cultural values, beliefs and...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER VIII
CULTURAL VALUES, BELIEFS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
In previous chapter certain issues related to
religious values and their relationship with social
structure were discussed, when the constraining role of
Hinduism and Islam was mentioned related to the Webererian
thesis. This thesis has been restated with some variations
1 by some scholars , limitati~ns of which had been discussed
in detail by Milton Singer. 2 M.S.A. Ra0 3 had suggested to
link Weber's thesis by way of comparing the reformatory
sects of Hinduism with Protestantism rather than the views
expressed in religious texts. M.N. Srinivas 4 , discussed the
two-way process of 'Sanskritisation' and westernisation
1. Misra, Vikas, Hinduism and Economic Growth, Oxford University Press, 1962; Kapp, K-:-W:-, Hindu culture, Economic Development and Economic Planning in India, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1963. For details on various aspects of the Sociology of Religion, See Sinha, Surjeet, 'Sociology of Religion: A Trend Report', in ICSSR (ed.), ~ Survey ~ Research in Socology and Social Anthropology, vol. I I, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1974, pp.508-530.
2. Singer, Milton, 'Review: The Religion of India by Max Weber', American Anthropologist, Vol. 63, No.1, 1961, pp. 143-151, Also his 'Religion and Social change in India: The Max Weber Thesis', Economic Development and Cultural Change. vol.14, 1966, pp.497-505.
3. Rao, M.S.A., 'Hinduism and Economic Development' Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 18, pp.1-15.
4. Srinivas, M.N., Social Change in Modern India, University of Calif. Press, Berkeley, 1966.
234
going on simultaneously with lower castes following the
former process and the higher castes the latter.
Westernisation is considered as a multi-layered process,
including the acceptance of Western technology, political,
legal and social institutions and Western literature,
philosophy and . 5 SCIence.
Milton singer 6 propagated the 'compartmentalisation'
theory where the European models have been incorporated in
the spheres of factory and office, and traditional Hinduism
in home and social relations, which has minimised the
conflict between two value systems. In fact, subsequently
he 7 stated
modernity.
that there is no schism between tradition and
(As was pointed out earlier that such an attention
as given to Hinduism by anthropologists and sociologists
could never be accorded either to the sociology of Islam, in
general, or to Indian Islam, . . 1 8 In partIcu ar. In the last
chapter the studies related to caste, social stratification
5. Sinha, Surjeet, op.cit., p.515.
6. Singer, Milton, 'The Modernisation of Religious Beliefs', in Myron, Weiner (ed.) Modernisation, Basic Books, Inc. New York, 1966, pp.57-67.
7. Singer, Milton, When a Great Tradition Modernizes: An Anthropological Approa~to Indian Civilization, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1972. 8. Sinha. Surjeet. op.cit.. p.516. See also Ahmed. Imtiaz (ed.) Ritual and Religion Among Muslims in India. Manohar. 1981. pp.1-21.
235
and family and marriage were mentioned in great detail.
However, there are but a few studies 9 focussing on the
Muslim Great and Little Traditions~
vThe main line of arguments run like this: That
the Arabs who came to India brought with them the cultural
tradition of Arab, Iran and Egypt but also assimilated the
local cultural ethos of the regions they setttied in,
creating regional variations in Islam. The majority of
Muslims, however, were converts and therefore carried the
original cultural traits alongwith the Great Traditions of
Islam. The reformatory movements like the Tablighi Jamat,
started in 1935 by maul ana Mohd. Iliyas and the maktab
system of education helped to Islamize the Indian Muslim
traders. However, the saint cult worked in opposite
direction. With political awakening of Muslims during
Khilafat movement and various political parties like Muslim
League and some non-political organisations like Jamat-e-
Ulma-e-Hind, Jama-et-Islami, and Students Islamic Movement,
not only stressed Great Tradition, but owing to the identity
crisis of Muslims after Partition introduced a greater force
to do away with local cultural ethos. As a result both the
value streams survived in varying degrees in different
9. For a brief description see, ibid., pp.1-21 and for more scholarly survey see Singh, Yogendra, Modernisation of Indian Tradition: ~ Systematic Study Ql Social Change, Thompson Press, Faridab~Q, 1973, pp.60-84 and pp.200-202.
236
10 regions of the country
v Based on these studies a few variables were
identified to study their linkages with entrepreneurship.
