current status of electricity generation at thermal power ... · pdf filecurrent status of...

Current status of electricity generation at thermal power plants

Professor Igor Pioro1 and Professor Pavel Kirillov2 1Faculty of Energy Systems & Nuclear Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, 2000 Simcoe Str. N.,

Oshawa ON L1H 7K4 Canada. E-mail: [email protected] 2State Scientific Centre of the Russian Federation - Institute of Physics and Power Engineering (IPPE) named after A.I.

Leipunsky, Obninsk, Russia. E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords: Electricity generation; thermal power plants; coal-fired power plants; combined-cycle power plants; diesel generators.

1. Introduction

It is well known that the electrical-power generation is the key factor for advances in any other industries, agriculture and level of living (see Chapter 1) [1]. In general, electrical energy can be generated by: 1) non-renewable-energy sources such as coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear; and 2) renewable-energy sources such as hydro, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal and marine. However, the main sources for electrical-energy generation are: 1) thermal - primary coal and secondary natural gas; 2) “large” hydro and 3) nuclear. The rest of the energy sources might have visible impact just in some countries. In addition, the renewable-energy sources, for example, such as wind and solar and some others, are not really reliable sources for industrial-power generation, because they depend on Mother nature and relative costs of electrical energy generated by these and some other renewable-energy sources with exception of large hydro-electric power plants can be significantly higher than those generated by non-renewable-energy sources. Therefore, in this chapter various thermal power plants will be considered (renewable-energy power plants are considered in Chapter 1 and nuclear power plants – in Chapters 3 and 4). Usually, all thermal power plants are based on the following thermodynamic cycles [2]: 1) Rankine steam-turbine cycle (the mostly used in various power plants; usually, for solid and gaseous fuels, however, other energy sources can be also used, for example, solar, geothermal, etc.); 2) Brayton gas-turbine cycle (the second one after the Rankine cycle in terms of application in power industry; only for clean gaseous fuels); 3) combined cycle, i.e., combination of Brayton and Rankine cycles in one plant (only for clean gaseous fuels); 4) Diesel internal-combustion-engine cycle (only for Diesel fuel) (used in Diesel generators); and 5) Otto internal-combustion-engine cycle (usually, for natural or liquefied gas, but also, gasoline can be used for power generation, however, it is more expensive fuel compared to gaseous fuels) (also, used in internal-combustion-engine generators). In general, the term “thermal power plants” can include: 1) solid-fuel-fired power plants based on Rankine steam-turbine cycle, fuels - coal, lignite, peat, oil-shale, etc.; 2) gas-fired power plants – (a) Rankine steam-turbine cycle, (b) Brayton gas-turbine cycle and (c) combined cycle (combination of Brayton and Rankine cycles in one plant); 3) geothermal power plants (usually, Rankine steam-turbine cycle used; for details, see the previous chapter); 4) biofuel thermal power plants (usually Rankine steam-turbine cycle used; for details, see the previous chapter); 5) Diesel- and Otto-cycle-generators power plants; 5) concentrated-solar thermal power plants (Rankine steam-turbine cycle used; for details, see the previous chapter) and 6) recovered-energy generation thermal power plants (electricity at these plants is generated from waste energy such as high-temperature flue gases, etc.; Rankine steam-turbine cycle used) (http://www.ormat.com/recovered-energy). The major driving force for all advances in thermal power plants is thermal efficiency [2]. Ranges of thermal efficiencies of modern thermal power plants are listed in Table 1 for references purposes.

Materials and processes for energy: communicating current research and technological developments (A. Méndez-Vilas, Ed.)____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Table 1 Typical ranges of thermal efficiencies (gross1) of modern thermal power plants (shown just for reference purposes) [1] (capacity factors of thermal power plants are listed in the previous chapter).

No Power Plant Gross Efficiency

%

1 Combined-cycle power plant (combination of Brayton gas-turbine cycle (fuel - natural or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG); combustion-products parameters at the gas-turbine inlet: Tin ≈ 1650°C) and Rankine steam-turbine cycle (steam parameters at the turbine inlet: Tin ≈ 620°C (Tcr = 374°C)).

Up to 62

2 Supercritical-pressure coal-fired thermal power plant (new plants) (Rankine-cycle steam inlet turbine parameters: Pin ≈ 25 - 38 MPa (Pcr = 22.064 MPa), Tin ≈ 540 - 625°C (Tcr = 374°C) and Treheat ≈ 540 - 625°C).

