CV’s and summaries

from our speakers at the WBFSH seminar

October 2015

in Vienna, Austria

Inbreeding  and  inbreeding  depression:  new  views  from  a  genomic  perspective  

Johann  Sölkner,  University  of  Natural  Resources  and  Life  Sciences,  Vienna  johann.soelkner@boku.ac.at  

 

Breeding  true  to  a  particular  phenotype  and  careful  use  of  pedigree  information  have  been  of  key  importance  in  horse  breeding  since  the  publication  of  the  first  General  Stud  Book  by  James  Weatherby  in  1791.  A  mix  of  careful  line  breeding  to  important  ancestors,  increasing  inbreeding  levels  of  line  bred  individuals,  and  general  avoidance  of  inbreeding  otherwise  has  been  practiced  in  many  horse  breeds.  Breeders  know  how  to  calculate  inbreeding  levels  from  pedigree  information  and  they  use  this  information  in  their  mating  decisions.  Pedigree  inbreeding  coefficients  of  full  sibs  are  identical  because  they  are  calculated  from  the  occurrence  of  common  ancestors  shared  between  their  parents.  In  reality,  the  inbreeding  coefficients  of  full  sibs  are  not  identical  because  the  parents  transmit  different  subsets  of  their  genomes  to  each  offspring.    

The  ability  to  visualize  what  particular  parts  of  the  parental  genomes  have  been  transmitted  to  offspring  with  high  throughput  genotype  (SNP  chip)  data  provides  the  opportunity  to  get  a  much  more  accurate  estimate  of  the  level  of  inbreeding  of  an  individual.  It  is  also  possible  to  see  which  particular  parts  of  the  genome  of  an  animal  have  received  identical  ancestral  information  from  both  parents.  This  presentation  introduces  the  concept  of  runs  of  homozygosity  for  calculation  of  inbreeding  levels  of  individuals  from  SNP  chip  data  and  compares  this  information  with  pedigree  inbreeding.    

Inbreeding  depression  is  an  indication  of  the  reduced  fitness  of  a  population  due  to  mating  of  related  individuals.  Inbreeding  negatively  affects  individuals  mostly  due  to  genetic  mechanisms  called  dominance  and  overdominance.  The  improved  calculation  of  inbreeding  levels  with  genomic  data  also  allows  better  understanding  on  the  effects  of  inbreeding  depression.  Genes  causing  inbreeding  depression  can  be  found.  This  is  interesting  scientifically  because  it  adds  to  our  knowledge  of  biology.  In  practice  recessive  disorders,  which  are  part  of  inbreeding  depression,  can  be  systematically  avoided  by  genotyping  breeding  animals  and  not  mating  individuals  that  are  both  carriers  of  genetic  variants  causing  a  particular  recessive  disorder.  

Genomics  has  brought  a  new  set  of  tools  to  horse  breeders,  very  helpful  when  making  mating  decisions  at  a  rather  cheap  price.  They  should  be  used,  in  my  opinion.    

 

 

 

Genetic characterisation of stallion lines with genetic markers on the Y chromosome

Barbara Wallner, Gottfried Brem

Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna

The establishment and maintenance of stallion lines is of major importance in horse breeding. The adjustment of horse breeds to certain breeding goals is mainly achieved through the use of strongly selected males. As a result only few very popular stallions are responsible for the paternal lineages within a breed. The ancestry and the relationship between influential breeding stallions is in general documented in pedigrees - but often the origin of stallion lineages is in doubt. We show that polymorphic markers on the Y chromosome are useful to elucidate the origin of individual stallion lines and enable a pedigree-independent genetic characterisation of stallion lines.

In mammals, an individual’s sex is determined by the chromosomes it inherits from its parents. Two X chromosomes lead to a female, whereas one X and one Y lead to a male. Y chromosomes are only passed from fathers to sons, so each Y chromosome represents the male genealogy of the animal in question. This means that an analysis of the genetic material of the Y chromosome can give information on the male ancestry. Due to strong male biased selection in horses, the Y chromosomes of modern horses show far less variability than those of other domestic animals. With the use of new sequencing technologies we analysed the Y chromosomes of stallions from different European and American breeds. Based on the sequencing we constructed a network that visualizes the genetic relationship of particular stallion lines. Arabian, Turkoman, Spanish and Northern European founders can be clearly distinguished. One Y chromosomal lineage is indicative for the English Thoroughbred stallion ‘Eclipse’. The widespread distribution of this lineage reflects the influence of this Thoroughbred line in horse breeding. Almost all English Thoroughbreds and nearly half the modern sport horse breeds carry the Eclipse variant.

The Y chromosome data clearly show the influence of stallions from the Middle East to European and American breeds and the Y chromosomal network will serve as a useful backbone in further classification of stallion lines in various breeds.

