THEME II

Authority and Governance

What you will learn in this Theme

How Effectively is China Governed?

– Concept of authority: “Mandate of Heaven”– Political transformation under Mao Zedong– Deng and pot-Deng era reforms– Role of political institutions e.g. CCP, State bureaucracy, PLA etc.

What are the challenges of governing China?– Political reforms– Central-regional relations– Cross-strait relations

Overview1.Concept of authority and

political legitimacy

2.2.Overview of Chinese Overview of Chinese Governance in Mao EraGovernance in Mao Era

3.Assessing Deng Xiaoping’s Rule

1. Concept of authority and political legitimacy

“Mandate of Heaven” (Tian Ming)

– Traditional imperial concept of legitimacy

– As opposed to most of our present concept of legitimacy which is….

– Used to legitimatize the conquest and usurpation of SHANG ( 商 ) emperorship by ZHOU ( 周 )

– Based on Chinese cosmology and Daoist concept of Yin/Yang…Worlds of Man and nature united as one

– … disasters and the dynasty’s incapability in alleviating suffering = losing of Mandate of Heaven to rule

― “Tian” was primarily interested in the welfare of human beings

― “Tian” established governors and rulers to assume the responsibility for the welfare of their people

― The rulers therefore must rule justly, fairly, and wisely

– Losing one’s ‘Mandate of Heaven’ justified revolts

– Concept enshrined in the dynastic era by the literati

– Conferred positive or negative status upon the ruling dynasty

– “Mandate of Heaven” concept is employed by the literati to assess the dynasty

– Dynastic China dependent on the gentry to rule and not a bureaucracy

Three core features of Confucianism as political ideology

– It was a strongly conservative governing ideology It aimed at preserving order and looked not to the future but to the past

to identify the ideal society– It valued hierarchy in both political and social spheres

Political sphere: those who worked with their minds were fit to rule, and those who worked with their hands were not ( 劳心者治人，劳力者治于人 – 孟子 )

Social sphere: social harmony lay in every person’s understanding the mutual obligations

– People should understand the “correct” conduct demanded by each type of relationship and should act accordingly

The emperor, as the key link between heaven and earth, secured prosperity for his country through right conduct toward his subjects

2. Overview of Chinese 2. Overview of Chinese Governance in Mao EraGovernance in Mao Era

The Governing Apparatus The Governing Apparatus The Governance of Mao EraThe Governance of Mao Era

– From Communist Victory to Social Transformation: From Communist Victory to Social Transformation: 1949-19561949-1956

– From Success to Crisis: 1957-1965From Success to Crisis: 1957-1965Anti-rightist campaignAnti-rightist campaignGreat Leap ForwardGreat Leap Forward Increasing Tension in Governing SystemIncreasing Tension in Governing System

– The Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution Summary: The Maoist System of Governance Summary: The Maoist System of Governance

The governing apparatus The governing apparatus The components of governing The components of governing

apparatus apparatus – The Chinese Communist PartyThe Chinese Communist Party– The GovernmentThe Government– The People’s Liberation ArmyThe People’s Liberation Army

The goals of the governing apparatusThe goals of the governing apparatus– To be centralized enough to give the top To be centralized enough to give the top

leaders in Beijing leverage to determine leaders in Beijing leverage to determine the national domestic agenda;the national domestic agenda;

– To promote and manage rapid industrial To promote and manage rapid industrial development, in part by obtaining development, in part by obtaining resources from the rural sector;resources from the rural sector;

– To bring about guided social changeTo bring about guided social change

From Victory to Social From Victory to Social Transformation: 1949 – 1956Transformation: 1949 – 1956

The settingThe setting– Chinese people were eager for strong Chinese people were eager for strong

government, national unity, and real government, national unity, and real independenceindependence

– Chinese economy was in a shambles Chinese economy was in a shambles

Part II: Mao Era

Gaining momentumGaining momentum– To cement the relationship with Soviet To cement the relationship with Soviet

UnionUnion– To establish a governing apparatus to To establish a governing apparatus to

rulerule– To restore the Urban economyTo restore the Urban economy

Brought down inflationBrought down inflationCreated pro-business climate to promote Created pro-business climate to promote

businessbusinessPrivate first sold to state or jointly owned by Private first sold to state or jointly owned by

state and private ownersstate and private owners

– To consolidate control over the To consolidate control over the countryside while paying off a historical countryside while paying off a historical debt to the peasantry by a nationwide debt to the peasantry by a nationwide land reformland reformKilled landlords as a social classKilled landlords as a social classEnhanced the CCP’s own access to the Enhanced the CCP’s own access to the

villagesvillages

From Victory to Social From Victory to Social Transformation: 1949 – 1956Transformation: 1949 – 1956