The issues mainly related to the religious observance.
daily prayers. monthly fasts. annual Zakah. Qurbani and
rituals related to Muharram and Shabebrat. Also data was
collected related to religious and secular education. The
issues related to purdah and family planning. caste system
and marriage were discussed in Chapter VII.
To provide better reasoning three scales were
constructed. Th I f I ··· 11 e sca e 0 re IglOSlty consisted of
dimensions like belief. practice and experience. cognition.
and consequences. The scale of individual modernity12 which
consisted of five dimensions. namely: rationality. equality.
universalisation. pluralism. and individualism. The scale
10. See various articles collected in Ahmed. Imtiaz (ed.). op. cit .. 1981.
11. It is based on the scale of religiosity constructed by Terence. Farias. 'Measuring Religious commitment: A Analytic View of Muslim Students.' in Christian Troll Islam in India: Studies and Commentaries. Vikas. pp.116-l34.
Factor (ed. ) 1982.
12. It was based on the ideas provided by Prof. Yogendra Singh of J.N.U. New Delhi. Also were consulted Smith. D.H. and Inkles. Alex 'The OM Scale: A comparative Sociopsychological Measure of Individual Modernity'. Sociometry. vol.29, 1966. pp.353-377 and Ashish Nandy. 'Motives. Modernity and Entrepreneural Competence'. Journal of Social Psychology, vol.19, 1973, pp.127-136.
237
of entrepreneurship13 was constructed with five dimensions,
namely; innovativeness and risk-taking, background
variables. managerial skills and gap filling. n. Ach. and
socialisation. and status withdrawl.
The responses related to relig'ious observance,
rituals and education classified according to the categories
of entrepreneurship are presented only with Chi-square
values.
wherever
and percentages are presented in the text only
14 found necessary to highlight the peculiarities.
The results are presented in Table 8.1.
For a Muslim. Kalima-belief in Oneness of God and
Prophethood of Mohammad - is the most important belief.
This is the deviding line between a Muslim and a non-Muslim.
Asking any question on this will evoke anger, therefore such
a question was avoided in the field.
The next important pillar or most important of all
compulsories are the five daily prayers. beside the weekly
Friday prayers and two Idd prayers. Some sects observe some
variations in it. But by and large. every Muslim is
expected to offer such prayers. To understand the departure
from the prescribed frequency of prayers the question was
13. It is based on the entrepreneurship as detailed in
survey of Chapter III.
literature on
14. For distribution of the data see tables 34-49 in Appendix IV.
238
TABLE 8.1
Chi-Square Values of the Association Between
Entrepreneurship and Cultural Values
S.No. Variable on cultural values
Chi-square Degrees of freedom
1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12 :
13.
14. 15.
16.
2
A. Religious observance Prayers observed Fasts observed Zakah paid Pilgrimage to Mekkah Qurbani observed
B. Rituals/Festivals Muharram celebrated Shab-e-brat celebrated
C. Education and Occupation Mother tongue Knowledge of English Knowledge of Hindi Religious education received Link between religious education and occupation Link between secular education and occupation Preference for type of education Link between religious beliefs and occupation Link between religious beliefs and daily life
3
12.28 .' . . ,. + 15.41...
16.48 ',' 5.04+ 7.88
39.07:~: 17.38'"
0.95.,. 23.40::: 15.58'"
0.04
1. 70 5.78+
1. 4 7
1. 70
*Significant at 5 per cent level of significance
+Significant at 5-10 per cent levels of significance.
4
4 8 4 2 4
8 6
2 2 2 2
4
4 4
4
4
Table nc in Appn. IV
5
34 35 36 37 38
39 40
41 42 43 44
45
46 47
48
49
Note Column appendix IV
5 of table 8.1 gives the table containing actual two-way
number of frequency
distribution.
239
asked about the regularity. Not very large number of
respondents were found to be offering prayers regularly.
About 44 per cent offered prayers fairly regularly. THe
value of chi-square was found significant across the
entrepreneurial categories - the lower levels of
entrepreneurs were less regular in their prayers. The
reason could be that the better off entrepreneurs were
better informed and wanted to be better Muslims in the eyes
of the local people, or may be insecurities implied in the
entrepreneurial functions were needed to be overcome by
offering prayers.
The similar pattern was observed regarding monthly
fasts, but 43 per cent reported strict observation of fasts.
Incidently, in order of priority, fasts come next to
prayers, yet the latter are observed more rigorously.