Inbreeding and genetic variability in Holstein Horse breed ascertained by pedigree data

L. Roos*, D. Hinrichs*, T. Nissen†, J. Krieter*

*Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Christian-Albrechts-University, Hermann-

Rodewald-Straße 6, D-24118 Kiel, Germany

† Verband der Züchter des Holsteiner Pferdes e.V., Abteilung Zucht, D-24106 Kiel, Germany

Abstract

A pedigree data set including 129,923 Holstein warmblood horses was analyzed to determine

genetic diversity, coefficients of inbreeding, the age of inbreeding and the genetic

contributions of founder animals and foreign breeds. The reference population includes all

horses which had been born between 1990 and 2010. The average Pedigree Completeness

Index (PEC) for the reference population was determined as 0.88 and the average complete

generation equivalent (GE) was computed at 5.62. The mean coefficient of inbreeding for the

reference population (inbred and non-inbred horses) was 2.27%. Most of the inbreeding was

defined as “new” inbreeding, which had evolved during recent generations. The effective

population size and the effective number of founders were calculated to be 55.31 and 50.2

effective individuals respectively. The most influential foreign breed was the English

Thoroughbred with a contribution of 25.98%, followed by Anglo Normans (16.38%) and

Anglo Arabians (3.27%). At 2.75%, Hanoverian warmblood horses were determined to be the

most contributiv German horse breed. The stallions Cor de la bryere, Ladykiller xx and

Cottage son xx were found to be the most important male ancestors. The mare Warthburg was

defined as the most affecting female. It was possible to detect the occurrence of the loss of

genetic variability within the Holstein horse breed, related to unequal founder contributions

caused by the intensive use of particular sire lines. However, a slight increase in the effective

population size and a stagnation of inbreeding during the last generation might show the

impact of more open access given to foreign stallions in the recent past.

New  methods  for  the  validation  of  scoring  results  in  the  classification  procedure  of  equine  conformation  

Dr.  Thomas  Druml  

Institut  für  Tierzucht  und  Genetik,  Veterinärmedizinische  Universität  Wien,  Veterinärplatz  1,  A-­‐1210  Wien  (email:  thomas.druml@vetmeduni.ac.at;  web:  www.hippo-­‐logos.com)  

New  methods  from  the  field  of  image  analysis  have  been  used  for  the  description  of  shape  variation  within  a  herd  of  Lipizzan  horses  from  the  state  stud  farm  of  Piber.  This  variation  can  be  expressed  in  a  set  of  so  called  "shape  variables.  Based  on  246  two-­‐dimensional  anatomical  and  somatometric  landmarks,  digitized  from  standardized  photographs  we  applied  generalized  orthogonal  least-­‐squares  Procrustes  (GPA)  procedures  and  the  resulting  shape  variables  have  been  regressed  to  the  results  from  linear  type  trait  classifications.  The  relation  of  the  classification  results  and  the  biological  shape  variation  of  the  horses  also  can  be  expressed  grafically  and  be  tested  for  significance  for  a  correct  ranking.  The  rating  scores  of  eight  conformation  classifiers  were  tested  for  agreement  yielding  an  inter-­‐rater  correlation  ranging  from  0.30  to  0.69,  respectively  a  Kappa  coefficient  ranging  from  0.08  to  0.53.  From  the  twelve  linear  type  traits  assessed  on  a  valuating  scale,  only  the  type  related  traits  (type,  breed  type  and  harmony)  revealed  significant  results  in  a  regression  analysis  of  the  biological  shape  variables  of  horses  and  their  linear  type  traits.  The  other  functional  traits  were  characterized  by  a  lower  agreement  between  classifiers  and  didn’t  result  in  a  significant  shape  regression.    

In  this  research  project  we  examine  which  strategies  and  procedures  of  image  processing  techniques  in  horses  may  lead  to  a  successful  interpretation  of  the  traits  (Druml  et  al.,  2015).  Moreover,  we  test  the  applicability  and  the  possibilities  of  image  analysis  for  the  purpose  of  animal  breeding  where  the  body  shape  –  also  called  conformation  –  is  a  central  part  of  breeding  and  selection  concepts.  Based  on  two-­‐dimensional  anatomical  and  somatometric  landmarks  digitized  from  standardized  images,  variation  of  shape  within  a  population  of  Lipizzan  horses  was  analyzed  using  generalized  orthogonal  least-­‐squares  Procrustes  (GPA)  procedures  and  correlated  to  the  results  from  linear  type  trait  classifications.  The  combination  of  “objective”  measures  from  the  horse  shapes  and  the  evaluations  from  the  classifiers  could  be  a  tool  for  standardizing  and  fine  calibrating  selection  procedures  and  breeding  objectives  (see  Figure  1).  The  objective  of  the  “new  phenotyping”  is  to  increase  the  accuracy,  objectivity  and  throughput  of  phenotypic  estimation  and  it  can  be  a  tool  for  the  definition  of  a  breeding  objective  as  well  a  discrimination  tool  for  the  selection  of  appropriate  animals  from  different  genetic  background  or  genealogical  origin.  It  also  can  be  used  for  calibration  of  judges’  classifications  and  as  a  training  and  evaluation  tool  for  harmonizing  the  judges’  classifications.  

 

Literature:  

Druml  T,  Dobretsberger  M  and  Brem  G  (2015):  The  use  of  novel  phenotyping  methods  for  validation  of  equine  conformation  scoring  results.  animal  01/2015;  9(06):1-­‐10.  DOI:10.1017/S1751731114003309  

 

 

 

Fig.1.  Graphical  summary  of  a  novel  method  of  phenotyping  which  is  used  for  analysing  breeding  objectives  and  subjective  ratings  of  classifiers.  

   

1) Mean  shapes  and  shape  distribution  in  Lipizzan  mares  (left)  and  stallions  (right)  

2) Averaged  shape  of  the  “mean”  Lipizzan  stallion  in  the  stud  farm  of  Piber  

 

3) Ratings  of  classifiers  (trait  type)  regressed  on  the  shape  variables  of  Lipizzan  stallions  and  recalculated  for  the  trait  type  =  5,  mean  of  type  =  7.8,  type  =  10.  Shape  changes  according  to  the  judges  ratings  also  were  used  for  the  recalculation  of  averaged  images  (left  type  score  of  5,  right  type  score  of  10)  –  the  negative  and  positive  “ideals”  of  the  breeding  objective  within  one  trait.  

