cultural practices of spices.docx

7/27/2019 cultural practices of spices.docx

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BLACK PEPPER PRODUCTION GUIDE

CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT

Land Preparation

For backyard planting, select a well-drained area and divide into equalareas of 2 x 2 square meter lots. At each corner of each lot, dig holes 60cm sq about 40 cm deep. Put kawayan post measuring 4 cm in diameterand 2 meters long at the center of the hole. Mix 1 part of Organic Fertilizerwith 1 part of top soil.

Planting

Carefully remove the plant from its container and set it in the hole. Fill theextra spaces with the Pure Organic Fertilizer and top soil mixture.Transplant black pepper seedlings at the start of the rainy season.

IntercroppingShort-lived cash crops can be used as intercrop to control weed, improvesoil fertility levels, and add to profit. Plant snapbeans, ginger, and hot andsweet pepper approximately 1 meter away from the black pepper rows.

Weed Contro l

Hand pull the weeds especially when the plant is still small and the weedsare too close to the plant.

Irr igationWater the seedlings frequently especially during the first two dry seasons tohelp develop the root system. For mature seedlings, water frequently


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especially when flowering or fruiting. Irrigation can be complemented withmulching, good vegetation, or by shallow cultivation.

Mulch ing

Place 4 to 6 inch mulching using rice hull or dried grass at a distance of 6inches from the trunk spreading towards the edge of the crown. This willhelp in restricting weed growth, maintaining relatively low temperature, andin keeping the soil moist even during the dry season.

Fert i l izat ionFertilization can be done at any time regardless of the season. Werecommend re-fertilization every 2 to 3 months using LAS-1 Activated PureOrganic Fertilizer. Make sure that the fertilizer is well distributed on theblack pepper hill.

Pruning

Pruning is done when the seedling reaches 2 to 3 feet high. This is done toinduce more branching, remove unwanted branches, and to removecrowded laterals.

HARVESTING AND HANDLING

Black pepper seedlings when properly maintained can bear fruit as early as5 to 6 months. The whole spike is ready for picking when the pepper-corn

in a spike turns cherry-red, when pepper-corn changes in color from darkgreen to yellowish-green, and the cotyledon exhibit a brownish color whenpinched. Harvesting is done during the sunny season. An open basket orsack is tied to the waist of the harvester and is used as the container. Onehand twists the spike while the other hand holds the peduncle.

DRYING

Black peppercorn. Black pepper is dried under the sun. Peppercorn isplaced on mat and spike is removed. Peppercorn is then winnowed,

cleaned and stored in sacks.

White peppercorn. Ripe berries are removed from spikes, placed in bagsand soaked in running water 1 to 2 weeks in order to soften skin. Skin isremoved manually or by treading on berries with the feet. Wash and dryimmediately


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GINGERGinger (Zingiber Off ic inale) is an herbaceous perennial, the

rhizome of which is used as spice. At present ginger is cultivated in these

Islands in 390 ha. of area with a total production of 1224.60 MT. Ginger has

a distinct flavour and pungency. The productivity of ginger can be

increased in the coming years which can in turn add in the economy of the

farmers, if they practice their cultivation scientifically.

CLIMATE AND SOIL

Ginger grows well in warm and humid climate. Moderate rainfall

at sowing time, till the rhizomes sprout, fairly heavy and well distributed

showers during the growing period and dry weather about one month

before harvesting are optimum requirements for its successful cultivation.

Early planting helps in better growth and development of rhizomes and

higher yields.

A rich soil with good drainage and aeration is ideal for its cultivation. Itgrows well in sandy loam or clay loam soils. Drainage is absolutely

necessary for the prevention of disease incidence. Ginger should not be

grown in the same site year after year.