Political initiativesPolitical initiatives and mass campaigns and mass campaigns – Suppression of Counterrevolutionaries Suppression of Counterrevolutionaries (( 镇镇压反革命压反革命 )) campaign in early 1951 campaign in early 1951

– Three Anti Five Anti (Three Anti Five Anti ( 三反五反三反五反 ) campaign ) campaign between winters of 1951 and 1952between winters of 1951 and 1952

Three Anti (against waste, corruption, and bureaucratism) Three Anti (against waste, corruption, and bureaucratism) against the CCP urban cadresagainst the CCP urban cadres

Five Anti (against corruption, tax evasion, stealing state Five Anti (against corruption, tax evasion, stealing state property, cheating on state contracts, and stealing state property, cheating on state contracts, and stealing state economic secrets) against urban businesseconomic secrets) against urban business

– A fundamental turning point in CCP’s relationship with urban populaceA fundamental turning point in CCP’s relationship with urban populace

– Thought Reform of Intellectual Thought Reform of Intellectual Campaign between Sep. 1951 and Campaign between Sep. 1951 and May 1952May 1952Mobilized college students to criticize Mobilized college students to criticize

teachers and changed university curriculumteachers and changed university curriculum

– Socialist Transformation of the Socialist Transformation of the EconomyEconomy

From Success to Crisis: 1956-From Success to Crisis: 1956-19651965

The four tensions within the The four tensions within the governing systemgoverning system– The role of Mao in the systemThe role of Mao in the system– The social and political results of Soviet-The social and political results of Soviet-

style economic developmentstyle economic development– The lack of new technique to mobilize The lack of new technique to mobilize

domestic capital formationdomestic capital formation– The tension between peasant cadres The tension between peasant cadres

and urban intelligentsia and urban intelligentsia

The triggers The triggers – Khrushchev’s attack on Stalin in 1956Khrushchev’s attack on Stalin in 1956– Mao Zedong thought was dropped from Mao Zedong thought was dropped from

CCP constitution in 1956CCP constitution in 1956

The Anti-rightist Campaign in 1957The Anti-rightist Campaign in 1957– Mao unleashed intellectuals to criticize CCP Mao unleashed intellectuals to criticize CCP

(Hundred Flowers movement) , resulted in (Hundred Flowers movement) , resulted in tensionstensions

– Mao decided to resolve this struggle Mao decided to resolve this struggle through dictatorial forcethrough dictatorial force

– The results of Anti-rightist CampaignThe results of Anti-rightist CampaignNo more objections to the radical shift of No more objections to the radical shift of

political and economic policiespolitical and economic policiesLoss of skills of intellectuals to implement the Loss of skills of intellectuals to implement the

Soviet-type, highly centralized development Soviet-type, highly centralized development modelmodel

Increased decentralization and party Increased decentralization and party involvement with the economyinvolvement with the economy

The Great Leap ForwardThe Great Leap Forward The settingThe setting

– The purge of intellectuals and the surge The purge of intellectuals and the surge of less-educated radicalsof less-educated radicals

– The need to find new ways to generate The need to find new ways to generate domestic capitaldomestic capital

– The rising enthusiasm about the The rising enthusiasm about the potential results mass mobilization potential results mass mobilization might producemight produce

– The reaction against the Soviet The reaction against the Soviet development strategydevelopment strategy

The fundamentals behind Great Leap The fundamentals behind Great Leap ForwardForward– The The fundamental ideafundamental idea was that China could leap over was that China could leap over

the normal stages of economic development through the the normal stages of economic development through the expenditure of extraordinary effort by the entire society expenditure of extraordinary effort by the entire society for a concentrated period of several yearsfor a concentrated period of several years

– The The fundamental strategyfundamental strategy was to mobilize the was to mobilize the peasants to provide themselves and provide the urban peasants to provide themselves and provide the urban economyeconomy

– The The fundamental emphasesfundamental emphases were egalitarianism, were egalitarianism, experimentation, ideological fervor, mass mobilization, experimentation, ideological fervor, mass mobilization, and application of organization and will to the and application of organization and will to the accomplishment of technically “impossible” goalsaccomplishment of technically “impossible” goals

The Lushan Clash The Lushan Clash The Lushan Conference in Summer The Lushan Conference in Summer

19591959– Marshall Peng Dehuai criticizes the Marshall Peng Dehuai criticizes the

excesses of the Great Leap Forward and excesses of the Great Leap Forward and was purgedwas purged