 

Lifenumber:XX

Name: XX

Date of

birth

Sire:Name

(LN)

Dam:Name

(LN)

Number of foals with mit Linear profile (2013): N= 18

Linear profile CONFORMATION

Average

Std.

N Nk:−3

−2

−1

0

+1

+2

+3

(Breed−)Type [plain – true to type]

0.89

0.68

0

0

0

5

10

3

0

Gender expression [Weak − strong]

0.17

0.51

0

0

1

13

4

0

0

Frame [small framed – large framed]

−0.11

0.47

0

0

3

14

1

0

0

Caliber [light − havy]

−0.11

0.47

0

1

0

17

0

0

0

Feeding state [undernourished − fat]

−0.06

0.54

0

0

3

13

2

0

0

Length of legs [short legged – long legged]

0.00

1.14

0

2

3

8

3

2

0

Harmony of proportions [unharmonious − harmonious]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Body shape [square − (long−)rectangular]

0.00

0.69

0

1

0

16

0

1

0

Body direction [downhill − uphill]

−0.11

0.32

0

0

2

16

0

0

0

Head coarseness [coarse – fine ]

0.28

0.75

0

0

2

10

5

1

0

Eye size [small − large]

0.00

0.34

0

0

1

16

1

0

0

Set of Neck [low − high]

−0.28

0.57

0

1

3

14

0

0

0

Muscling area of neck [Ewe-necked – Top line dominated neck]

0.22

0.55

0

0

0

15

2

1

0

Shape of neck [straight − arched]

0.06

0.42

0

0

1

15

2

0

0

Neck connection to withers [0 – marked notch]

0.06

0.24

17

1

0

0

Hight of withers [flat − high]

−0.06

0.24

0

0

1

17

0

0

0

Length of shoulder [short − long]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Shoulder angle [straight − sloping]

0.00

0.34

0

0

1

16

1

0

0

Lenght of back [short − long]

0.11

0.32

0

0

0

16

2

0

0

Line (strenght) of back [dipped − roached]

−0.39

0.61

0

1

5

12

0

0

0

Line (strength) of loins [dipped − roached]

−0.06

0.24

0

0

1

17

0

0

0

Angle (inclination) of croup [flat − sloping]

0.28

0.57

0

0

0

14

3

1

0

Shape of croup [angular − round]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Length of forelimb pastern [short − long]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Stance of forelimb pastern [upright − sloping]

−0.67

1.03

0

6

1

10

1

0

0

Length of hindlimb pastern [short − long]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Stance of hindlimb pastern [upright − sloping]

−0.11

0.32

0

0

2

16

0

0

0

Length of cannonbones [short – long]

0.11

0.32

0

0

0

16

2

0

0

Strength of joints [small − big]

−0.33

0.84

0

2

4

10

2

0

0

Quality (hardness) of joints [blurred − lean]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Definition of carpus [flat − distinct]

0.00

0.34

0

0

1

16

1

0

0

Definition of carpus-cannon articulation [flat – tied in]

0.22

0.43

0

0

0

14

4

0

0

Hock angulation [upright − angulated]

0.06

0.42

0

0

1

15

2

0

0

Definition of tarsus-cannon articulation [flat – tied in]

0.17

0.51

0

0

0

16

1

1

0

Heel hight [flat hoof/low heels – high heels/club foot (+3)]

0.11

0.47

0

0

0

17

0

1

0

Toe stance of forelegs [toe-in – toe-out]

1.11

0.90

0

0

0

6

4

8

0

unilateral N= 8, bilateral N= 4

Linear profile MOVEMENT

Average

Std.

N Nk:−3

−2

−1

0

+1

+2

+3

WALK rhythm [unregelmaessig − geregelt]

0.00

0.00

0

0

0

18

0

0

0

WALK suppleness [stiff − elastic]

0.06

0.54

0

0

1

16

0

1

0

WALK freedom of shpoulders [short − long]

0.50

0.86

0

0

1

10

4

3

0

WALK reach of hind limbs [inactive (short) – active (long) ]

0.39

1.04

0

0

4

6

5

3

0

TROT rhythm [irregular − regular]

0.17

0.38

0

0

0

15

3

0

0

TROT mechanics of front limbs [straight – much knee-action ]

0.28

0.83

0

0

3

8

6

1

0

TROT Impulsion [weak − powerful]

1.00

0.69

0

0

0

4

10

4

0

TROT Thrust (hind limb activity) [inactive – acitive ]

0.89

0.76

0

0

0

6

8

4

0

TROT carrying power [pushing − carrying]

−0.11

0.32

0

0

2

16

0

0

0

TROT suppleness [tense − supple]

0.06

0.24

0

0

0

17

1

0

0

Tail tone [un-toned – over-toned/tense]

−0.28

0.67

0

2

1

15

0

0

0

CANTER ground covering [little − much]

0.00

0.00

0

0

0

18

0

0

0

Organisa(on  of  Horse  Breeding  in  Austria  

Pla$orm  Pferd  Austria  

Austrian  Horse  Breeding  

Associa(on  (ZAP)  

9.775  breeders  (48  breeds)  