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PROPAGATION

Ginger is always propagated by portions of rhizomes known as

seed rhizomes. Seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of 2.5 5 cm

length weighing 20-25 gm each having one or two good buds. The seedrate varies from 1500-1800 kg per ha. The seed Rhizomes are treated

with Dithane M-45 (3 gm per lit of water) for 30 minutes, shade dried for 3-4

hours and planted to control fungal diseases. The seed rhizome bits are

placed in shallow pits prepared with a hand hoe and covered with well

rotten farm yard manure and a thin layer soil and leveled.

PLANTING

The land should be ploughed 4-5 times to bring the soil into fine

tilth. Beds of 1 m width, 15 cm height and 3 m length or of any convenient

length are prepared at 40 cm spacing. About 2000 beds of 3 m x 1 m size

are prepared in 1 ha. land. Being irrigated crop ridges are formed 40 cm

apart. The optimum spacing is 30 cm x 30 cm under bed system of

planting. A bed of 3 m x 1 m can accommodate 40 plants.

MANURING AND FERTILIZATION

A basal dose of 25-30 tonnes of FYM alongwith inorganic

fertiliser in the ratio75:50:50 kg/ha. i.e. 160 kg urea, 270 kg rock phosphate

and, 80 kg murate of potash is recommended for a hectare of land. Whole

of rock phosphate and half of murate of potash may be applied at the time

of planting. Half of the urea is applied 40 days after planting and the

remaining urea and Murate of potash a month after that. Application of

neem cake (2 tonnes/ha.) as basal dressing helps in reducing the incidence

of soft rot of ginger and increases the yield.

WEEDING AND MULCHING


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Mulching enhances germination, increases organic matter,

conserves soil moisture and prevents washing of soil due to heavy rains.

Two weedings are generally given to the crop. The first weeding is done

just before the second mulching and repeated after 15 days depending on

the intensity of weed growth. The first mulching is done at the time ofplanting with 12.5 tonnes of green leaves per ha. and second after 40 days

with 5 tonnes of green leaves per ha.

ROTATION & INTERCROPPING

The crops most commonly rotated with ginger are tapioca, chilli,

groundnut and maize. Ginger is also grown with maize as a mixed crop and

as an inter crop in coconut and arecanut gardens.

HARVESTING & POST HARVEST MANAGEMENTIt is ready for harvesting in about 8 months, when the leaves

turn yellow and start drying. The average yield is 15-30 tonnes/ha.If the

crop is for vegetable ginger, it is harvested from sixth month. Rhizomes are

washed thoroughly in water 2 or 3 times to remove the soil and dirt and sun

dried for a day.For dry ginger, the produce is harvested after eight month

and soaked in water for 6-7 hours. The rhizomes are then rubbed well to

clean the extraneous matter. After cleaning, the rhizomes are removed

from water and the outer skin is removed with bamboo splinter having

pointed ends. Only the outer skin is to be peeled as the essential oil of

ginger remains near the skin, and dried in the sun for a week. The yield of

dry ginger is 19-25% of the green ginger.

PEST & DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Burrowing nematode can be controlled by applying FYM or

compost (25 tonnes/ha) or neem cake (2 tonnes/ha) at planting.Shoot borer

can be controlled by spraying with the solution of malathion 50 EC (2 ml/lit.


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of water) during July-Oct at 2 days intervals (4-5 sprays).For control of

rhizome scale insect soak the seed rhizome in solution of quinalphos 25

EC (4 ml/lit of water) prior to storage and sowing.For control of rhizome rot

treat the seed with aqueous suspension of Dithane M-45 75 WP (3 gm/lit of

water) for 30 minutes and air dry before planting. Applying neem cake @ 2tonnes/ha is also effective.For control of bacterial wilt provide good

drainage. After removing infected clumps drench with copper oxychloride

50 WP (4 gm/lit of water) around the affected clump. For control of leaf spot

spraying with Dithane M-45 75 WP @ 3 gm/per lit. of water is advisable.

