crystals, metals and addition polymers. crystals crystals are formed by ions, atoms or molecules...
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Crystals, Metals and Addition Polymers
CrystalsCrystals are formed by ions, atoms or
molecules arranged in a regular geometric arrangement called a lattice.
Diamond Lattace
William and Lawrence Bragg
William and Lawrence Bragg used x-ray crystallography to determine the arrangement of particles within crystals.
The arrangement of particles inside a crystal is often referred to as the crystal lattice.
The unit cell is a structure that repeats throughout the unit lattice.
Dorothy HodgkinDorothy Hodgkin worked out the
structure of Vitamin B12 using x-ray crystallography and a computer.
Hodgkin determined the three-dimensional structures of the following biomolecules:
cholesterol in 1937
penicillin in 1945
vitamin B12 in 1954
insulin in 1969
AmorphousA solid that does not have a crystal structure
is said to be Amorphous.
Wax and Paraffin are amorphous
AllotropesAllotropes are different physical forms of the
same element. Carbon has 3 different allotropes, Diamond Graphite and Buckminsterfullerene.
Diamond Graphite Buckminsterfullerene
Types of Crystals
Crystals are classified into 4 types according to the type of particle that makes up the crystal.
1. Ionic Crystals2. Molecular crystals3. Covalent macromolecular crystal4. Metallic Crystals
Ionic Crystals Ionic crystals are hard and brittle solids.
They possess high melting points.
They are poor conductors of electricity, but their ability to conduct increases drastically in melt.
Most ionic crystals dissolve in water since there is an attraction between the positive and negative ions and the polar water molecules
Molecular CrystalsMolecular crystals consist of such substances as
N2, CCI4, I2 and benzene.
Molecular crystals are very soft solids that possess low melting points.
They are poor conductors of electricity. Generally, the molecules are packed together as
closely as their size and shape will allow. The attractive forces are mainly van der Waals interactions
Covalent Macromolecular CrystalsCovalent crystals are hard solids that posess very
high melting points. They are poor conductors of electricity. In covalent crystals, atoms are held together by
covalent bonds.Well-known examples are two allotropic forms of
carbon, diamond and graphite
BuckminsterfullereneThe other allotrope of carbon
is buckminsterfullerene, named after the architect and inventor Richard Buckminster Fuller who created the geodesic domes
Discovered in 1985Has 60 carbon atons and
was nicknamed the “bucky ball”
Metallic CrystalsIndividual metal atoms sit on lattice sites
while the outer electrons from these atoms are able to flow freely around the lattice.
Metallic crystals normally have high melting points and densities.
Conduct ElectricityMalleable and Ductile
Type Structural Unit
Bonding Properties Examples
Ionic Positive and Negative ions
Electrostatic Hard BrittleHigh mp.Conduct when solid or molten
NaClMgONaN03
Non PolarMolecules
Non PolarMolecules
Weak Van der Waals
Soft Low mpNon-conductors
I2
CO2
Polar Molecules Polar Molecules Dipole –DipoleOr Hydrogen
Soft Low mpPoor conductors
H2ONH3
Covalent macromolecular
Atoms Covalent bonds Very hardHigh mpNon-conductors
DiamondSiO2
Metallic Metallic ions Metallic High mpGood Conductors
CuFeNa
Summary of Crystals
PolymersAddition PolymersAn Addition Polymer is made by addition
reactions between very many monomers (with double bonds) to form long molecules.
Monomers are small molecules with double bonds that join together in large numbers by addition reactions to make large molecules.
