Commit to stakeholders

MaintenanceMaintenance

Further explain risk by population groups Provide more background Gain support for response Empower risk/benefit decisionmaking Capture feedback for analysis

ResolutionResolution

Educate “primed” public for future crises Examine problems Gain support for policy and resources Promote your organization’s role

5 communication failures that kill operational success

5 communication failures that kill operational success

1. Mixed messages from multiple experts

2. Information released late

3. Paternalistic attitudes

4. Not countering rumors and myths in real-time

5. Public power struggles and confusion

5 communication steps that boost operational success

5 communication steps that boost operational success

1. Execute a solid communication plan

2. Be the first source for information

3. Express empathy early

4. Show competence and expertise

5. Remain honest and open

Psychology of a Crisis

Psychology of a Crisis

What Do People Feel Inside When a Disaster Looms or Occurs?

What Do People Feel Inside When a Disaster Looms or Occurs?

Psychological barriers:1. Denial2. Fear, anxiety, confusion, dread3. Hopelessness or helplessness4. Seldom panic5. Vicarious rehearsal

What Is Vicarious Rehearsal?What Is Vicarious Rehearsal?

The communication age gives national audiences the experience of local crises.

These “armchair victims” mentally rehearse recommended courses of actions.

Recommendations are easier to reject the farther removed the audience is from real threat.

Individuals at risk—the cost?Individuals at risk—the cost?

Demands for unneeded treatment Dependence on special relationships (bribery) MUPS—Multiple Unexplained Physical

Symptoms Self-destructive behaviors Stigmatization

Community at risk—the cost?Community at risk—the cost?

Disorganized group behavior (unreasonable demands, stealing)

Rumors, hoaxes, fraud, stigmatization Trade/industry liabilities/losses Diplomacy Civil actions

Communicating in a Crisis Is DifferentCommunicating in a Crisis Is Different

Public must feel empowered – reduce fear and victimization

Mental preparation reduces anxiety Taking action reduces anxiety Uncertainty must be addressed

Decisionmaking in a Crisis Is DifferentDecisionmaking in a Crisis Is Different

People simplify Cling to current beliefs We remember what we see or previously

experience (first messages carry more weight) People limit intake of new information (3-7 bits)

How Do We Communicate About Risk in an Emergency?

How Do We Communicate About Risk in an Emergency?All risks are not accepted equally Voluntary vs. involuntary Controlled personally vs. controlled by others Familiar vs. exotic Natural vs. manmade Reversible vs. permanent Statistical vs. anecdotal Fairly vs. unfairly distributed Affecting adults vs. affecting children

Be Careful With Risk Comparisons

Be Careful With Risk Comparisons

Are they similarly accepted based on– high/low hazard (scientific/technical measure)– high/low outrage (emotional measure)

A. High hazard B. High outrage

C. Low hazard D. Low outrage

Risk Acceptance ExamplesRisk Acceptance Examples

Dying by falling coconut or dying by shark– Natural vs. manmade– Fairly vs. unfairly distributed– Familiar vs. exotic– Controlled by self vs. outside control of self

Risk Communication Principles for Emergencies


Don’t overreassure Considered controversial by some. A high estimate of harm modified downward is

much more acceptable to the public than a low estimate of harm modified upward.



When the news is good, state continued concern before stating reassuring updates

“Although we’re not out of the woods yet, we have seen a declining number of cases each day this week.”

“Although the fires could still be a threat, we have them 85% contained.”



Under promise and over deliver . . .

Instead of making promises about outcomes, express the uncertainty of the situation and a confident belief in the “process” to fix the problem and address public safety concerns.



Give people things to do - Anxiety is reduced by action and a restored sense of control

Symbolic behaviorsPreparatory behaviorsContingent “if, then” behaviors 3-part action plan- Must do X

- Should do Y- Can do Z



Allow people the right to feel fear

Don’t pretend they’re not afraid, and don’t tell them they shouldn’t be.

Acknowledge the fear, and give contextual information.