Equine  Centre  Stadl-­‐Paura  

Austrian  Federal  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Forestry,  

Environment  and  Water  

Management  

Working  groups  for  Haflinger,  Noriker,  

Warmblood,  Pinto  horses  

Federal  horse  breeding  associaFons  

Chambers  of  Agriculture  

by Leopold ErasimusManager of Austrian Horse Breeding Association

Preview

1. Organisation of Horse Breeding in Austria2. Horse Breedings in Terms of Numbers3. The Austrian Warmblood4. Breed & Sports5. Studies6. Challenges

Horse breeding in Austria„Tradition with a Future“

Organisation of Horse Breeding in Austria

Chart 4  

WBFSH  2015  

Horse  Breeding    in  Terms  of  Numbers  2014  

    Breeders   Registered     Registered     Foals           Mares   Stallions                          Haflinger  horses   2.671   3.371   101   561  Noriker  horses   3.332   4.503   194   1.531  Warmblood  horses   1.615   2.318   112   375  Ponies   275   521   98   74  Special  Breeds   216   404   74   74  Thoroughbred   48   60   6   9  Arabian  Thoroughbred   243   328   42   65  Arabian  Horse   125   117   38   29  Arabian  Haflinger   100   175   21   7  Quarter  Horse   1.150   2.770   1.265   238       9.775   14.567   1.951   2.963  

Austrian Warmblood - Principles

a) Breeding Objective: Utilisation as riding horse

b) Breeding Technique: Pure and crossbreeding at least 3 generations of ancestors Austrian Warmblood or other accepted breeds according to appendix of stud book regulations

c) Performance tests: u Stallions only with performance record (70 day test, 30 day test with successes in sports, sports successes on own account) u Mares’ performance tests not compulsory

d) Health: Comprehensive clinical and radiological examinations for stallions

Horse Breeding in Terms of Numbers 2014

u ca. 400.000 riders and drivers in Austriau ca. 25.000 horse keepers (businesses) in Austria --> only 5.4 % of businesses and 11.8 % of riders and drivers in organisations

Starts   Percentage  Dressage   7.221   23.2  Show  Jumping   11.769   15.3  Even?ng   406   25.2  Driving   49   9.7  Vaul?ng   484   15.0  

Participation with Austrian Horses in 2014

Equestrian  Sport    in  Terms  of  Numbers  2014  

Associa'ons   1.359  Members   47.296  Tournaments   458  Tournament  Licences   7.066  Tournament  Horses   13.118  Par'cipa'ons  in  Tournaments   113.208  

Equestrian Sport in Terms of Numbers 2014

u 70 % of all foals become show horses

u 2.113 Austrian horses in index of show horses (16.1 %)

u Austrian championships 3 x 1st place, 4 x 2nd place, 5 x 3rd place

u Federal championships 26 x 1st place, 32 x 2nd place, 22 x 3rd place

National successes with Austrian Bred Horses 2014

Selection of Austrian Bred Horses on international Stage

Bartlgut‘s Duccio by Dimaggio (Dressage)

Juvina by Cassini I (Show-Jumping)

Bambucca by Breitling W (Driving)

a) Horses as an economic factoru EUR 2.1 billion production value per yearu ca. 23,000 jobsu agriculture and tourism benefit the most

b) Horses as a social factoru 80 % of Austrians positively disposed towards horsesu strengthening of public space (leisure activities)u 70 % expect importance of horses to rise in the futureu 400,000 riders and drivers in Austria

c) Horses’ role in tourism and leisureu 6.4 % of tourists ride when on holidaysu 8.4 days dwelling timeu Euro 84.5 per day spent

d) Horse and healthu promotes personality developmentu promotes locomotor system, coordination skills, andbalanceu rains cardiovascular system

Studies Horse Industry (Platform PferdAustria)

a) Livery stables: agriculture or trade?

b) Training of horses

c) Foreign breeding organisations

d) Commercialisation of sports

Challenges for the Horse Industry

Humans love Horses

           Lipizzan  or  Lipizzaner  

Dr.  Max  Dobretsberger   -­‐  Lipizzanerstud  Piber  

-­‐  Vetmeduni  Vienna,  Animal  Breeding  and  Genetics                                            

Country  of  origin  

Developed  by  the  House  of  Habsburg  from    Spanish,  Neapolitan,  and  Arab  stock.  Today  associated  with  nations  of  Austria,  Hungary,  Slovenia,  Slovakia,  Italy  and  Croatia.    

Breed  standards  

The  Lipizzan  or  Lipizzaner  is  a  breed  of  horse  closely  associated  with  the  Spanish  Riding  School  of  Vienna,  Austria,  where  they  demonstrate  the  haute  école  or  "high  school"  movements  of  classical  dressage,  including  the  highly  controlled,  stylized  jumps  and  other  movements  known  as  the  "airs  above  the  ground."  The  horses  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School  are  trained  using  traditional  methods  that  date  back  hundreds  of  years,  based  on  the  principles  of  classical  dressage.  

The  Lipizzan  breed  dates  back  to  the  16th  century,  when  it  was  developed  with  the  support  of  the  Habsburg  nobility.  The  breed  takes  its  name  from  one  of  the  earliest  stud  farms  established,  located  near  the  Karst  Plateau  village  of  Lipica  (spelled  "Lipizza"  in  Italian),  in  modern-­‐day  Slovenia.  The  breed  has  been  endangered  numerous  times  by  warfare  sweeping  Europe,  including  during  the  War  of  the  First  Coalition,  World  War  I  and  World  War  II.  The  rescue  of  the  Lipizzans  during  World  War  II  by  American  troops  was  made  famous  by  the  Disney  movie  “Miracle  of  the  White  Stallions”.  Along  with  the  Disney  movie,  Lipizzans  have  also  starred  or  played  supporting  roles  in  many  movies,  TV  shows,  books  and  other  media.  