The fatal resultsThe fatal results– Changed the rule of policy debate Changed the rule of policy debate

among leadersamong leaders

– Lin Biao replaced Peng Dehuai and tried to position Lin Biao replaced Peng Dehuai and tried to position himself to succeed Mao, which contributed tensions and himself to succeed Mao, which contributed tensions and infighting among top leadershipinfighting among top leadership

– Radicalism surged anew in late 1959 and 1960Radicalism surged anew in late 1959 and 1960– The national tragedy The national tragedy

Double blow of Agricultural collapse and loss of Soviet aidDouble blow of Agricultural collapse and loss of Soviet aid Fundamental faith in ideology, organization, and the Fundamental faith in ideology, organization, and the

massesmasses The incentives for falsifying information from the grass The incentives for falsifying information from the grass

rootsroots The flaws in the governing systemThe flaws in the governing system

– Boundless political power of MaoBoundless political power of Mao– Inherent dynamicsInherent dynamics

The Increasing TensionThe Increasing Tension Emergency measures after Great Emergency measures after Great

Leap ForwardLeap Forward– In the urbanIn the urban

Rationing of food and consumer goods; freeze people into Rationing of food and consumer goods; freeze people into work units; strict residence registrationwork units; strict residence registration

– In the countrysideIn the countryside Breakage of Communes into small unitsBreakage of Communes into small units

The economic recoveryThe economic recovery

Mao’s resurgence in 1962Mao’s resurgence in 1962– Mao feared the economic rehabilitation Mao feared the economic rehabilitation

policies would steer China away from policies would steer China away from revolutionrevolution

– Mao advocated ideological commitment Mao advocated ideological commitment and promoted egalitarianism and class and promoted egalitarianism and class strugglestruggle

– Mao increasingly relied on the People’s Mao increasingly relied on the People’s Liberation Army, headed by Lin Biao, to Liberation Army, headed by Lin Biao, to achieve political goalsachieve political goals

The Cultural Revolution: 1966-The Cultural Revolution: 1966-1976 1976

Mao’s goals in Cultural RevolutionMao’s goals in Cultural Revolution– To change the succession of leadershipTo change the succession of leadership– To discipline the huge governing To discipline the huge governing

bureaucraciesbureaucracies– To expose China’s youth to a To expose China’s youth to a

revolutionary experiencerevolutionary experience– To make changes in various policy areasTo make changes in various policy areas

The Red Guard phase: 1966-1969The Red Guard phase: 1966-1969

Setting the succession: 1969-Setting the succession: 1969-19761976– The PLA took over the administration of The PLA took over the administration of

ChinaChina– Lin Biao’s attempt to secure power base Lin Biao’s attempt to secure power base

was undermined by Mao and Zhou Enlaiwas undermined by Mao and Zhou Enlai– The seesaw battles between the The seesaw battles between the

“moderates” headed by Zhou Enlai and “moderates” headed by Zhou Enlai and the “radicals” headed by Jiang Qingthe “radicals” headed by Jiang Qing

Summary: The Maoist SystemSummary: The Maoist System Mao copied a governing system with Mao copied a governing system with

state or collective ownership of state or collective ownership of means of production and a Leninist-means of production and a Leninist-type political structure that type political structure that suppressed any truly autonomous suppressed any truly autonomous social or economic organization social or economic organization

Mao remained himself boundlessly Mao remained himself boundlessly powerful in the governing system powerful in the governing system which is the greatest weakness of which is the greatest weakness of the Maoist systemthe Maoist system

Mao combined his control over the prevailing ideology with Mao combined his control over the prevailing ideology with great tactical political skill, ruthlessness in dealing with great tactical political skill, ruthlessness in dealing with enemies and his powerenemies and his power

Mao relied on keeping people divided and off balance and Mao relied on keeping people divided and off balance and ultimately dependent on him to provide the right way to ultimately dependent on him to provide the right way to escape from the country’s predicamentsescape from the country’s predicaments

Maoist system tried to isolate social groups for limiting Maoist system tried to isolate social groups for limiting potential challenges from belowpotential challenges from below

Mao’s strong belief in the inherent value of struggle led to Mao’s strong belief in the inherent value of struggle led to policies that subjected the citizenry to extraordinary levels policies that subjected the citizenry to extraordinary levels of violenceof violence

Mao made radical changes from 1949 to 1976 in its Mao made radical changes from 1949 to 1976 in its strategies every five to ten years, a pattern of lurching from strategies every five to ten years, a pattern of lurching from politically induced crisis to crisispolitically induced crisis to crisis

3 Assessing Deng’s rule3 Assessing Deng’s rule

Hua Guofeng Mao’s successor

Succeeded Hua