Garlic ProductionGarlic is a crop that is well suited to a small acreage or aspart of a larger direct marketing operation looking to

diversify its mix of crops. It is well adapted for production in

all parts of the United States. Yield and quality will vary withclimate, region, altitude, soil and pH, cultural practices, and

the variety of garlic.

Growing Garlic

The term "biological elasticity" describes garlic's ability to acclimate to these factors

over time. No one practice is best suited for every situation. You will want to talk
http://extension.psu.edu/business/ag-alternatives/fruit-vegetables/garlic-production/leadImage_galleryzoom


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with local growers who have experience growing garlic and experiment with

different cultural practices and varieties to discover the best combination for your

operation.

Garlic (Allium sativum) is a member of the lily family. Garlic has been cultivated forthousands of years and is widely used for both its culinary and medicinal attributes.

Although it is not certain when garlic was first discovered, it was probably dispersed

by nomadic humans several thousand years ago. As early as the 8th century B.C.

garlic was growing in Babylon and Chinese scholars mentioned garlic as early as

3000 B.C.

Garlic consumption has quadrupled in the United States since 1980 and now stands

at about 2 pounds per capita. Around 32,000-35,000 acres of garlic are planted

annually in the United States with total production exceeding 500 million pounds.

U.S. production is concentrated in California, with smaller acreages in Oregon,

Nevada, Washington, and New York. Only about one-quarter of U.S. garlic

production is sold in the fresh market; most is dehydrated. The average price of

garlic has been around $25-$30 per cwt., but wholesale fresh-market prices have

been consistently 3-4 times higher. The United States also imports considerable

quantities of garlic, primarily from China, Mexico, Argentina, and Spain.

MarketingGarlic can be sold by the pound, by the braid or rope, and at farmers markets by

the individual bulb or by a bundle of freshly dug bulbs. Retail garlic prices vary

considerably. Supermarkets generally sell garlic at around $2.00 per pound, while

some organic grocers sell garlic for as high as $4-$5 per pound. Direct market

prices can go as high as $1.00 or more per bulb for specialty varieties. At the

wholesale level, garlic is normally traded as 5-, 22-, and 30-pound boxes; 3-pound

ropes and braids; and cases of 48 2-bulb boxes.

When entering into commercial production it is very important to know the

preferences of your customers. Garlic flavors range from very mild (elephant garlic)

to very strong (Romanian Red). Find out what your customers prefer before

selecting varieties. Local retailers are another possible market, but you must take

the time to contact produce managers and provide good-quality garlic when stores

require it. Sale of your garlic through a roadside stand (either your own or another


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grower's) can provide opportunities to receive higher prices, but this will require

some additional expenses for advertising, building and maintaining a facility, and

providing service to your customers. For more information on marketing,

consultAgricultural Alternatives: Fruit and Vegetable Marketing for Small-Scale and

Part-Time Growers.

Types of Garlic

Garlic may generally be divided into two subspecies: ophioscorodon (hardneck or

topset garlic) and sativum (softneck or artichoke garlic). Hardneck garlic produces

elongated flower stalks (technically called scapes) and bulbils at the top of the

stalk. Softneck garlic does not produce bulbils, except in times of stress.

Hardneck garlic may be purple, purple striped, or white and is represented byvarieties such as Roja, German Red, Valencia, Continental, and Creole. Creole

garlic, a late variety covered with a deep purple skin, is the type grown in Mexico,

South America, and the Imperial Valley of California.

With some hardneck varieties, seedstalks may often be topped with a cluster of

small capsules called bulbels (also referred to as bulbils, topsets or, erroneously,

bulblets). Although bulbels are sometimes used to produce small garlic bulbs, the

seedstalks should be removed to maximize bulb size. The term bulblet is more

correctly applied to the small round bulbs embedded in the scales of, or attached to

the large main bulb of certain cultivars and types.

Softneck garlic is also referred to as Silverskin, artichoke, or Italian garlic. Softneck

types are best represented by the varieties California Early and California Late.