Up to 55

3 Internal-combustion-engine generators (Diesel cycle and Otto cycle with natural gas as a fuel).

Up to 50

4 Subcritical-pressure coal-fired thermal power plant (older plants) (Rankine-cycle steam: Pin ≈ 17 MPa, Tin ≈ 540°C (Tcr = 374°C) and Treheat ≈ 540oC).

Up to 40

5 Concentrated-solar thermal power plants with heliostats, solar receiver (heat exchanger) on a tower and molten-salt heat-storage system (for details, see the previous chapter): Molten salt maximum temperature is about 565°C, Rankine steam-turbine power cycle used.

Up to 20

2. Coal-fired thermal power plants

For thousands years, mankind used and still is using wood and coal for heating purposes [1]. For about 100 years, coal is used for generating electrical energy at coal-fired thermal power plants worldwide. All coal-fired power plants (see Figs. 1 and 2) operate based on, so-called, Rankine steam-turbine cycle, which can be organized at two different levels of pressures: 1) older or smaller-capacity power plants operate at steam pressures no higher than 16 – 17 MPa and 2) modern large-capacity power plants operate at supercritical pressures from 23.5 MPa and up to 38 MPa (see Fig. 3). Supercritical pressures2 mean pressures above the critical pressure of water, which is 22.064 MPa (see Fig. 4). From thermodynamics it is well known that higher thermal efficiencies correspond to higher temperatures and pressures (see Table 1). Therefore, usually subcritical-pressure plants have thermal efficiencies of about 34 – 40% and modern supercritical-pressure plants – 45 – 55%. Steam-generators outlet temperatures or steam-turbine inlet temperatures have reached level of about 625°C (and even higher) at pressures of 25 – 30 (35 – 38) MPa. However, a common level is about 535 – 585°C at pressures of 23.5 – 25 MPa [3].

1 Gross thermal efficiency of a unit during a given period of time is the ratio of the gross electrical energy generated by a unit to the

thermal energy of a fuel consumed during the same period by the same unit. The difference between gross and net thermal efficiencies includes internal needs for electrical energy of a power plant, which might be not so small (5% or even more).

2 See some explanations on supercritical-pressures specifics at the end of this section.


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Fig. 1 Typical scheme of coal-fired thermal power plant (Wikipedia, 2012): 1) Cooling tower; 2) Cooling-water pump; 3) Transmission line (3-phase); 4) Step-up transformer (3-phase); 5) Electrical generator (3-phase); 6) Low-pressure steam turbine; 7) Condensate pump; 8) Surface condenser; 9) Intermediate-pressure steam turbine; 10) Steam control valve; 11) High-pressure steam turbine; 12) Deaerator; 13) Feedwater heater; 14) Coal conveyor; 15) Coal hopper; 16) Coal pulverizer; 17) Boiler steam drum; 18) Bottom-ash hopper; 19) Superheater; 20) Forced-draught (draft) fan; 21) Reheater; 22) Combustion-air intake; 23) Economiser; 24) Air preheater; 25) Precipitator; 26) Induced-draught fan; and 27) Flue-gas stack.

Fig. 2 Photo of the largest in the world 5,780-MWel Taichung coal-fired power plant (Taiwan) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author/username 照片_064.jpg; 阿爾特斯). The plant equipped with 550 MWel × 10 coal-fired steam generators-turbines + 70 MWel × 4 gas-fired steam generators-turbines and is the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide with over 40 million tons per year. (Source: Wikipedia).


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Table 2 lists top 6 largest coal-fired power plants in the world. For reference purposes selected data on Genesee Power Plant (Alberta, Canada) (EPCOR coal-fired power plant with 2 units at subcritical pressures and 1 unit at supercritical pressures) [4] are provided below. The plant consists of three generating units:

• Units G1 & G2 – each 381 MWel net/410 MWel gross (built in 1989 and 1994, respectively); and • Unit G3 (the only one in Canada supercritical-pressure coal-fired power unit) – 450 MWel net/490 MWel gross,

i.e., internal needs are 40 MWel or 8.2% from gross ($695-million unit recently completed in 2005). Operating design parameters for G3:

• Typical net annual production – 3,745 GWh; • Requires 1.8 million tonnes of coal annually, therefore, a large surface mine adjacent to the plant; and • Ash production ~41 tonnes per hour = ~360,000 tonnes annually.