Messages and Audiences

Messages and Audiences

Judging the MessageJudging the Message

Speed counts – marker for preparedness Facts – consistency is vital Trusted source – can’t fake these

Public Information ReleasePublic Information Release

What to release When to release How to release Where to release Who to release Why release

Audience Relationship to Event

Audience Relationship to Event

Match Audiences and Concerns

Match Audiences and Concerns

Audiences Victims and their families Politicians First responders Trade and industry Community far outside

disaster Media

Concerns Opportunity to express

concern Personal safety Resources for response Loss of revenue/liability Speed of information flow Anticipatory guidance Family’s safety

5 Key Elements To Build Trust5 Key Elements To Build Trust

1. Expressed empathy

2. Competence

3. Honesty

4. Commitment

5. Accountability

Emergency InformationEmergency Information

Any information is empowering Benefit from substantive action steps Plain English Illustrations and color Source identification

What does the public want to know?

What does the public want to know?

Can you tell me more about the attack– “What caused it, why, what is the reason

behind it?”– “Will there be more attacks?”

How long is the emergency– “How long is the event going to last?”– “How long is this ‘radiation’ going to last?”

Accuracy of Information

__________

Speed of Release

Empathy+

Openness

CREDIBILITY

Successful Communication

=+

TRUST

Initial MessageInitial Message

Must Be short Be relevant Give positive action steps Be repeated

Initial MessageInitial Message

Must Not Use jargon Be judgmental Make promises that can’t be kept Include humor

Sources of Social PressureSources of Social Pressure

What will I gain? What will it cost me? What do those important to me want me to do? Can I actually carry it out?

The STARCC PrincipleThe STARCC Principle

Your public messages in a crisis must be:

Simple

Timely

Accurate

Relevant

Credible

Consistent

Crisis Communication

Plan

Crisis Communication

Plan

Elements of a Complete Crisis Communication Plan

Elements of a Complete Crisis Communication Plan

1. Signed endorsement from director2. Designated staff responsibilities3. Information verification and clearance/release procedures4. Agreements on information release authorities5. Media contact list 6. Procedures to coordinate with public health organization

response teams7. Designated spokespersons8. Emergency response team after-hours contact numbers9. Emergency response information partner contact numbers10. Partner agreements (like joining the local EOC’s JIC)11. Procedures/plans on how to get resources you’ll need12. Pre-identified vehicles of information dissemination

Nine Steps of Crisis ResponseNine Steps of Crisis Response

1

2

3 45

6

7

8

9

Crisis Occurs

Verify situation

Conduct notification

Conduct assessment

(activate crisis plan)

Organize assignments

Prepare information and obtain approvals

Release information to media, public, partners through arranged channels

Obtain feedback and conduct crisis evaluation

Conduct public education

Monitor events

Prepare Information and Obtain Approvals

Prepare Information and Obtain Approvals

Execute steps in communication plan Public information release for your agency:

– Top official– Top communicator– Top subject matter expert

Look once, check twice, release it and move on Delegate what you can, prioritize what you can’t

First 48 Hours - ToolsFirst 48 Hours - Tools

Critical first steps checklist Message template for news release Press availability at site template Public call tracking sheet Media call triage sheet Risk assessment for communication

Stakeholder/ Partner

Communication

Stakeholder/ Partner

Communication

Stakeholder/Partner Communication

Stakeholder/Partner Communication

Stakeholders have a special connection to you and your involvement in the emergency.

They are interested in how the incident will impact them.

Partners have a working relationship to you and collaborate in an official capacity on the emergency issue or other issues.

They are interested in fulfilling their role in the incident and staying informed.

5 Mistakes With Stakeholders5 Mistakes With Stakeholders

Inadequate access Lack of clarity No energy for response Too little, too late Perception of arrogance

Stakeholders can be . . .Stakeholders can be . . .