Silverskin garlic may also be differentiated into many-cloved or few-cloved

varieties, and may also be tan, all white, or purple tinged. Numerous strains exist,

having been selected over the years by the various companies that produce them

for dehydration or growers producing them for fresh market. Silverskin garlic

rarely, if ever, produces seedstalks.

Elephant garlic (Allium ampeloprasum ) is not true garlic but a type of leek that

produces very large cloves (often only 3 or 4 per bulb). Several small bulblets may

also develop. Its flavor is milder than garlic and can be slightly bitter. It also

produces a large seed stalk that may be cut and sold to florists. The tender, fleshy


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lower portion of the seed stalk is also prized for stir-fried Oriental dishes. Elephant

garlic is sold mainly through farmers' markets, specialty produce stores, or

specialty produce sections of supermarkets. More recently, sales to specialty

processors for medicinal or health food use have increased.

Site Selection

Garlic can be grown successfully in any well-drained soil. Fusarium bulb rot and

other bulb diseases are a major problem for garlic grown on poorly drained soils.

Soils that are rich in organic matter with a pH of 6.0-6.5 are best. Heavy clay or

stony soils are difficult to work in and may cause misshapen bulbs. Your local

climate and soil conditions must be taken into consideration when selecting garlic

cultivars. You must practice good crop rotations and plant garlic following a heavy

cover crop such as buckwheat or rye. Cover crops discourage pests, reduce disease

inoculum, build soil organic matter, and limit weed pressure.

Planting

Garlic is planted in the fall and should be grown on raised beds covered with black,

green IRT (infrared transmitting), or blue plastic mulch with drip irrigation. On

smaller operations garlic is often "set" or planted by placing each clove by hand into

raised beds with rows 6-12 inches apart and cloves spaced 4-6 inches apart

(depending on the size bulb grown). Larger growers use specialized "cups" on their

transplanters to place cloves at similar spacings as allowed by the machinery. Most

garlic cultivars are planted 1-1.5 inches deep; Elephant garlic should be planted 2-

2.5 inches deep.

Garlic cloves should be set early enough in the fall so that a good root system can

develop before the ground freezes, but late enough to prevent shoot emergence

above the soil line. A mulch of 2-4 inches of straw at planting will help preserve

moisture, discourage frost heaving, and prevent most weeds.

Irrigation

Garlic needs a steady supply of moisture to develop market- sized bulbs. The

application of one inch of water per week during dry periods through mid-June will

ensure good sizing. Avoid irrigating garlic after this period to encourage maturation

and to discourage bulb diseases. For more information on crop irrigation,


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consultAgricultural Alternatives: Irrigation for Fruit and Vegetable

Production andAgricultural Alternatives: Drip Irrigation for Vegetable Production.

Fertilization

Garlic requires heavy fertilization; for commercial production, 125 pounds of

nitrogen, 150 pounds of phosphorus, and 150 pounds of potassium per acre are

required. Soil tests should be conducted and phosphorus, potassium, and lime

should be applied and incorporated before planting. Manure may be used instead of

commercial fertilizers. However, an analysis should be conducted to determine the

amount of actual nutrients contained in the manure. To reduce fertilizer runoff,

nitrogen applications should be split. Apply one 75-pound application at planting, a

25-pound application at 6-inch height, and the remaining 25 pounds around May 1.

Granular fertilizer can be applied by banding or broadcasting; liquid fertilizers can

be injected through a drip irrigation system. Apply all topdressings to dry plants at

midday to reduce the chance of fertilizer burn.

Cultural Practices

Retail customers pay premium prices for large garlic bulbs. To meet this demand a

grower must remove the scape (flower stalk) as soon as it is visible. If the scape is

allowed to develop it will compete with the bulb for nutrients, resulting in a

reduction in bulb size and quality. Once removed, scapes should be disposed of off-site to limit them as a source of disease inoculum.

Weed Control

Garlic is a weak competitor with other plants and does not thrive in weedy fields.