G3 Supercritical-boiler technology • Combustion-chamber temperatures of supercritical-pressure boiler reaches ~1,400°C; and • G3 boiler produces steam at 26 MPa - ~50% higher than the pressures in G1 & G2.

Hitachi-turbine information: 495 MW, TCDF-40, 3600 rpm, steam (primary) - 24.1 MPa & 566/566°C (reheat). Genesee Cooling Pond • Artificial pond covering 735 hectares (1 hectare 100 m × 100 m) = 7.35 km2; • Contains 34 million m3 of water; • Can provide cooling water for up to four 400-MWel units (1,600 MWel combined); and • Water level in the pond maintained by pumping water from North Saskatchewan River.

Fig. 3 Supercritical-pressure single-reheat regenerative cycle 600-MWel Tom’-Usinsk thermal power plant (Russia) layout [5]: Cond P – Condensate Pump; CP – Circulation Pump; Cyl – Cylinder; GCHP – Gas Cooler of High Pressure; GCLP – Gas Cooler of Low Pressure; H – Heat exchanger (feedwater heater); HP – High Pressure; IP – Intermediate Pressure; LP – Low Pressure; and TDr – Turbine Drive.


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Table 2 Top 6 largest coal-fired power plants in the world by installed capacity3 (Wikipedia, 2012).

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel

1 Taichung Power Plant (see Fig. 2) Taiwan 5,780

2 Tuoketuo Power Plant China 5,400

3 Bełchatów Power Plant Poland 5,354

4 Guodian Beilun Power Plant China 5,000

4 Waigaoqiao Power Plant China 5,000

4 Guohoa Taishan Power Plant China 5,000

In spite of advances in coal-fired power-plants design and operation worldwide they are still considered as not environmental friendly due to producing a lot of carbon-dioxide emissions as a result of combustion process plus ash, slag and even acid rains [6]. However, it should be admitted that known resources of coal worldwide are the largest compared to that of other fossil fuels (natural gas and oil). For better understanding specifics of supercritical water compared to water at subcritical pressures it is important to define special terms and expressions used at these conditions. For better understanding of these terms and expressions Figs. 4 – 7 are shown below.

Definitions of Selected Terms and Expressions Related to Critical and Supercritical Regions [7, 8] Compressed fluid is a fluid at a pressure above the critical pressure, but at a temperature below the critical temperature. Critical point (also called a critical state) is a point in which the distinction between the liquid and gas (or vapour) phases disappears, i.e., both phases have the same temperature, pressure and specific volume or density. The critical point is characterized by the phase-state parameters Tcr, Pcr and Vcr (or ρcr), which have unique values for each pure substance. Near-critical point is actually a narrow region around the critical point, where all thermophysical properties of a pure fluid exhibit rapid variations. Pseudocritical line is a line, which consists of pseudocritical points. Pseudocritical point (characterized with Ppc and Tpc) is a point at a pressure above the critical pressure and at a temperature (Tpc > Tcr) corresponding to the maximum value of the specific heat at this particular pressure. Supercritical fluid is a fluid at pressures and temperatures that are higher than the critical pressure and critical temperature. However, in the present chapter, a term supercritical fluid includes both terms – a supercritical fluid and compressed fluid. Supercritical “steam” is actually supercritical water, because at supercritical pressures fluid is considered as a single-phase substance. However, this term is widely (and incorrectly) used in the literature in relation to supercritical “steam” generators and turbines. Superheated steam is a steam at pressures below the critical pressure, but at temperatures above the critical temperature.

General trends of various properties near the critical and pseudocritical points [3, 7, 8] can be illustrated on a basis of those of water. Figure 4 shows variations in basic thermophysical properties of water at a supercritical pressure of 25 MPa (also, in addition, see Fig. 5). Thermophysical properties of 105 pure fluids including water, carbon dioxide, helium, refrigerants, etc., 5 pseudo-pure fluids (such as air) and mixtures with up to 20 components at different pressures and temperatures, including critical and supercritical regions, can be calculated using the NIST REFPROP software (2010) [9]. At critical and supercritical pressures a fluid is considered as a single-phase substance in spite of the fact that all thermophysical properties undergo significant changes within critical and pseudocritical regions (see Fig. 4). Near the critical point, these changes are dramatic (see Fig. 5). In the vicinity of pseudocritical points, with an increase in pressure, these changes become less pronounced (see Fig. 6).