Today,  eight  stallions  are  recognized  as  the  foundation  bloodstock  of  the  breed,  all  foaled  the  late  18th  and  early  19th  centuries.  All  modern  Lipizzans  trace  their  bloodlines  to  these  eight  stallions,  and  all  breeding  stallions  have  included  in  their  name  the  name  of  the  foundation  sire  of  their  bloodline.  There  are  also  classic  mare  lines,  with  up  to  35  recognized  by  various  breed  registries.  The  majority  of  horses  are  registered  through  the  member  organizations  of  the  Lipizzan  International  Federation,  which  covers  almost  13,000  horses  in  19  countries  and  at  9  state  studs  in  Europe.  The  majority  of  Lipizzans  reside  in  Europe,  with  

smaller  numbers  in  the  Americas,  Africa  and  Australia.  Generally  gray  in  color,  the  Lipizzan  is  a  muscular  breed  that  matures  slowly  and  is  long-­‐lived.  

Most  Lipizzans  measure  between  153  and  160  cm  withers  Height.  However,  horses  bred  that  are  closer  to  the  original  carriage-­‐horse  type  are  taller,  approaching  160  to  165  cm.  Lipizzans  have  a  prominent  head,  with  a  straight  or  slightly  convex  profile.  The  jaw  is  deep,  the  ears  small,  the  eyes  large,  dark  and  expressive  and  the  nostrils  flared.  They  have  a  neck  that  is  sturdy,  yet  arched  and  withers  that  are  low,  muscular  and  broad.  They  are  a  Baroque-­‐type  horse,  with  a  wide,  deep  chest,  strong  well  strained  back,  broad  round  and  strong  croup  and  muscular  shoulder.  The  legs  are  well-­‐muscled  and  strong,  with  broad  joints  and  well-­‐defined  tendons.  The  feet  tend  to  be  small,  but  are  tough.  

Lipizzan  horses  tend  to  mature  slowly.  However,  they  live  and  are  active  longer  than  many  other  breeds,  with  horses  performing  the  difficult  exercises  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School  well  into  their  20s  and  living  into  their  30s.  

 Mare  and  dark  foal  

Aside  from  the  rare  solid-­‐colored  horse  (usually  bay  or  black),  most  Lipizzans  are  gray.  Like  all  gray  horses,  they  have  black  skin,  dark  eyes,  and  as  adult  horses,  a  white  hair  coat.  Gray  horses,  including  Lipizzans,  are  born  dark—usually  bay  or  black—and  become  lighter  each  year  as  the  graying  process  takes  place,  with  the  process  being  complete  at  between  6  and  10  years  of  age.  Lipizzans  are  not  actually  true  white  horses,  but  this  is  a  common  misconception.    A  white  horse  is  born  white  and  has  unpigmented  skin.  

Until  the  18th  century,  Lipizzans  had  other  coat  colors,  including  dun,  bay,  chestnut,  black,  piebald  and  skewbald.    However,  gray  is  a  dominant  gene.    Gray  was  the  color  preferred  by  the  royal  family,  and  so  the  color  was  emphasized  in  breeding  practices.  Thus,  in  a  small  breed  population  when  the  color  was  deliberately  selected  as  a  desirable  feature,  it  came  to  be  the  color  of  the  overwhelming  majority  of  Lipizzan  horses.    However,  it  is  a  long-­‐standing  tradition  for  the  Spanish  Riding  School  to  have  at  least  one  or  some  bay  Lipizzan  stallions  in  residence,  and  this  tradition  is  continued  through  the  present  day.  

The  ancestors  of  the  Lipizzan  can  be  traced  to  approximately  A.D.  800.  The  earliest  predecessors  of  the  Lipizzan  originated  in  the  7th  century  when  Barb  horses  were  brought  into  Spain  by  the  Moors  and  crossed  on  native  Spanish  stock.  The  result  was  the  Andalusian  horse  and  other  Iberian  horse  breeds.  

By  the  16th  century,  when  the  Habsburgs  ruled  both  Spain  and  Austria,  a  powerful  but  agile  horse  was  desired  both  for  military  uses  and  for  use  in  the  fashionable  and  rapidly  growing  riding  schools  for  the  nobility  of  central  Europe.  Therefore,  in  1562,  the  Habsburg  Emperor  Maximillian  II  brought  the  Spanish  Andalusian  horse  to  Austria  and  founded  the  court  stud  at  Kladrub.  In  1580,  his  brother,  Archduke  Charles  II,  established  a  similar  stud  at  Lipizza  (now  Lipica),  located  in  modern-­‐day  Slovenia,  from  which  the  breed  obtained  its  name.  The  name  of  the  village  itself  derives  from  the  Slovenian  word  lipa,  meaning  "linden  tree."  

Spanish,  Barb,  and  Arabian  stock  were  crossed  at  Lipizza,  and  succeeding  generations  were  crossed  with  the  now-­‐extinct  Neapolitan  breed  from  Italy  and  other  Baroque  horses  of  Spanish  descent  obtained  from  Germany  and  Denmark.  While  breeding  stock  was  exchanged  between  the  two  studs,  Kladrub  specialized  in  producing  heavy  carriage  horses,  while  riding  and  light  carriage  horses  came  from  the  Lipizza  stud.  