Growers must start with a weed-free planting bed and mulch with clean straw after

planting. There are only a limited number of herbicides currently registered for use

in garlic. Herbicide recommendations can be found in the most recent issue of

thePennsylvania Commercial Vegetable Production Guide.

Insects and Diseases

Onion thrips are the major insect pest of garlic in the eastern United States and

cause a bronzing or whitening of the garlic foliage. Adults and larvae overwinter in

clover, alfalfa, and small grain fields. Specific insect management recommendations
http://extension.psu.edu/plants/vegetable-fruit/production-guides/comercial-vegetable-guidehttp://extension.psu.edu/plants/vegetable-fruit/production-guides/comercial-vegetable-guidehttp://extension.psu.edu/plants/vegetable-fruit/production-guides/comercial-vegetable-guidehttp://extension.psu.edu/plants/vegetable-fruit/production-guides/comercial-vegetable-guide


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for garlic can be found in the Pennsylvania Commercial Vegetable Production Guide.

Several diseases affect garlic including basal rot ( Fusarium ), white rot

( Sclerotinia ), and occasionally Botrytis. Long crop rotations and the planting of

disease-free stock will limit most of these diseases.

Harvest and Storage

Garlic is ready to harvest when 40-60 percent of the leaves have yellowed (garlic

generally has 6 leaves). Garlic maturation is a function of day length. Most varieties

are ready by mid-July (with some minor differences between varieties). Early

harvests reduce storage quality, while bulbs that are harvested too late will start to

split open. Split bulbs have no commercial value and can only be utilized as

planting stock. Be sure to discard any planting stock that has blemishes or obvious

disease signs.

Because garlic is ready to eat after harvest, curing is only important if you intend to

store it. For this reason, many growers who market garlic directly to retail

customers do not cure it after harvest. If long-term storage is desired, freshly

harvested garlic can be cured by placing it on racks with good airflow. The racks

should be placed in a location out of direct sunlight and the weather for

approximately three weeks or until the outer two leaves are completely dry. Many

smaller growers spread their bulbs on the wooden floor of a barn to cure. Once

cured, trim the tops and roots and clean the remaining soil from the bulb. The

cured bulbs should be placed in clean cardboard boxes or burlap bags and stored at

32-35F and 65-75 percent relative humidity

Onion Production Planting Through Harvest

Crop Selection

There are many factors to be considered in selecting a crop for production. A farmers previous

experience producing a crop, or the availability of a contract for the purchase of a crop are certainly
http://agri.and.nic.in/farmpractices.htm


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factors in the de-cision. However, there are two factors which always must be considered. Market

demand for the period when you could reasonably expect to be able to deliver the product to the

market using historical data to provide information of the normal volume and price during that period.

The soil type, climate/micro climate, equipment, irri-gation capacity and experience to be able to have

a reasonable expectation that an acceptable quality product can be delivered to the market during theidentified period at a unit cost, which allows the farmer to make a profit at the lower end of the

accumulated range of historical price data. If a farmer can satisfactorily answer the questions raised in

these two points, he has probably identified a sustainable crop market opportunity.

Onion Production USAID-Inma 2 Crop Rotation Crop rotation should be a basic part of any sustainable

cropping plan. It is an effective, low cost and widely used cultural practice to prevent or reduce the

buildup of populations of soil-borne plant pathogens, weeds and insect pests. An effective rotation

sequence includes crops from different families that are poor or non hosts of the pathogen(s) and pests

of concern. In general, the longer the rotation, the better the results. A 3- to 5-year rotation is generally

recommended. However, from a practical standpoint the number of years and crops to include in a crop

rotation will depend upon the availability of land, the markets, the selection of commercially viable,

alternate crops suited to grow in the area, the pathogen(s), and the purpose of the rotation (pathogen

prevention versus pathogen reduction).