Somehow, there is a strong social stigma attached to fasts,
if not observed regularly as compared to prayers.
Also, a statistically significant association was observed
between the levels of fast observance and categories of
entrepreneurs - the
rigorously. On further
higher levels
explorations a
performing
large number
more
of
respondents belonging to lower cetegories of
entrepreneurship reported that fasts and prayers interfered
with their work, because prayers interrupted work, and
fasts made working difficult.
240
The Zakah (poor tax) is considered a compulsory
poor Tax, about 71 per cent reported that they paid Zakah
regularly. The Chi-square observed was highly significant
indicating a strong association in the regularity of pa~'ing
Zakah and level of entrepreneurs - higher orders paying more
regularly. This indicates the capacity to pay as well as
the religious concern for its observance. The major chun k
of this money, especially from rich groups, goes to mosques
and maktabs but some share also goes to those who are needy
and those who collect it.
Pilgrimage to Mekkah was found the wish of 97 per
cent, however, only 10 per cent could perform and they
belonged to higher groups of entrepreneurs. The Chi-square
was found significant. Out of those who could not perform
Hajj, 68 per cent reported economic reasons and mainly
belonged to lower strata. It may be noted that the exporter
entrepreneurs were better placed as they combine both the
economic and religious functions, when visit to Mekkah.
Qurbani
The other important duty in Islam is to offer
(sacrifice of animal) at the time of Bakr-e-Idd.
About 86 per cent reported to have participated in this
duty, but it was not found statistically significant across
entrepreneurial categories although the trend was in the
same direction as stated above.
241
Among the festivals. Muharram is especially
important for the Shiah sects. However. quite a large
number of Sunnis also participate in it. although often they
would deny it. as it is considered anti-Islamic ritual.
Instead extra prayers or fasts are prescribed. But only 11
per cent reported to have conformed to the ideal. The
emphasis among higher orders was more on ibadat rather than
festivities. The Chi-square was found highly significant.
implying that lower orders participated in it like a
festival - indeed reflects the effect of Little Tradition.
In fact. the researcher witnessed caste association flags in
the city. representing almost all the castes.
Shab-e-barat is also considered a night for
prayers and the day for fasting. However. distributing
home-made sweets was found quite common. and more common
among lower levels.
of Chi-square.
Further.
as is clear from the s·ignificant value
the mother tongue is considered the
emotionally most close aspect of a culture or community.
Since all the entrepreneurs were Muslims. they (99%)
reported Urdu as their mother-tongue - only two respondents
reported other than Urdu. There was no difference among the
types of entrepreneurs on this issue.
242
The knowledge of English is considered by the
entrepreneurs as very critical to improve upon
entrepreneurship. About 35 per cent reported some literacy
in English. The highly significant value Of Chi-square was
consistent with the criticality of this language. In fact.
it was told that the demand for English medium school was
growing so fast that there were more than 50 educational
business houses of the Muslims in the city. Al though this
trend is quite common in urban India. but the business need
of knowing English has created more demand in the town under
study.
The knowledge of Hindi was reported to be about 52
per cent of all the entrepreneurs. However. it was
considered the second best language by the entrepreneurs
after Urdu. which the community is trying to' salvage I • In
fact. Muslim English medium schools were reported to be
taking care of the three languages, in addition to extra
classes for religious education, mainly confined to Koran
reciting. The latter type of education is considered one of
the most important duties of the Muslim parents. In case of
Hindi too the Chi-square was found significant.
The almost negligible value of Chi-square
measuring association between religious education and
entrepreneurship shows even distribution and a very high
243
percentage (about 84%) shows that some religious education
is given to almost every member of the community.
the question whether there
between religious education and occupation,
was any link
almost 84 per
cent reported 'yes', stating that religious education is a
must to understand one's duties as a Muslim and which has a
positive effect on the occupation one performs. The Chi-
square was significant,
aspect even more.
the better off emphasising this
However, even more respondents (91%) reported
that the better performance in an occupation is dependent on
secular education given in schools and colleges,
the Chi-square value was insignificant.
and here
On being asked which of the two-religious or
secular education was more important, almost 80 per cent
reported that both were essential for balanced growth. The
Chi-square
more on
was found significant - higher order emphasising
both systems than the lower orders of
entrepreneurship.
enquiries on, whether there was any
relationship between religious beliefs and occupation, 86
per cent reported a positive relationship, emphasising that
religious beliefs are not anti-thetical to better
244
performance in occupation. The Chi-square was
insignificant. Similar responses were expressed on the
relationship of religious beliefs and daily life activities.