Advocate–maintain loyalty Adversary–discourage negative action Ambivalent–keep neutral or move to advocate

3 Reasons to expend energy on stakeholders during an emergency

3 Reasons to expend energy on stakeholders during an emergency

They may . . . Know what you need to know Have points of view outside your organization’s Communicate your message for you

5 steps in stakeholder preplanning

5 steps in stakeholder preplanning

1. Identify stakeholders

2. Do an assessment

3. Query stakeholders

4. Prioritize by relationship to incident

5. Determine level of “touch”

Community Relations! Why?Community Relations! Why?

Community acceptance through community involvement

Resource multiplier for volunteer “door to door” communication

Involving stakeholders is a way to advance trust through transparency

Our communities, our social capital, are a critical element of our nation's security

Dealing With Angry PeopleDealing With Angry People

Anger arises when people. . . Have been hurt Feel threatened by risks out of their control Are not respected Have their fundamental beliefs challenged

Sometimes, anger arises when . . . Media arrive Damages may be in play

High-Outrage Public Meetings


“Do’s” The best way to deal with criticism and outrage

by an audience is to acknowledge that it exists. (Don’t say, “I know how you feel.”)

Practice active listening and try to avoid interrupting.

State the problem and then the recommendation.



“Don’ts” Verbal abuse! Don’t blow your stack.

– Try to bring along a neutral third party who can step in and diffuse the situation.

Don’t look for one answer that fits all. Don’t promise what you can’t deliver.

Don’t lecture at the TownhallDon’t lecture at the Townhall

Easy but not effective Doesn’t change thoughts/behaviors Instead, ask questions Key: don’t give a solution, rather help audience

discover solution

4 Questions to help people persuade themselves

4 Questions to help people persuade themselves

1. Start with broad open-ended historical questions

2. Ask questions about wants and needs

3. Ask about specifics being faced now

4. Ask in a way to encourage a statement of benefits

2 simple tips to gain acceptance2 simple tips to gain acceptance

1. Accumulate “yeses”

2. Don’t say “yes, but”—say “yes, and”

Six Principles of CERCSix Principles of CERC

Be First: If the information is yours to provide by organizational authority—do so as soon as possible. If you can’t—then explain how you are working to get it.

Be Right: Give facts in increments. Tell people what you know when you know it, tell them what you don’t know, and tell them if you will know relevant information later.

Be Credible: Tell the truth. Do not withhold to avoid embarrassment or the possible “panic” that seldom happens. Uncertainty is worse than not knowing—rumors are more damaging than hard truths.

Six Principles of CERCSix Principles of CERC

Express Empathy: Acknowledge in words what people are feeling—it builds trust.

Promote Action: Give people things to do. It calms anxiety and helps restore order.

Show Respect: Treat people the way you want to be treated—the way you want your loved ones treated—always—even when hard decisions must be communicated.

Terrorism and Bioterrorism

Communication Challenges

Terrorism and Bioterrorism

Communication Challenges

What’s Different in a Terrorism Response?What’s Different in a

Terrorism Response? Stronger reaction from

the public Multiple events occur Incident location is a

crime scene

Detection is delayed Responders are at

higher risk Response assets are

targets

Terrorism and Risk Communication

Terrorism and Risk Communication

Outside control of individual or community Unfairly distributed From untrusted source Man-made Exotic Catastrophic

Federal Response Plan Federal Response Plan

FBI leads on information release in crisis management

FEMA leads on information release in consequence management

Transfer lead from the FBI to FEMA by Attorney General

Core federal response:DOJ/FBI DOE FEMADOD EPA HHS

Joint Information CenterJoint Information Center

FBI public information officer and staff FEMA public information officer and staff Other federal agencies’ PI staff State and local PIOs

Bioterrorism Is DifferentBioterrorism Is Different

Medical and public health systems are usually the first to detect bioterrorism.

A delay is likely between the release of the agent and the knowledge that the occurrence is a bioterrorist act.

A short window of opportunity exists between the first cases and the second wave.

Natural Emerging Infectious Disease or Bioterrorism?

Natural Emerging Infectious Disease or Bioterrorism?