3 It should be noted that the information provided in the table is considered to be correct within some period of time. New units can

be added and/or some units can be out of service due to repairs, refurbishment, etc.


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Temperature, oC

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650

Pres

sure

, MPa

5.0

7.5

10.0

12.5

15.0

17.5

20.0

22.5

25.0

27.5

30.0

32.5

35.0

Critical Point

Pseu

docr

itica

l Lin

e

Liquid

SteamSatu

ratio

n Li

ne Superheated Steam

Supercritical Fluid

High Density(liquid-like)

Low Density(gas-like)

T cr=3

73.9

5o C

Pcr=22.064 MPa

Compressed Fluid

Fig. 4 Pressure-Temperature diagram for water.

At supercritical pressures properties such as density (see Fig. 5) and dynamic viscosity undergo a significant drop (near the critical point this drop is almost vertical) within a very narrow temperature range, while the kinematic viscosity and specific enthalpy (see Fig. 5) undergo a sharp increase. The volume expansivity, specific heat, thermal conductivity and Prandtl number have peaks near the critical and pseudocritical points (see Figs. 5 and 6). Magnitudes of these peaks decrease very quickly with an increase in pressure (see Figure 6). Also, “peaks” transform into “humps” profiles at pressures beyond the critical pressure. It should be noted that the dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity and thermal conductivity (see Fig. 5) undergo through the minimum right after critical and pseudocritical points. The specific heat of water (as well as of other fluids) has a maximum value in the critical point. The exact temperature that corresponds to the specific-heat peak above the critical pressure is known as a pseudocritical temperature (see Fig. 4). At pressures approximately above 300 MPa (see Fig. 6) a peak (here it is better to say “a hump”) in specific heat almost disappears, therefore, such term as a pseudocritical point does not exist anymore. The same applies to the pseudocritical line. It should be noted that peaks in the thermal conductivity and volume expansivity may not correspond to the pseudocritical temperature [3, 7, 8].


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Water, P=25 MPa

Temperature, oC

300 400 500 600

Flui

d D

ensi

ty, k

g/m

3

0

200

400

600

800

Ther

mal

Con

duct

ivity

, W/m

K

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Pra

ndtl

Num

ber

0

2

4

6

8

10

Bulk

Flu

id E

ntha

lpy,

kJ/

kg

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

DensityThermal conductivityPrandtl numberBulk fluid enthalpy

~50oC

Fig. 5 Variations of selected thermophysical properties of water near pseudocritical point: Pseudocritical region at 25 MPa is about ~50°C.

Temperature Ratio, T/Tcr

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Spec

ific

Hea

t, kJ

/kg

K

5

7

10

20

30

50

70

3

6

8

15

40

60

80

4

25

2.5

p = 25 MPa p =100 MPa p =200 MPa p =300 MPa

Water

Temperature, oC

50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Den

sity

, kg/

m3

10

20

3040

6080

100

200

300400

600800

1000P=15 MPaP=11 MPa

P= 7 MPa

P=7

MPa

, Ts=

285.

8o C

P=11

MPa

, Ts=

318.

1o C

P=15

MPa

, Ts=

342.

2o C

Liquid

Vapor

Water

Fig. 6 Specific heat variations at various supercritical pressures: Water.

Fig. 7 Density variations at various subcritical pressures for water: Liquid and vapour.

In general, crossing the pseudocritical line from left to right (see Fig. 4) is quite similar as crossing the saturation line from liquid into vapour. The major difference in crossing these two lines is that all changes (even drastic variations) in thermophysical properties at supercritical pressures are gradual and continuous, which take place within a certain temperature range (see Fig. 5). On the contrary, at subcritical pressures there is properties discontinuation on the saturation line: one value for liquid and another for vapour (see Fig. 7). Therefore, supercritical fluids behave as single-phase substances [10]. Also, when dealing with supercritical fluids we usually apply the term “pseudo” in front of a critical point, boiling, film boiling, etc. Specifics of heat transfer at supercritical pressures can be found in [3, 8, 10-12].