They further elaborated that if a Muslim conducts his daily
life according to Islamic tenets he will do better in life.)~
Y/From the foregoing it is clear that beliefs as
ideals attracted higher response than behavioural variables.
This disparity is often intervened by existential - both
individual and cultural - needs. It is also clear that the
ritual aspects, where festivities are involved, attracted
better response, representing the under-currents of Little
Traditions embedded in local culture. This may further be
substantiated from the fact that a large number of mazars of
saints exist in almost every settlement, and people reported
to be going to saint tombs in other cities. Similarly
warding off evil eye, existence of supernatural souls were
believed fairly commonly. On the other hand, the Great
Tradition of Islam found relatively poor response, where
better off entrepreneurs showed more emphasis, awareness and
observance. Whether, it is a class-phenomenon or a caste
phenomenon could not be ascertained, as in that case a
control group from general population would have been
required.
245
Further, Singer's 'compartmentalisation', theory
does not seem to found support, at least in the context of
Moradabad entrepreneurship. He concluded," The Madras study
also found that modernising families and individuals employ
certain "adaptive strategies" of compartmental ising the
activities in industry from their traditional ritual casm
obligations, in order to reduce conflict and to work out
15 mutual adjustements in both spheres.
Here, the traditional social values seem to be
operating with industrial values. The reason could be that
the type of entrepreneurship (artisan-based) that existed in
the town is also traditional and both the institutions
traditional and industrial - must have been evolving
simultaneously. However, some conflicts between the two
were reported - the existential needs were working somewhat
against the religious observance of prayers, fasts, Zakah
and Hajj, which in case of higher entrepreneurship was
resolved by combining Islamisation and modernisation. In
the latter case, no essential contradiction was found
between the two. The lower orders were also emulating both
the processes, with the higher orders as referrent group,
which incidently coincided with higher castes. Therefore,
15. Singer, Milton(ed.), Entrepreneurship and Modernisation of Occupational cultures in South Asia, Mpnograph No.12, Durham, Duke University Press, 1973,p.ll
246
three processes were going on simultaneously, including
Ashrafization. These conclusions may be corroborated with
the help of the scales of religiosity, modernity and
entrepreneurship.
The split-half internal reliability of the three
scale is given in Table 8.2.
TABLE 8.2
Internal Reliability of Scales
Scale Split-half correlations
Religiosity
i\10derni ty
Entrepreneurship
0.37
0.59
,', ",
'" ",
0.21+
~ Significant at 1 per cent level of significance
+ Significant at 5 per cent level of significance.
It is clear from the table (8.2) that all the
correlations between the halves of each of the scales are
significant, and therefore, usable. Bu t, i t may be no t ed
that the best internal consistency appeared in case of
modernity scale. followed by religiosity. However, the
scale of entrepreneurship though reliable but is relatively
poorly consistent. It may also be so due to the
inconsistency in entrepreneurial dimensions. In fact. the
247
dimension related to' background' variable appeared
insignificant and negative with 'innovation/risk taking' and
'social withdrawl'. Dropping it from analysis would have
improved the overall rebabllity. However. the scale was
retained as such for further analysis.
The correlation matrix for all the combinations of
each of the scales are provided in table 8.3 to test whether
there is any contradiction between religiosity. modernity
and entrepreneurship.
TABLE 8.3
Correlation Matrix: Religiosity.
Modernity and Entrepreneurship
Scales Religiosity Modernity Entrepreneurship
Religiosity 1. 00
Modernity 1. 00
"" Entrepreneurship 0.31 0.34 1. 00
* Significant at 1 per cent level of significance
+ Significant at 5 per cent level of significance.
v/The look at table 8.3 indicates that there is no
essential contradiction between either of the two
combinations of these three scales. The religiosity was
positively related with modernity. although at a higher
248
level of significance and therefore. religiosity and
modernity cannot only co-exist but may support each other.~-91wI'
There was no need for compartmentalisation of the two.