Beginning  in  1920,  the  Lipizzaner  Stud  Piber,  near  Graz,  Austria,  became  the  main  stud  for  the  horses  used  in  Vienna.  Breeding  became  very  selective,  only  allowing  stallions  that  had  proved  themselves  at  the  Riding  School  to  stand  at  stud,  and  only  breeding  mares  who  had  passed  rigorous  performance  testing.  

Today,  a  maximum  of  eight  foundation  lines  for  Lipizzans  are  recognized,  which  refer  to  them  as  "dynasties."  They  are  divided  into  two  groups.  Six  trace  to  classical  foundation  stallions  used  in  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  by  the  imperial  Lipizza  stud,  and  two  additional  lines  were  not  used  at  Lipizza  but  were  used  by  other  studs  within  the  historic  boundaries  of  the  Habsburg  Empire.  

The  six  "classical  dynasties"  are:  

Pluto:          a  gray  Spanish  stallion  from  the  Royal  Danish  Stud,  foaled  in  1765  

Conversano:        a  black  Neapolitan  stallion,  foaled  in  1767  

Maestoso:           gray  stallion  from  the  Kladrub  stud  with  a  Spanish  dam,  foaled  1773,                    descendants  today  all  trace  via  Maestoso  X,  foaled  in  Hungary  in  1819.  

Favory:         a  dun  stallion  from  the  Kladrub  stud,  foaled  in  1779  

Neapolitano:        a  bay  Neapolitan  stallion  from  the  Polesine,  foaled  in  1790  

Siglavy:         a  gray  Arabian  stallion,  originally  from  Syria,  foaled  in  1810  

 

There  are  two  additional  stallion  lines  found  in  Croatia,  Hungary,  and  other  eastern  European  countries.  They  are  accepted  as  equal  to  the  6  classical  lines  by  the  Lipizzan  International  Federation  (LIF).      

These  are:  

Tulipan:     A  black  stallion  of  Baroque  type  and  Spanish  pedigree  foaled  about  1800  from  the  Croatian  stud  farm  of  Terezovac,  owned  by  Count  Janković-­‐Bésán.  

Incitato:     A  stallion  of  Spanish  lines  foaled  1802,  bred  in  Transylvania  by  Count  Bethlen,  and  sold  to  the  Hungarian  stud  farm  Mezőhegyes.  

There  are  several  other  stallion  lines  that  have  died  out  over  the  years,  but  were  used  in  the  early  breeding  of  the  horses.  In  addition  to  the  foundation  stallion  lines,  there  were  20  

"classic"  mare  lines,  17  of  which  exist  today.  However,  there  are  up  to  35  mare  lines  recognized  by  various  Lipizzan  organizations.  

There  are  traditional  naming  patterns  for  both  stallions  and  mares,  required  by  Lipizzan  breed  registries.  Stallions  traditionally  are  given  two  names,  with  the  first  being  the  line  of  the  sire  and  the  second  being  the  name  of  the  dam.  For  example,  "Pluto  Briosa"  is  a  horse  sired  by  Pluto  Presciana  out  of  a  mare  named  Briosa.  The  horse's  sire  line  tracing  to  the  foundation  sire  Pluto.  The  names  of  mares  are  chosen  to  be  "complementary  to  the  traditional  Lipizzan  line  names"  and  are  required  to  end  in  the  letter  "a".  

 Lipizzans  training  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School  

The  world-­‐famous  Spanish  Riding  School  uses  highly  trained  Lipizzan  stallions  in  public  performances  that  demonstrate  classical  dressage  movements  and  training.  In  1565  the  first  Spanish  Riding  Hall  was  built,  during  the  Austrian  Empire,  and  is  the  oldest  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  Spanish  Riding  School,  though  located  in  Vienna,  Austria,  takes  its  name  from  the  original  Spanish  heritage  of  its  horses.  In  1729  Charles  VI  commissioned  the  building  of  the  Winter  Riding  School  in  Vienna  and  in  1735,  the  building  was  completed  that  remains  the  home  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School  today.  

The  Lipizzans  endured  several  wartime  relocations  throughout  their  history,  each  of  which  saved  the  breed  from  extinction.  The  first  was  in  March  1797  during  the  War  of  the  First  Coalition,  when  the  horses  were  evacuated  from  Lipica.  During  the  journey,  16  mares  gave  birth  to  foals.  In  November  1797,  the  horses  returned  to  Lipica,  but  the  stables  were  in  ruins.  They  were  rebuilt,  but  in  1805,  the  horses  were  evacuated  again  when  Napoleon  invaded  Austria.  They  remained  away  from  the  stud  for  two  years,  returning  April  1,  1807.  But  then,  following  the  Treaty  of  Schönbrunn  in  1809,  the  horses  were  evacuated  three  more  times  during  the  unsettled  period  that  followed,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  many  horses  and  the  destruction  of  the  written  studbooks  that  documented  bloodlines  of  horses  prior  to  1700.  The  horses  finally  returned  to  Lipica  for  good  in  1815,  where  they  remained  for  the  rest  of  the  19th  century.  