Encephalitis Hemorrhagic mediastinitis Hemorrhagic fever Pneumonia with abnormal liver function Papulopustular rash (e.g., smallpox) Descending paralysis Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

Media Are Sure To Ask:Media Are Sure To Ask:

Is this bioterrorism? Could this be bioterrorism? Are you investigating this situation as possible

bioterrorism? Is the FBI involved in this investigation? When will you be able to tell us whether or not

this situation is bioterrorism?

Is It an Emerging Disease or Undeclared Bioterrorism?


A possible response to media from public health officials is:

“We’re all understandably concerned about the uncertainty surrounding this outbreak, and we wish we could easily answer that question today.”

(continued on next slide)



“For the sake of those who are ill or may become ill, our medical epidemiologists (professional disease detectives) are going to first try to answer the following critical questions: (1) Who is becoming ill? (2) What organism is causing the illness? (3) How should it be treated? (4) How can it be controlled to stop the spread?”




“One question that disease investigators routinely ask is, “Could this outbreak have been caused intentionally?”

“We [organization name] must keep an open mind as data in this investigation are collected and analyzed.”




“Any specific questions about the FBI’s involvement regarding this outbreak investigation should be referred to them. However, the FBI and [your organization] have a strong partnership regarding the investigation of unusual disease outbreaks and have worked comfortably together in the past in our parallel investigations.”

(Note: Don’t forget to coordinate this answer with the FBI.)

Strategic National Stockpile (SNS)

Strategic National Stockpile (SNS)

12-hour Push Pack – 100 cargo containers Air or ground ship 50 tons of medicine, medical supplies,

equipment Nerve agents, anthrax, plague, tularemia Treat thousands of symptomatic and protect

hundreds of thousands

Tale of Two Cities: SmallpoxTale of Two Cities: Smallpox

Milwaukee, Wisconsin, experienced a Smallpox outbreak in 1894 of fairly major proportions, and caused urban rioting for about a month in the city streets—why?

New York City experienced the last Smallpox outbreak in this country in 1947. People stayed in line for hours, full days, and came back the next day in some cases with no unrest—why?

– Judith W. Leavitt, PhD, University of Wisconsin

SNS Communication PlanSNS Communication Plan

Multi-language text Methods for reproducing materials Communication channels

- Volunteers- Contractors- On-site interpreters

Not all SNS events the same SNS communication assessment checklist

Working With the Media

Working With the Media

Disasters Are Media Events Disasters Are Media Events

We need the media to be there. Give important protective actions for the public. Know how to reach their audiences and what

their audiences need.

Response Officials ShouldResponse Officials Should

Understand that their job is not the media’s job Know that they can’t dismiss media when they’re

inconvenient Accept that the media will be involved in the

response, and plan accordingly

Response Officials ShouldResponse Officials Should

Attempt to provide all media equal access Use technology to fairly distribute information Plan to precredential media for access to

EOC/JOC or JIC Think consistent messages

Response Officials Should Not

Response Officials Should Not

Hold grudges Discount local media Tell the media what to do

How To Work With ReportersHow To Work With Reporters

Reporters want a front seat to the action and all information NOW.

Preparation will save relationships. If you don’t have the facts, tell them the process. Reality Check: 70,000 media outlets in U.S.

Media cover the news 24/7.

Media, Too, Are Affected by Crises

Media, Too, Are Affected by Crises

Verification Adversarial role National dominance Lack of scientific expertise

Media and Crisis CoverageMedia and Crisis Coverage

Evidence strongly suggests that coverage is more factual when reporters have more information. They become more interpretative when they have less information.

What should we conclude?

Command PostCommand Post

Media will expect a command post. Official channels that work well will discourage reliance on nonofficial channels.

Be media-friendly at the command post—prepare for them to be on site.

Media Beating on Your DoorMedia Beating on Your Door

Alternatives to “no comment” that give you breathing room:– “We’ve just learned about this and are trying

to get more information.”– “I’m not the authority on this, let me have

XXXX call you right back.”– “We’re preparing a statement on that now.