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3. Combined-cycle thermal power plants

Natural gas is considered as a relatively “clean” fossil fuel compared to coal and oil, but still emits a lot of carbon dioxide due to combustion process when it used for electrical generation. The most efficient modern thermal power plants with thermal efficiencies within a range of 50 – 62% are, so-called, combined-cycle power plants, which use natural gas as a fuel4 (see Figs. 8 and 9 and Table 3). In spite of advances in thermal power plants design and operation, they still emit carbon dioxide into atmosphere, which is currently considered as one of the major reasons for a climate change. In addition, all fossil-fuel resources are depleting quite fast. Therefore, a new reliable and environmental friendly source for the electrical-energy generation should be considered.

Fig. 8 Working principle of combined-cycle thermal power plant (gas turbine (Brayton cycle) and steam turbine (Rankine cycle) plant) (Wikipedia, 2012): 1 electrical generators; 2 steam turbine; 3 condenser; 4 circulation pump; 5 steam generator / exhaust-gases heat exchanger; and 6 gas turbine. Table 3 Top 5 largest gas-fired power plants in the world by installed capacity (Wikipedia, 2012).

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel

1 Kawagoe Power Plant Japan 4,800

2 Higashi-Niigata Power Plant Japan 4,600

3 Futtsu Power Plant (see Fig. 9) Japan 4,530

4 Tatan Power Plant Taiwan 4,380

5 Chita Power Plant Japan 3,970

4 It should be noted that some of these plants can use other gaseous fuels, for example, such as blast-furnace gas (based on

information from the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI)) or synthesis gas (Wikipedia, 2012).


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Fig. 9 Photo of the third largest in the world 4,534-MWel Futtsu natural-gas-fired combined-cycle power plant (Japan) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author Mr. Hayata). The plant consists of 5 generating units: 1,520 MWel × 1 + 1,000 MWel × 2 + 507 MWel × 2, and uses Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) (Source: Wikipedia).

4. Internal-combustion-engine generators

In general, internal-combustion-engine generators or power units with Diesel cycle and Otto cycle with natural gas as a fuel are used in local grids and as a back-up power at nuclear and other power plants. As an example, the largest in the world Diesel-generator plant is 200-MWel GMR, Vasavi Basin Bridge Diesel-Generator Plant (Chennai (formerly Madras) India) (http://www.metso.com and www.hyundaicorp.com). This plant is equipped with 50 MWel × 4 Hyundai diesel engines (a size of each engine is about 5-storey building). The largest in the world 18-cylinder Otto-cycle natural-gas-engine (18V50SG) power-generating unit with output of up to 18.3 MWel, 50 Hz & 500 rpm is manufactured by WÄRTSILÄ, Finland. The natural-gas fuelled, lean-burn, medium-speed engine is a reliable, high-efficiency and low-pollution power source for flexible base load, intermediate peaking and combined-cycle power plants. The plant thermal efficiency is 48.6%. Engine dimensions in meters are: Length – 18.8; width – 5.33; height – 6.34; bore – 500 mm; and weight – 360 t. The engine is a 4-stroke spark-ignition with a pre-chamber. Emergency or back-up power diesel generators have power output within the range of 3000 – 8000 kW.

5. Conclusions

1. Major sources for electrical-energy generation in the world are fuel-fired thermal power plants: primary - coal-fired and secondary –natural-gas-fired.

2. In general, the major driving force for all advances in thermal power plants is thermal efficiency. Ranges of gross thermal efficiencies of modern power plants are as the following: 1) Combined-cycle thermal power plants – up to 62%; and 2) Supercritical-pressure coal-fired thermal power plants – up to 55%; which are the highest efficiencies in the power industry.

3. Thermal power plants, especially, coal-fired, are so-called “fast-response” power plants, which can easily and rapidly change loads. Therefore, they are very important for any electrical grid in terms of its stability and reliability to follow up with electricity-demand variations during a day and/or to operate together with renewable-energy power plants such as wind, solar, etc.

4. In spite of advances in coal-fired thermal power-plants design and operation worldwide they are still considered as not environmental friendly due to producing a lot of carbon-dioxide emissions as a result of combustion process plus ash, slag and even acid rains.