Similarly. religiosity and entrepreneurship were highly
correlated. implies that either of them help sustain each
other. Finally. modernity and entrepreneurship were even
better correlated. Therefore.
entrepreneurship would sustain each other.
considerable extent are co-terminus. ~'~
modernity and
or they. to a
An attempt was made to compare the strength of
these scales alongwith their dimensions 16 . for the three
categories of entrepreneurship. Since the items were
eqUidistant on the ordinal scale. they could become
additive. The average scores were calculated and are given
in table 8.4.
The highest strength was recorded in case of
entrepreneurship scale followed by the scale of modernity
and religiosity. The average scores were directly
proportional to the level of entrepreneurship - higher
levels getting better average scores.
Within the scale of religiosity. the score on the
belief and consequences dimensions were in reverse order to
16. Brief explanation for the dimensions are provided in Appendex II B.
249
Table 8.4
Average Entrepreneurial Scores according to the Dimensions of the Scales
Dimension Total Artisan Karkhanedar Exporter
A.Scale of Religiosity 17.9 18.1 17.3 17.8
1. Bel ief 5 . 1 5.3 5.0 3. 5
2. Practice and Experience 4.2 4.1 4.1 5.0
3. Cognition 3.9 4.0 3.8 5.B
4. Consequences 4.6 4.7 4.4 3. 5
B. Scale of Modernity 17.9 16.8 17.8 20.6
5. Rationality 3.9 3.8 3.8 4.5
6. Equality 2.5 2.4 2.4 3. 5
7. Universalism 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1
8. Pluralism 4.1 4.1 4.0 4.2
9. Individualism 3.4 3.3 3.4 4.5 i c. Scale of Ent-
repreneurship 21. 1 20.7 21.6 24.0
10.Innovativeness/ Risktaking 4.7 4.6 4.8 4.7
11. Background 4.4 4.2 4.9 5.3
12. Managarial Sk ill s 4.2 4.1 4.3 5.2
13. Need for Achi-evement 3.9 3.7 4.1 5 . 7
14. Status wi th-drawl 3.9 4.0 3.6 3.2
------------------------------------------------------------
250
the level of entrepreneurship and the rest two dimensions
were in the same direction. It means, that higher orders
had relatively weaker religious beliefs and religious
consequences. Implied in this is the stronger sense of
efficacy among the higher levels of entrepreneurship, which
also reflects stronger rationality. This pattern is
corroborated by other two dimensions, namely; religious
practice and experience, and cognition.
Similarly, among the five dimensions, the poorest
average score was recorded for lequality and legislation',
which reflects the prevailing male dominated social
structure. Individualism and rationality dimensions were
found directly related to the levels of entrepreneurship,
which is consitent with the dimensions of religiousity as
discussed above. However, universalisation and pluralism,
though with higher average scores but with a stable pattern
across the three categories of entrepreneurship.
Finally, h f h d · . 17 t e average scores or t e ImenSlons
related to innovativeness and risk-taking were found to be
highest, but were found fairly evenly distributed across the
three categories of entrepreneurship. However, most
discriminatory dimensions for the categories of
17. The frequency and Chi-square analysis for each variable in discussed towards the end of the chapter, as shown in table 8.6
251
entrepreneuship were found to be need for Acheivement and
managerial skills. The dimension on status withdrawl was
found in reverse order to the levels of entrepreneurship.
In an effort to find a place in the economic
theory the attitudinal scores from the entrepreneurial scale
were used in the Cobb-Douglas production function by
assuming entrepreneurship as one of the factors of
production, beside labour and capital. Dummies were
introduced to isolate the effect of the levels of
entrepreneurship, that is, karkhanedar and exporter, by
considering their scores from the entrepreneurship scale.
The results are presented in table B.S.
The variables ~re reported in the sequence they
entered the regression equation, because of their
correlational strength. It appears from table B.5 that the
data represented a good fit to the extended Cobb-Douglas
production function, as is clear from the val~e of R-square.