Can I fax it to you in about 2 hours?”

Media Availability or Press Conferences “In Person” Tips

Media Availability or Press Conferences “In Person” Tips Determine in advance who will answer questions

about specific subject matters Keep answers short and focused—nothing

longer than 2 minutes Assume that every mike is “alive” the entire time Sitting or standing?

Two press conference killersTwo press conference killers

Have “hangers on” from your organization circling the room

Being visible to the media/public while waiting to begin the press conference

Television Interview TipsTelevision Interview Tips

Don’t look at yourself on the TV monitor. Look at the reporter, not the camera, unless

directed otherwise. Do an earphone check. Ask what to do if it pops

out of your ear.

Writing for the Media During a Crisis

Writing for the Media During a Crisis

The pressure will be tremendous from all quarters.

It must be fast and accurate. It’s like cooking a turkey when people are

starving. If information isn’t finalized, explain the process.

Emergency Press ReleasesEmergency Press Releases

One page with attached factsheet (can clear quicker)

Think of them as press updates, and prime media when to expect them

Should answer 5Ws and H for the time it covers

Press Statements Are Not Press Releases

Press Statements Are Not Press Releases

They are the official position. May be used to counter a contrary view. Not used for peer-review debate. Offer encouragement to the public and

responders.

SpokespersonSpokesperson

What the Public Will Ask FirstWhat the Public Will Ask First

Are my family and I safe? What have you found that may affect me? What can I do to protect myself and my family? Who caused this? Can you fix it?

What the Media Will Ask FirstWhat the Media Will Ask First

What happened? Who is in charge? Has this been contained? Are victims being helped? What can we expect? What should we do? Why did this happen? Did you have forewarning?

Spokesperson QualitiesSpokesperson Qualities

What makes a good spokesperson?

What doesn’t make a good spokesperson?

Role of a Spokesperson in an Emergency

Role of a Spokesperson in an Emergency

Take your organization from an “it” to a “we” Build trust and credibility for the organization Remove the psychological barriers within the

audience Ultimately, reduce the incidence of illness, injury,

and death by getting it right


Be your organization; then be yourself. What’s your organization’s identity?


It’s more than “acting natural.” Every organization has an identity. Try to embody that identity.

Example: CDC has a history of going into harm’s way to help people. We humbly go where we are asked. We value our partners and won’t steal the show. Therefore, a spokesperson would express a desire to help, show courage, and express the value of partners. “Committed but not showy.”

Emergency Risk Communication Principles


Don’t overreassure Acknowledge that there is a process in place Express wishes Give people things to do Ask more of people



Consider the “what if” questions.

Spokesperson Recommendations

Spokesperson Recommendations

Stay within the scope of your responsibility Tell the truth Follow up on issues Expect criticism

Your Interview RightsYour Interview Rights

Know who will do the interview Know and limit the interview to agreed subjects Set limits on time and format Ask who else will be or has been interviewed Decline to be interviewed Decline to answer a question

You Do Not Have the Right To:You Do Not Have the Right To:

Embarrass or argue with a reporter Demand that your remarks not be edited Demand the opportunity to edit the piece Insist that an adversary not be interviewed Lie Demand that an answer you’ve given not be used State what you are about to say is “off the record”

or not attributable to you

Sensational or Unrelated Questions

Sensational or Unrelated Questions

“Bridges” back to what you want to say: “What I think you are really asking is . . .” “The overall issue is . . .” “What’s important to remember is . . .” “It’s our policy to not discuss [topic], but what I

can tell you . . .”

Watch Out For . . . Watch Out For . . .

Machine gun questioning. Reporter fires rapid questions at you. You respond, “Please let me answer this question.”

Feeding the mike and the pause. Seldom will dead air make scintillating viewing, unless you’re reacting nonverbally. Relax.

Hot mike. It’s always on—always—including during “testing.”

Watch Out For . . .Watch Out For . . .

