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The Cyanotype ProcessThe Cyanotype Process

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OVERVIEW AND EXPECTATIONSThe cyanotype (Ferro-Prussiate) is often the first process you will encounter in alternative/non-silver photography. The reason for this is the absolute simplicity of the nearly fail-safe techniqueand chemistry and the likelihood that you will make a successful print within a short time. Thischapter begins with a little history to show you where it all came from, including introducing youto the first woman photographer, Anna Atkins. You’ll learn about the chemistry and how to prepareand use it as a UV light-sensitized solution and how to adjust the cyanotype formula for specificcorrections. Also included is a discussion about substrates, sizing, coating, light sources, exposure,and development in water or acids for additional control of the process. This chapter also dealswith accelerated oxidation, highlight clearing, trouble-shooting, and many toning options for thecyanotype in the event that the color blue just doesn’t seem like the right one for the subject inyour print. This will prepare you for additional information on cyanotype fabric murals, MichaelWare’s New Cyanotype process, and combination processes with cyanotypes.

A LITTLE HISTORYThe cyanotype was the first simple and successfully realized practical non-silver iron process.Discovered by Sir John Herschel (1792–1871) in 1842, a mere three years after the “official”announcement of the discovery of photography, the cyanotype provided permanent images in anelegant assortment of blue values. Herschel is the same gentleman who coined the words positiveand negative, photograph, and snapshot. He is also credited, in 1819, with discovering that a solution of sodium thiosulfate (which he referred to as hyposulfite of soda) had the ability todissolve silver chloride and what that particular chemical’s role might be in permanently fixing a photographic image. This is an important bit of information that he passed along to Talbot.Curiously, Herschel did not officially announce this particular finding until 1839.

Figure 6–1Christopher James,Self-Portrait withPinhole, Maine, 1994(Courtesy of theartist)

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Herschel was a very busy gentleman who invented anumber of non-silver and alternative photographicprocesses, including the Argentotype in which iron salts(ferric citrate) were used to precipitate silver under theinfluence of light and were subsequently developed in sil-ver nitrate. He also developed a charming and odd tech-nique, which is described for you in another chapter,called the Anthotype. That process involved using crushedflower petals, a little alcohol, and a 2 to 3 week exposurein sunlight—three of the key ingredients for a nicevacation.

Herschel introduced the Anthotype in a paper mod-estly entitled, “On the Action of Rays of the Solar Spec-trum on Vegetable Colors and on Some New PhotographicProcesses.” The initial portion of this historic paper con-cerned itself with the Anthotype, describing the bleach-ing effect of sunlight on extracted flower juices applied topaper. The second part of his paper dealt with the photo-sensitivity of ferric (iron in a trivalent state) salts to lightand how, on exposure to light, the ferric salts reduced tothe ferrous (iron in a bivalent state) state. As a point ofinformation, valent is a term meaning “worth, or value”

in scientific terminology. It was this process he named theArgentotype. A short time later, Herschel announced thatferrous salts could also reduce silver to its metallic state andthat he had developed a process to show this phenome-non. The Argentotype was later modified as the Kalli-type/Van Dyke Process.

Herschel was a gentleman scientist and his investiga-tions primarily revolved around the concept of experi-mentation for its own sake rather than practicalapplication. Between 1839 and 1842 he conducted hun-dreds of separate experiments on the light-sensitivity of sil-ver salts, metals, and vegetation, including an investigationof potassium ferrocyanide. This aspect of his work wasaugmented by Dr. Alfred Smee’s work in electrochemistry,which resulted in a refined version of the potassium fer-rocyanide that he was generous enough to share withHerschel. Working with Smee’s chemistry, Herschel con-tinued his experiments with variations of chemical andlight reactions. In one such experiment he described atechnique in which a piece of paper was coated with asolution of ferric ammonium citrate and exposed to lightunder a positive image. The exposed paper was then devel-

Figure 6–2Julia Margaret Cameron, The Astronomer (Sir John Herschel, 1867)Julia Margaret Cameron (1815–1879) began her career as a photographerin 1849 shortly after returning to England from India. Her work was cen-tered on the ideals, and allegories, investigated by the Pre-Raphaelites, agroup of artists who despised industrialization and yearned for the returnof mythic heroes and romanticism. Her style, like this albumen print por-trait of Herschel, is an example of the principal innovation she brought tothe medium: the close and uncompromising psychology of the subjectbefore her camera.(Courtesy of the Royal Photographic Society)

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oped with a potassium ferricyanide solution that resultedin a blue negative. These are the two primary chemicalsfound in the classic cyanotype formula.

In still another variation, which Herschel named theChrysotype, he sensitized a sheet of paper with ferricammonium citrate, contact printed and then developedthe paper in a weak solution of gold chloride. The ferroussalts, created by exposure, reduced the gold, which thenprecipitated as a purple deposit over the image in directproportion to the exposure. If you are interested in tryingyour hand at Chrysotypes, Dr. Michael Ware has done alot of work on a more consistent variation of this processthat he calls the New Chrysotype.

The Cyanotype was popular for a short time andexperimented with by many, thanks to a commerciallyproduced Ferroprussiate Cyanotype paper. The first com-mercial use of the cyanotype was initiated in 1876 at thePhiladelphia Centennial Exposition, and this industrialapplication heralded the adoption of the process forschematic blueprint drawings that would be used by engi-neers and builders. There is an odd historical tidbit con-cerning the cyanotype that involved Lt. Col.Baden-Powell, founder of the Boy Scouts. Apparently,Baden-Powell ordered the cyanotype process to be used tomake stamps and money during the siege of Mafeking in

the Boer War (1899–1902) between Great Britain and theTransvaal.