It means that the total variance explained by these
variables was 69.2 per cent. However, it needs to be
stressed that quite a significant variation (about 31 per
cent) remained unexplained, which could either be attributed
to the relatively poor choice of the production function, or
due to deleted variables, like technology, industrial
252
TABLE 8.5
Step-wise Regression fitted to Extended Cobb-Douglas
Production Function
S.No. Variable Partial S.E. of Computed Regression Regression I-value Coefficient Coffecient
------------------------------------------------------------.'. 1. Labour Employed
2. Capital employed
3. Karkhanedar Entrepreneur
0.17391
0.11562
-0.55547
4. Exporting Entrepreneur 5.76711
5. Scores of
0.0568
0.0352
1.1571
11.4782
3.063
3.286
-0.480
0.502
.'. ','
Entrepreneurship -0.79312 0.3571 -2.221+
6. Labour of exporting Entrepreneur -0.16096
7. Entrepreneurship scores of Karkhanedar 0.58072
8. Capital of Karkhanedar
g, Capital of exporting Entrepreneur
10. Labour 0 f Karkhanedar
11. En t repreneursh ips cor e of Exporting Entrepreneur
0.04211
-0.74238
-0.03176
-0.40279
0.2904 -0.554
0.7645 0.760
0.0768 0.548
1.8114 -0.410
0.0980 -0.324
2.91051 -0.138
* Significant at 1 per cent level of significance
+ Significant at 5 per cent level of significance.
Intercept = 0.29576, R = 0.832, 30,189; S.E. of Estimate = 0.215.
253
2 R = 0.692; F-value
organisation, extraneous factors or random causes. Yet, the
results may be considered sound since the coefficient of
determination (R-square) is significant at 1 per cent level,
as measured by F-value of 30.189.
The most important variables in explaining the
production function turned out to be the labour followed by
capital
18 cent ,
with marginal productivity of 3.71 and 3.52
respectively. Both the factors turned out to
per
be
statistically significant at 1 per cent level. This shows
that the industry is labour-intensive. The dummy variable
of Karkhanedar (manufacturing) and exporting entrepreneurs
(as categories) entered the regression equation. This
justifies that the entrepreneurship in the town is
structurally organised according to the three categories
taken in the study - Artisan, Karkhanedar and Exporter.
Although these two dummies were significant when entered in
their sequence, but the entry of subsequent variables,
especially scores of entrepreneurship rendered them
insignificant (as partial regression coefficients). Th i sis
so because there is a reasonable degree of collinearity in
the levels of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship scores,
which further corroborates that higher scores were obtained
18. The Partial regression coefficients were in logarithmic form, which on taking antilog gave the values of 3.71 and 3.52 for labour and capital, respectively.
254
by the higher orders of entrepreneurship. establishing
further the validity of the scale used in this study.
It may be noted that beside labour and
the entrepreneurial scores turned out to be
capital.
the only
significant
production.
independent variable affecting the levels of
The negative sign of the partial regression
coefficient is consistent with the theory. in the sense that
the better quality of entrepreneurship utilises labour and
capital more efficiently. Therefore. these results
establish that it is possible to construct better measures
of entrepreneurship (despite its being a
variable) which can be combined with economic
qualitative
theory. In
addition. the technology and organisation could also be
arrived at quantitatively. which would aid in predicting
better the economic growth and development.
"ft~:-lIn the foregoing the relationship between cultural
values and entrepreneurship were discussed. The major
conclusion was that there was no contradiction between the
cultural values and entrepreneurship. In fact the better
religious observance was found to be associated with the
better quality of entrepreneurship. It is possible that
both reinforce each other. But this generalisation needs to
255
be extended to, by keeping in mind, the nature of religion,
culture and industry operating in this environment. I t is
possible, in more modern sectors, that the
, c ompartmen t alJ§ at ion' theory of Mil ton Singer _j~mQre
b I . bl H' d h· 19 applicab~E3 __ or etter app lca e to In u entrepreneurs Ip.
In case of .Mine's Muslim merchants2Q /(even lower levels of
entrepreneurship than the ones considered in this study),
the Islamic percept did not conflict wi th business
behaviour . .)v
However, 21 Papanek although seem to emphasise in
case of large scale entrepreneurs of Pakistan that there was
compartmentalisation between religion and work and, that
business behaviour did not have any origin in Islamic
tenets, yet accepts that religious tenets were absorbed into
the cultural system, which was fairly conducive to
entrepreneurship. In the present study, it appeared that
the cultural values varied according to the level of
entrepreneurship, and there was a better synthesis of
19. Singer, Milton, 1966, pp.497-505.
20. Mines, Behaviour of 1972.
Mattison, Muslim Merchants: The an Indian Muslim Community, SRCR,
Economic New Delhi.
21. Papanek. Henna, 'Pakistan's New Industrialists and Businessmen: Focus on the Memons, in Milton Singer (ed), Entrepreneurship and Modernisation Q! Occupational Cultures ~ South Asia, Monograph 12, Duke University. 1973. pp.61-106.