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5. Combined-cycle thermal power plants with natural-gas fuel are considered as relatively clean fossil-fuel-fired plants compared to coal- and oil-fired power plants, but still emit a lot of carbon dioxide due to combustion process.

6. In general, the term “thermal power plants” can include in addition: 1) geothermal power plants (usually, Rankine steam-turbine cycle used); 2) biofuel thermal power plants (usually Rankine steam-turbine cycle used); 3) Diesel- and Otto-cycle-generators power plants; 4) concentrated-solar thermal power plants (Rankine steam-turbine cycle used) and 6) recovered-energy generation thermal power plants (electricity at these plants is generated from waste energy such as high-temperature flue gases, etc.; Rankine steam-turbine cycle used).

7. In general, internal-combustion-engine generators or power units with Diesel cycle and Otto cycle with natural gas as a fuel are used in local grids and as a back-up power at nuclear and other power plants. Their efficiencies have reached a level of 50%.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their great appreciation to unidentified authors of Wikipedia-website articles and authors of the photos from the Wikimedia Commons website, which have been used in this chapter. Also, materials provided by various companies and used in this chapter are gratefully acknowledged.

Nomenclature

P , p pressure, Pa

T temperature, ºC V specific volume, m3/kg Greek letters ρ density, kg/m3

Subscripts cr critical el electrical in inlet pc pseudocritical

References [1] Pioro, I., 2012. Nuclear Power as a Basis for Future Electricity Production in the World, Chapter #10 in the book: Current

Research in Nuclear Reactor Technology in Brazil and Worldwide, Editors: A.Z. Mesquita and H.C. Rezende, INTECH, Rijeka, Croatia, pp. 211-250.

[2] Cengel, Yu.A. and Boles, M.A., 2011. Thermodynamics. An Engineering Approach, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA, 1023 pages.

[3] Pioro, I.L. and Duffey, R.B., 2007. Heat Transfer and Hydraulic Resistance at Supercritical Pressures in Power Engineering Applications, ASME Press, New York, NY, USA, 328 pages.

[4] EPCOR Genesee Generating Station Phase 3. Project Background. January 9, 2007. CIV E 240 Technical Communications. W. Kindzierski, Dept. Civil & Environmental Engineering.

[5] Kruglikov, P.A., Smolkin, Yu.V. and Sokolov, K.V., 2009. Development of engineering solutions for thermal scheme of power unit of thermal power plant with supercritical parameters of steam, (In Russian), Proc. Int. Workshop "Supercritical Water and Steam in Nuclear Power Engineering: Problems and Solutions”, Moscow, Russia, October 22–23, 6 pages.

[6] Pioro, L.S., Pioro, I.L., Soroka, B.S. and Kostyuk, T.O. 2010. Advanced Melting Technologies with Submerged Combustion, RoseDog Publ. Co., Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 420 pages.

[7] Pioro, I. and Mokry, S., 2011. Thermophysical Properties at Critical and Supercritical Conditions, Chapter in book “Heat Transfer. Theoretical Analysis, Experimental Investigations and Industrial Systems”, Editor: A. Belmiloudi, INTECH, Rijeka, Croatia, pp. 573-592.

[8] Pioro, I., Mokry, S. and Draper, Sh., 2011. Specifics of Thermophysical Properties and Forced-Convective Heat Transfer at Critical and Supercritical Pressures, Reviews in Chemical Engineering, Vol. 27, Issue 3-4, pp. 191–214.

[9] National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2010. NIST Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP. NIST Standard Reference Database 23, Ver. 9.0. Boulder, CO, U.S.: Department of Commerce.

[10] Gupta, S., Saltanov, Eu., Mokry, S.J., et al., 2013. Developing Empirical Heat-Transfer Correlations for Supercritical CO2 Flowing in Vertical Bare Tubes, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. , pp. -.

[11] Pioro, I. and Mokry, S., 2011. Heat Transfer to Fluids at Supercritical Pressures, Chapter in book “Heat Transfer. Theoretical Analysis, Experimental Investigations and Industrial Systems”, Editor: A. Belmiloudi, INTECH, Rijeka, Croatia, pp. 481-504.

[12] Mokry, S., Pioro, I.L., Farah, A., et al., 2011. Development of Supercritical Water Heat-Transfer Correlation for Vertical Bare Tubes, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 241, pp. 1126-1136.


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