The  first  evacuation  of  the  20th  century  occurred  in  1915  when  the  horses  were  evacuated  from  Lipica  due  to  World  War  I  and  placed  at  Laxenburg  and  Kladrub.  Following  the  war,  the  Austro-­‐Hungarian  Empire  was  broken  up,  with  Lipica  becoming  part  of  Italy.  Thus,  the  animals  were  divided  between  several  different  studs  in  the  new  postwar  nations  of  Austria,  Italy,  Hungary,  Czechoslovakia,  Romania  and  Yugoslavia.  The  nation  of  Austria  kept  the  stallions  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School  and  some  breeding  stock.    By  1920,  the  Austrian  breeding  stock  was  consolidated  at  Piber.  

During  World  War  II,  the  high  command  of  Nazi  Germany  transferred  most  of  Europe's  Lipizzan  breeding  stock  to  Hostau,  Bohemia.  The  breeding  stock  was  taken  from  Piber  in  1942,    and  additional  mares  and  foals  from  other  European  nations  arrived  in  1943.  The  stallions  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School  were  evacuated  to  St.  Martin,  Upperaustria  from  

Vienna  in  January  1945,  when  bombing  raids  neared  the  city  and  the  head  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School,  Colonel  Alois  Podhajsky,  feared  the  horses  were  in  danger.By  spring  of  1945,  the  horses  at  Hostau  were  threatened  by  the  advancing  Soviet  army,  which  might  have  slaughtered  the  animals  for  horse  meat  had  it  captured  the  facility.  

The  rescue  of  the  Lipizzans  by  the  United  States  Army,  made  famous  by  the  Disney  movie  “Miracle  of  the  White  Stallions”,  occurred  in  two  parts:  The  United  States  Third  Army  under  the  command  of  General  George  S.  Patton,  was  near  St.  Martin  in  the  spring  of  1945  and  learned  that  the  Lipizzan  stallions  were  in  the  area.    Patton  himself  was  a  horseman,  and  like  Podhajsky,  had  competed  in  the  Olympic  Games.  On  May  7,  1945,  Podhajsky  put  on  an  exhibition  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School  stallions  for  Patton  and  Undersecretary  of  War  Robert  P.  Patterson,  and  at  its  conclusion  requested  that  Patton  take  the  horses  under  his  protection.  

Meanwhile,  the  Third  Army's  United  States  Second  Cavalry,  a  tank  unit  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Charles  Reed,  had  discovered  the  horses  at  Hostau,  where  there  were  also  400  Allied  prisoners  of  war,  and  had  occupied  it  on  April  28,  1945.  "Operation  Cowboy",  as  the  rescue  was  known,  resulted  in  the  recovery  of  1,200  horses,  including  375  Lipizzans.  Patton  learned  of  the  raid,  and  arranged  for  Podhajsky  to  fly  to  Hostau.  On  May  12,  American  soldiers  began  riding,  trucking  and  herding  the  horses  35  miles  across  the  border  into  Kotztinz,  Germany.  The  Lipizzans  were  eventually  settled  in  temporary  quarters  in  Wimsbach,  until  the  breeding  stock  returned  to  Piber  in  1952,  and  the  stallions  returned  to  the  Spanish  Riding  School  in  1955.      

During  the  Croatian  War  of  Independence,  from  1991  to  1995,  the  horses  at  the  Lipik  stable  in  Croatia  were  taken  by  the  Serbs  to  Novi  Sad,  Serbia.  The  horses  remained  there  until  2007,  when  calls  began  to  be  made  for  them  to  be  returned  to  their  country  of  origin.  In  October  2007,  60  horses  were  returned  to  Croatia.  

 In  1996,  a  scientific  study  funded  by  the  European  Union  Indo-­‐Copernicus  Project  assessed  586  Lipizzan  horses  from  eight  stud  farms  in  Europe,  with  the  goal  of  developing  a  "scientifically-­‐based  description  of  the  Lipizzan  horse".    A  study  of  the  mitochondrial  DNA  (mtDNA)  was  performed  on  212  of  the  animals,  and  those  studied  were  found  to  contain  37  of  the  39  known  mtDNA  haplotypes  known  in  modern  horses,  meaning  that  they  show  a  high  degree  of  genetic  diversity.  This  was  what  had  been  expected,  as  it  was  known  that  the  mare  families  of  the  Lipizzan  included  a  large  number  of  different  breeds,  including  Arabians,  Thoroughbreds,  and  other  European  breeds.  

The  Lipizzan  International  Federation  (LIF)  is  the  international  governing  organization  for  the  breed,  composed  of  many  national  and  private  organizations  representing  the  Lipizzan.  The  organizations  work  together  under  the  banner  of  the  LIF  to  promote  the  breed  and  maintain  standards.  As  of  201,  there  were  almost  15,000  Lipizzans  registered  with  the  LIF  residing  with  private  breeders  in  19  countries  and  at  9  state  studs  in  Europe.  The  largest  number  are  in  Europe,  with  almost  10,000  registered  horses,  followed  by  the  Americas,  with  just  over  

1,700,  then  Africa  and  Australia  with  around  100  horses  each.  The  nine  state  studs  that  are  part  of  the  LIF  represent  almost  one-­‐quarter  of  the  horses  in  Europe.  Sâmbăta  de  Jos,  in  Romania,  has  the  greatest  number  of  horses,  with  400,  followed  by  Piber  in  Austria  (360),  Lipica  in  Slovenia  (358),  Szilvásvárad  in  Hungary  (262),  Monterotondo  in  Italy  (230),  Đakovo-­‐Lipik  in  Croatia  (220)  and  Topoľčianky  in  Slovakia  (200).  The  other  two  studs  are  smaller,  with  Vučijak  in  Bosnia  having  130  horses  and  Karađorđevo  in  Serbia  having  just  30.  Educational  programs  have  been  developed  in  order  to  promote  the  breed  and  foster  adherence  to  traditional  breeding  objectives.  