Examples of addition polymers include: Poly(ethene) Low density(LDPE) and high
density(HDPE) Poly(chloroethene) Poly(phenylethene) Poly(tetrafluorethene) Poly(propylene)
POLYMERISATION OF ALKENESPOLYMERISATION OF ALKENES
ETHENE
EXAMPLES OF ADDITION POLYMERISATION
PROPENE
TETRAFLUOROETHENE
CHLOROETHENE
POLY(ETHENE)
POLY(PROPENE)
POLY(CHLOROETHENE)
POLYVINYLCHLORIDE PVC
POLY(TETRAFLUOROETHENE)
PTFE “Teflon”
POLYMERISATION OF ALKENESPOLYMERISATION OF ALKENES
Process • during polymerisation, an alkene undergoes an addition reaction with itself
• all the atoms in the original alkenes are used to form the polymer
• long hydrocarbon chains are formed
ADDITION POLYMERISATION
the equation shows the original monomer and the repeating unit in the polymer
ethene poly(ethene)
MONOMER POLYMER
n represents a large number
Polyethene
Polyethene can be made in two ways, with branches (low density) and in straight chains (high density). Fawcett and Gibson discovered it in 1933.LDPE consists of branched chains that do not pack closely together. Thus they are soft and flexible and used in bags and cling-film.HDPE is produced when ionic catalysts, called Ziegler-Natta catalysts are used at low pressure. The polyethene formed has no branching along the polymer chain. This allows the chains to be packed neatly as in a crystal. Compared with LDPE, HDPE is hard and less flexible and has a higher melting point. It is suitable for making bowls, buckets and baskets.
Poly(chloroethane) (Polyvinyl Chloride PVC)Rigid plastic used to make window frames,
gutters etc. (uPVC)
The addition of plasticisers can turn PVC into a softer and more flexible product (pPVC). Used for raincoats, floor tiles, cable insulation.
Polypropene (polypropylene)Polypropene has a similar structure to that of polyethene
except that methyl groups are attached to every second carbon atom (head to head and head to tail polymerisation is possible).
The presence of the methyl groups means that the groups of atoms arrange themselves in a kind of helical screw pattern along the length of the chain to cause the minimum interference with each other. This regular pattern means that polypropene is less flexible than polyethene and this also causes the polypropene to be harder and slightly stronger than polyethene. Polypropene is used in the manufacture of buckets, bowls, toys, laboratory sinks, etc.
Polyphenylethene (polystyrene)Polyphenylethene is similar in structure to polyethene
and polypropene except that phenyl groups are attached to every second carbon atom in the carbon chain.
There are two types Rigid polystyrene is used to manufacture items like
yoghurt pots, food containers, disposable drinking cups, flower pots, etc.
Expanded polystyrene is used in insulating houses, ceiling tiles, egg boxes, packing for computers, etc.
Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)Teflon is the trade name of the chemical polytetrafluoroethene discovered by Roy Plunkett of the Du Pont company in the USA. It is used in non-stick frying pans, space suits, artificial heart valves, etc. It was discovered in 1938.
He found that this greasy white solid had remarkable properties: it was extremely inert and was not affected by strong acids, bases or heat. He tried to dissolve it in various solvents and failed. A really unusual property of it was that it was very slippery. (It is listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as having the ‘lowest coefficient of static and] dynamic friction of any solid’.)
Recycling of PlasticsThe world’s production and use of plastic material has
increased from less than 5 million tonnes in the 1950s to about 80 million tonnes today. Annual consumption of plastics in Western Europe is 28 million tonnes. In total, Western Europe produces some 11.5 million tonnes of plastics waste each year. An average European family of 4 throws away around 40 kg of plastics each year. There are a number of reasons why it is necessary to recycle plastics.
(i) Plastic recycling saves natural resources. (ii) Plastic recycling makes economic sense. (iii) Recycling of plastics cuts waste disposal costs. (iv) Plastic recycling reduces litter. (v) Plastics recycling creates employment.
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
Not all plastics can be recycled
Thermoplastics or Thermosoftening plastics can be softened and remolded a number of times.
Thermosetting plastics cannot be remoulded-Bakelite
Recycling of polystyreneRecycling of polystyrene contains five stages.
1.Sorting-polystyrene separated from other plastics.2.Shedding-granulator3.Washing4.Drying-excess water removed.5.Re-extrusion-melting followed by remoulding.