Reporter asks a sensational question and gives you an A or B dilemma. Use positive words, correct the inaccuracies without repeating the negative, and reject A or B if neither is valid. (e.g., corn versus produce)

Explain, “There’s actually another alternative you may not have considered,” and give your message point.

Watch Out For . . .Watch Out For . . .

Surprise prop. The reporter attempts to hand you a report or supposedly contaminated item.

If you take it, you own it. React by saying, “I’m familiar with that report

and what I can say is” or “I’m not familiar with the report, but what is important” and then go to key message.

Effective Nonverbal Communication

Effective Nonverbal Communication

Do maintain eye contact Do maintain an open posture Do not retreat behind physical barriers such as

podiums or tables Do not frown or show anger or disbelief through

facial expression Do not dress in a way that emphasizes the

differences between you and your audience

Grief in contextGrief in context

Circumstances of the death Nature of the relationship Experienced loss before Any secondary losses

Communicating about lossCommunicating about loss

Ask clarifying questions When possible, use the words the person uses Say “you’re crying” instead of “you’re sad.” Short statements of condolences (e.g., “this is a

sad time,” or “you’re in my prayers”) Use “death” or “dying,” not softer euphemisms

like “expired,” or “heavenly reward”

Media and Public Health Law

Media and Public Health Law

Model Emergency Health Powers ActModel Emergency Health Powers Act

Model public health law for states Protection of civil liberties balanced with need to

stop transmission of disease Explain what law covers and why Laws address: quarantine, vaccination, property

issues, access to medical records Model law draft – court order to quarantine

someone, unless delay could pose an immediate threat

Protecting the Public from Infectious Diseases

Protecting the Public from Infectious Diseases

Detention – temporary hold Isolation – separation from others for period of

communicability Quarantine – restricts activities of well persons

exposed

First AmendmentFirst Amendment

“In the First Amendment the founding fathers gave the free press protection it must have to fulfill its essential role in our democracy. The

press was to serve the governed, not the governors.”

– New York Times Co. v U.S., 403 U.S. 713 (1971)

Media’s right to acquire newsMedia’s right to acquire news

Press has right to acquire news from any source by any lawful means

No Constitutional right to special access Information not available to the public:

– Crime scene– Disasters– Police station– Hospital lab– Other places

Access may be restrictedAccess may be restricted

Interference with legitimate law enforcement action

Law enforcement perimeter Crime scene Disaster scene

Right to acquire informationRight to acquire information

Available or open to the public Place or process historically open to the public:

– Hospitals?– Jails?– Courtrooms?– Meeting/conference rooms?

Media’s right of publicationMedia’s right of publication

Once information is acquired Ability to restrict information;

– Severely limited– Heavy burden to prevent or prohibit

– Minneapolis Star Tribune v. U.S., 713 F Supp. 1308 (S. Minn, 1988)

Assisting the mediaAssisting the media

Inviting media on search or arrest in private citizen’s home is not protected by 1st Amendment and may result in civil liability– Violation of 4th Amendment Rights

Employees access to mediaEmployees access to media

Freedom of speech may be Constitutionally protected: if public value outweighs detrimental impact

May be required to follow chain of command Ability to choose spokesperson:

– Police officer has no 1st Amendment right to speak or act on behalf of department when not authorized to do so.

– Koch v. City of Portland, 766 P.2d 405 (Ore. App. 1988)

CDC’s principles of communication for public

CDC’s principles of communication for public

Communication will be open, honest, and based on sound science, conveying accurate information

Information will not be withheld solely to protect CDC or the government from criticism or embarrassment

Information will be released consistent with the Freedom of Information Act

Freedom of Information ActFreedom of Information Act

FOIA does not apply to state and local governments (most jurisdictions have a FOIA-like laws)

Principle of democracy is that citizens be informed about their government.

FOIA ensures that the federal government provides public maximum possible information

crisis & emergency risk communication barbara reynolds, ph.d

Documents

analysis slide

stakeholders slide

normalcy slide

open slide

credible slide

precrisis planning slide

organizations role slide

vicarious rehearsal