256
~eligious and cultural values with the improvisation of
entrepreneurship. or at least both do not conflict with each
other. The scales of religiosity. modernity and
entrepreneurship. corroborated it further and showed that
all the three atttributes move in the same direction. But.
it may be emphasised that religion by 'itself' has directly
not much to do with the quality of entrepreneurship. Since.
at lower levels all the three attributes were poor in
nature. which seem to a socio-structural 'syndrom'
consisting of lower levels of earning. less education. more
traditionality. weaker observance of Great Traditions of
Islam and stronger strains of Little Tradition. Therefore.
economic structure. cultural values and religious values
influence entrepreneurship in that order of importance) ~~
In the scale of entrepreneurship. the most common
personal entrepreneurial characteristics were incorporated
into 15 items and five dimensions. It need to be verified
which of the characteristics were singificantly different
for the categories of entrepreneurship. the chi-square
values were calculated for each of the 15 items across three
categories of entrepreneurship with 4 degrees of freedom.
The results are presented in table 8.6
257
TABLE 8.6
S . . i T f E . I Ch .. 2 2 19n1t cance est or ntrepreneurla aracter1st1es
Item No.
Innovative ness/Risk Taking
1 2 3
Background
4 5 6
Managerial Skills
7 8 9
Need for Achievement
10 11 12
Status withdrawl
13 14 15
Chi-Square Value
3.92 5.41 4.42
5.09 15.72';'
2.00
12.85';' 26.00';' 0.80
6.48+ 9.80+
11. 45+
3.77 3.76 4.76
* Significant at 1 per cent level of significance
+ Significant at 5 per cent level of significance.
22. The Items and difinitions of the demensions are given in Appendix II.
258
Items 1. 2 and 3 were not found statistically
significant. Therefore.
across three categories
there were not much differences
related to innovattiveness and
risk-taking ability. It could be corroborated through field
obsevations that innovations in the brassware were taking
place. but wherever such innovations occur. they are not
confined to one category of eontrepreneurship. The risk
taking ability was expected to have been higher at higher
levels of entrepreneurship. But. it may be pOinted out that
entrepreneurial risks involved were greatly absorbed by the
support system and various schemes of incentives. like
drawbacks. cash subsidies. relatively assured markets. as
most of the entrepreneurs work to orders.
Among background attitudinal variables (items 4. 5
and 6). the preference for own enterprises as against
employed occupations was found strong among higher orders of
entrepreneurship. The preference for education over
learning traditional skills was found relatively uniform
across three categories. A level of moderate education was
considered very important. Similarly. there was no
difference amongst the three categories on the type of
ownership partnership or propriety. which they thought
dependend on the situation. although most of them preferred
propriety concerns.
259
The three items (7,8 and 9) represented the
managarial skills and gap filling functions. From the table
i t is clear, that planning quality was 'a discriminatory
quality of entrepreneurship: higher orders showing stronger
preference for planning. Even stronger was the association
between the categories of entrepreneurship and managerial
functions like gap filling, input completing and overall
administration and superintAndence The attitude towards
treating the labour with harshness was
undesirable, as the industry displayed
industrial relations
considered
patrimonial
The variable on socialisation (item 10) was not
discriminatory accross three categories of entrepreneurship,
where family members often were not consulted on business
issues. But
significant
the scores for n.Achievement was found highly
(items 11 and 12 ) Therefore, this supports
that n. Ach. is an important entrepreneurial characteristic.
Both the itmes (13 and 14)related to status
wi thdrawl were found insgnificant. Most of the
entrepreneurs believed, both lower as well as higher
levels, that
irrespective of
last item ( 15 )
Muslims have little future
which political party was in
refl~cted the predominance
260
in India,
power. The
of paternal
relationship, where females had little say in the day-to-day
decisions related to the family affairs.
It may be concluded that innovativeness and risk
taking ability were not the important qualities of the
entrepreneurship in the artisan type of industry. Among the
backround variables, owning one's own business was found a
value of significance. The mannagerial skills and n .Ach.
were found distiguishing entrepreneurial characteristics.
The status withdrawl existed at the group level, rather thah
23 individual levels .
23. Although this scale was found usuable and thus results are valid. However, a more refined scale with larger number of items would have provided more stable conclusions, which could not be attempted in this study owing to the reluctance expressed by the entreprenerurs during field testing.
261