The  traditional  horse  training  methods  for  Lipizzans  were  developed  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School  and  are  based  on  the  principles  of  classical  dressage,  which  in  turn  traces  to  the  Ancient  Greek  writer  Xenophon,  whose  works  were  rediscovered  in  the  16th  century.  His  thoughts  on  development  of  horses'  mental  attitude  and  psyche  are  still  considered  applicable  today.  Other  writers  who  strongly  influenced  the  training  methods  of  the  Spanish  Riding  School  include  Federico  Grisone,  the  founder  of  the  first  riding  academy  in  Naples,  who  lived  during  the  16th  century;  and  Antoine  de  Pluvinel  and  François  Robichon  de  la  Guérinière,  two  Frenchmen  from  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  The  methods  for  training  the  Lipizzan  stallions  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School  were  passed  down  via  an  oral  tradition  until  Field  Marshal  Franz  Holbein  and  Johann  Meixner,  Senior  Rider  at  the  School,  published  the  initial  guidelines  for  the  training  of  horse  and  rider  at  the  School  in  1898.    

The  principles  taught  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School  are  based  on  practices  taught  to  cavalry  riders  to  prepare  their  horses  for  warfare.  Young  stallions  come  to  the  Spanish  Riding  School  for  training  when  they  are  four  years  old.  Full  training  takes  an  average  of  six  years  for  each  horse,  and  schooling  is  considered  complete  when  they  have  mastered  the  skills  required  to  perform  the  "School  Quadrille".  There  are  three  progressively  more  difficult  skill  sets  taught  to  the  stallions,  which  are:  

Forward  riding,  also  called  Straight  riding  or  the  Remontenschule  -­‐  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  skills  taught  in  the  first  year  of  training,  where  a  young  horse  learns  to  be  saddled  and  bridled,  learns  basic  commands  on  a  long  line,  and  then  is  taught  to  be  ridden,  mostly  in  an  arena  in  simple  straight  lines  and  turns,  to  teach  correct  responses  to  the  rider's  legs  and  hands  while  mounted.  The  main  goal  during  this  time  is  to  develop  free  forward  movement  in  as  natural  a  position  as  possible.  

Campaign  school,  Campagneschule  or  Campagne,  where  the  horse  learns  collection  and  balance  through  all  gaits,  turns  and  maneuvers.  The  horse  learns  to  shorten  and  lengthen  his  stride,  perform  lateral  movements  to  the  side,  and  is  introduced  to  the  more  complex  double  bridle.  This  is  the  longest  training  phase  and  may  take  several  years.  

High-­‐school  dressage,  the  Haute  école  or  Hohe  Schule,  which  includes  riding  the  horse  with  greater  collection  with  increased  use  of  the  hindquarters,  developing  increased  regularity,  skill  and  finesse  in  all  natural  gaits.  In  this  period,  the  horse  learns  the  most  advanced  movements  such  as  the  half-­‐pass,  counter-­‐canter,  flying  change,  pirouette,  passage,  and  

piaffe.  This  is  also  when  the  horse  may  be  taught  the  "Airs  above  the  ground."  This  level  emphasizes  performance  with  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  

 

Although  the  Piber  Stud  trains  mares  for  driving  and  under  saddle  and  keep  a  classical  driving  school,the  Spanish  Riding  School  exclusively  uses  stallions  in  its  performances.  Worldwide,  the  Lipizzan  today  competes  in  dressage  and  driving,  as  well  as  retaining  their  classic  position  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School.  

The  "airs  above  the  ground"  are  the  difficult  "high  school"  dressage  movements  made  famous  by  the  Lipizzans.  The  finished  movements  include:  

The  levade:  a  position  wherein  the  horse  raises  up  both  front  legs,  standing  at  a  30-­‐degree  angle  entirely  on  its  hind  legs  in  a  controlled  form  that  requires  a  great  deal  of  hindquarter  strength.  A  less  difficult  but  related  movement  is  the  pesade,  where  the  horse  rises  up  to  a  45-­‐degree  angle.  

The  courbette:  a  movement  where  the  horse  balances  on  its  hind  legs  and  then  essentially  "hops,"  jumping  with  the  forelegs  off  the  ground  and  hind  legs  together.  

The  capriole:  a  jump  in  place  where  the  stallion  leaps  into  the  air,  tucking  his  forelegs  under  himself,  and  kicks  out  with  his  hind  legs  at  the  top  of  the  jump.  

Other  movements  include:  

The  croupade  and  ballotade  are  predecessors  to  the  capriole.  In  the  croupade,  the  horse  jumps  with  both  fore  and  hind  legs  remaining  tucked  under  the  body  and  he  does  not  kick  out.  In  the  ballotade,  the  horse  jumps  and  untucks  his  hind  legs  slightly,  he  does  not  kick  out,  but  the  soles  of  the  hind  feet  are  visible  if  viewed  from  the  rear.  

The  mezair:  A  series  of  successive  levades  in  which  the  horse  lowers  its  forefeet  to  the  ground  before  rising  again  on  hindquarters,  achieving  forward  motion.  This  movement  is  no  longer  used  at  the  Spanish  Riding  School.