Crop rotation along with the judicious use of appropriate herbicides is also important in controlling the

buildup of different weed species. Onions are photoperiod sensitive, which means that varieties initiate

bulb formation based on day length. Onions are classified as short day, intermediate day or long day

varieties, depending upon the day length which will trigger bulb formation. Varieties listed as short-day

onions form bulbs when the day length is between 10 and 12 hours. Intermediate-day varieties form

bulbs at 12 to 14 hour days. Long-day onions, on the other hand, begin to form bulbs when the day

length is between 14 and 16 hours. Short day onions planted in spring in southern Iraq would start

forming bulbs before achieving sufficient plant growth to support sizing the bulb. This would result in

very small onions. Day length varies greatly as the distance from the equator increases. Green onions

are long day onions grown in an area where the day length will never be long enough to trigger bulb

formation. Most of Iraq, with the possible exception of the most northern areas of the Kurdistan region,

is most suitable for growing short day onions. The optimum time for planting short day onions in Iraq is

September and October, with another window of opportunity to transplant pencil-sized short-day onion

shoots in January and February.

It is possible to plant intermediate day onions in the Kurdistan region in the spring, but growers would o

Onion Production USAID-Inma 4 best to consider either fall planting of seed or transplanting in late inter

or early spring.ion. and Preparation The assumption is that the land selected for onion production has

been leveled and is suitable for furrow irrigation. However, sprinkler and drip irrigation are much

referred systems for the production of onions.

Steps in land preparation:

Land should be plowed or ripped as deep as possi-ble.


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Prepare a good seed bed, breaking up all clods with a disc and smoothing with a harrow or roller.

If the onions are being planted behind a crop, which leaves a large amount of organic residue, the

residue should be worked into the soil.

Pre-irrigate the field. This will initiate the process of breaking down the residue and germinating weed

seeds, which are present. Excessive dry matter in the soil will create problems with precision planting

of the onion seed.

Garlic Production Guide

GARLIC (Allium sativum L.), otherwise known as bawang, is one of the more popular

cultivated Alliums. It is mainly used as a condiment for flavouring meat, fish and salads,

in fresh and dehydrated forms. It is also known to lower blood sugar and cholesterol

levels. Its many other health-promoting attributes have resulted in medicinal pills, drinks

and powders based on garlic extracts.

Production and Trade

Garlic is grown in about 5,700 ha mainly in Ilocos Region. In 1997, an average

production of 15,760t was reported. In 1996, 267.7t valued at P5.35 M were exported to

the Netherlands and Singapore while 3,990 t of fresh and processed garlic valued at P68

M were imported.

Production Management

Strains

Ilocos White

Batangas Strain

Cabuyao Strain

Batanes

Climatic and Soil Requirements


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Garlic grows best in areas with comparatively mild climate. It requires cooler weather during the early

stages of growth and dry atmosphere with moderately high temperature for maturation. It can be

grown from sea level to over 1,000 feet above sea level. Areas with Type 1 climate that is dry from

November to April is best for commercial production of garlic.Garlic can be grown in several types of

soil. It grows best in sandy loam and silty loam to clay loam with pH of 5.6-6.8. The soil should be fertile,

rich in organic matter, well-drained and maintains good soil moisture supply during the growing period.

Land Preparation

A 1-ha production area requires 1,000 kg garlic seed pieces.With thorough tillage, the land is prepared

4-6 weeks before planting. The field is plowed 2-4 times at 7 days interval to improve soil texture. The

use of tractor driven implement requires 1-2 plowing and harrowing operations while an animal-drawn

harrow needs 4 passings. Apply animal manure at 10-15t/ha prior to bed preparation. Mulch with 3-5cm layer of rice straw after planting to conserve moisture and control weeds. This method of land

preparation is appropriate for upland areas .Zero tillage is usually practiced in lowland rice fields. Cut

straw and weeds close to the ground after rice is harvested. Allow soil to dry until desired moisture level

is attained. Construct canals around the paddies to make sure that no standing water will stay in the

paddy after irrigation or heavy rain.FertilizationIn the absence of soil analysis, a 1-ha production area

requires 7 bags of complete fertilizer (14-14-14), 2 bags of urea (46-0-0), 2 bags of superphosphate (0-

18-0) and a bag of muriate of potash (0-0-60). Apply all 0-18-0 and 14-14-14 as basal fertilizer prior to

planting. Apply a combination of 46-0-0 and 0-0-60 at 30,50 and 70 days after planting.

Irrigation

Irrigate lightly but frequently with 25 cm of water per week to provide continuous and uniform moisture

supply throughout the growing season. Regulate watering at the onset of bulb formation to ensure

proper ripening. Stop irrigation when tops begin to fold over, otherwise, it will result in watery bulbs,

increased rotting and reduced keeping quality.2

Pest and Disease Management

Purple blotch (Alternaria porri) and Cescospora leaf spot (Cercospora duddiae). Select healthy planting

materials. Control humidity within the field with lower panting density and proper irrigation. Spray with

compost tea (Compost tea is prepared by fermenting rice compost for 10-14 days. The effluent issprayed to control foliar diseases). Remove infected leaves.Black mold (Aspergillus niger), basal rot

(Fusarium oxysporum) and bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora). Harvest only mature bulbs. Cure

harvested bulbs properly. Maintain good air circulation during curing. Packing and storage.Thrips (Thrips

tabaci), army worm (Spodoptera exigua) and cutworm (Argotis spp.). Use overhead irrigation, spray with

water and soap solution at high pressure. Remove thrips-infested leaves. Spray with hot pepper extract


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and spread ash on the soil around the plant at regular intervals to control army worm and cutworm

infestation. Manage weeds properly to maintain sufficient population of natural enemies of insect pests.

Harvesting

Harvest when 75% of the leaves turn yellow and begin to fold over. Pull bulbs manually from the soil at

about 90-100 days after planting.PostharvestCure harvested bulbs for 10-14 days under dry shade.

Proper drying is essential to minimize diseases during storage and to produce good skin color. After

curing, cut leaves 10-12 cm from the top of the bulb. Grade bulb according to size and quality and store

in a well-ventilated area. Storage of bulbs layered with lagundi leaves prevents damage caused by

storage pests such as cigarette beetles.

Cost and Return Analysis Per Hectare

ITEMS AMOUNT

I. VARIABLE COSTS 113,030

A. Labor (P150/MD) 1,500

Plowing 1,000

Harrowing 1,500

Manure application (4 MD) 600

Fertilization; basal (4 MD) and side-dress

(10 MD) 2,100

Preparation of planting material (5 MD) 750

Seedpiece treatment (1 MD) 150

Planting (25 MD) 3,750

Mulching (5 MD) 750

Irrigation (14 MD) 2,100

Spraying (20 MD) 3,000

Weeding (30 MD) 4,500

Harvesting (20 MD) 3,000

Postharvest operations (35 MD) 5,250

Sub-total 29,950

B. Materials

Seedpieces (1,000 kg/ha) 50,000

Animal manure (15 t) 15,000

Fertilizers

14-14-14 (7 bags) 2,450

46-0-0 (2 bags) 930

0-18-0 (2 bags) 1,100

0-0-60 (1 bag) 600

Rice straw (20 trailer-load) 3,000


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Fuel and oil 5,000

Sub-total 83,0803

II. FIXED COSTS 18,063

Land Rental 5,000

Depreciation

5 pcs. scythe (2 yrs) 63

5 pcs. hoe (3 yrs) 125

3 pcs. shovel (3 yrs) 75

2 knapsack sprayers (5 yrs) 800

Interest on loans at 20% int. p.a. 12,000

TOTAL COSTS 131,093

GROSS INCOME a

200,000

NET INCOME b Y1 = 68,907

Y

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