Another person who placed himself into the history ofthe cyanotype was the outspoken and very curmudgeonlyEnglish physician/photographer Peter Henry Emerson(1856–1936), who said “… only a vandal would print alandscape in red or in cyanotype.” Emerson, by the way,spent an important part of his life tormented by the debatebetween those who believed photography could be dis-tilled into a set of hard and fast rules and those whobelieved that it was a flexible form of expression andimpression. In 1886, Emerson, as a member of the Coun-cil of the Photographic Society, began to deliver a seriesof lectures that defined the correct, naturalistic, way toapproach the new medium. He trashed image-makerssuch as Henry Peach Robinson and attempted to definean unassailable position in which a photograph shouldalways aspire to represent an artist’s true aesthetic vision,as in the Impressionist painting movement.

Emerson’s idealism came to an abrupt halt in 1890when Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898) and Vero Driffield(1848–1915) announced their method of scientificallymeasuring the sensitivity of photographic plates involv-ing the measurement of light intensities and resultingdensities. In addition, they devised a theory of controlling

Figure 6–3Peter Henry Emerson, Gathering WaterLilies, 1886(Platinum print—plate #9 from Life andLandscape on the Norfolk Broads)Peter Henry Emerson (1856–1936) said,“… only a vandal would print a land-scape in red or in cyanotype.”(Courtesy of the George EastmanHouse, Rochester, NY)

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Figure 6–4Anna Atkins (1799–1871), Cyanotype of Algae, c. 1843From the first published book illustrated with photographic images, BritishAlgae: Cyanotype Impressions (1843–1853). Atkins was the first womanphotographer and presumably learned the cyanotype process fromHerschel, who was a family friend.(Courtesy of the Gernsheim Collection, Ransom Center, University ofTexas–Austin)

Anna Atkins: The First Woman PhotographerAnna Atkins (1799–1871) was the first woman photographer.Referred to sparingly by traditional photo historians, shemade beautiful cyanotype images of algae, ferns, feathers,and waterweeds. Her botanist father, John George Chil-dren, and Herschel were friends, and the Atkins and Her-schel families resided only 30 miles apart in Kent, England.Children was a member of the Royal Society, and when hisfriend Herschel announced his discovery of the cyanotype(1842) Children quickly passed the news on to his daughterAnna. Although there is no conclusive evidence that Her-schel was Atkins’s mentor it is more than probable that shelearned the cyanotype process in the Herschel household.

Anna Atkins made thirteen known versions of her workentitled British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions (1843–1853).In October 1843 Atkins began issuing published folios of herphotogenic (photogram) drawings. In 1850, she began topublish more comprehensive collections of her work, com-

pleting a three-volume anthology in 1853. These books,containing hundreds of handmade images, were the veryfirst published works to utilize a photographic system forpurposes of scientific investigation and illustration. Signif-icantly, they were initiated and created prior to Talbot’sPencil of Nature (1844–1846), a published work that is gen-erally given credit by historians as the first to have achievedthis important milestone.

Note: It is believed that Talbot was given an edition, andHerschel’s personal copy resides in the New York PublicLibrary. There are examples of Atkins’s work at the HarryRansom Humanities Research Center at the University ofTexas, the Getty Museum, and public, institutional, and pri-vate collections in the United Kingdom and the UnitedStates. If you are interested in seeing this work in printedform, Aperture published Larry Schaaf’s book, Sun Gar-dens: Victorian Photograms by Anna Atkins, 1985. The bookis out of print but a simple Internet search at www.book-find.com or Andrew Cahan at www.cahanbook.com willlikely lead to a copy.

the development of the latent image. Emerson, convincedthat his beliefs were now in doubt due to this scientificproof, publicly denounced photography as a pure art, butit was too late—many photographers had already becomedisciples of the pictorialist vision.

How Cyanotype WorksCyanotype is an ultraviolet (UV) sensitive contact print-ing process that requires, as do most all of the non-silverprocesses, a negative the same size as the final print. Ofcourse you can use transparent, translucent, or opaqueobjects to make cyanotype photograms as Atkins did.

The blue color of the cyanotype print is the result ofthe reaction of ferrous ions to the photo reduction of fer-ric ammonium citrate in combination with potassiumferricyanide. The cyanotype image is highly stable but can

be degraded by something alkaline, such as sodium car-bonate or perspiration. It will also fade, like most things,if exposed to strong direct sunlight over a period of time.Should you experience this fading, your image can gen-erally be restored to its original blue intensity by storingit in a dark environment for a short time.

Contrary to popular lore, the cyanotype print can becontrolled in process to yield wonderful and technicallyexquisite images. The prints can also be toned in a widevariety of ways to provide alternatives to the color blue.Many of these toner options are described later in the ton-ing cyanotype section of this chapter. Cyanotypes canalso be employed successfully as first impressions in thegum bichromate or Blue-Van-Dyke processes and canalso be used to delicately intensify shadow details in plat-inum or palladium printing. All in all, a versatile andrewarding way to begin learning alternative processes.

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Figure 6–5Betty Hahn, Iris Variation #6, 1985This piece of Betty Hahn’s has always been a favoriteexample of mine to show students how compelling thecyanotype process can be when mixed with othermedia—in this case watercolor.(Photo by Robert Reck/Courtesy of the artist)

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The Chemist ry :Chemica ls and Sens i t i ze r FormulaThere are two principal chemicals employed in the tradi-tional cyanotype formula, and these are mixed together inequal parts to create a working sensitizing solution thatwill be applied to paper with a brush. They are: Part A,ferric ammonium citrate and Part B, potassium ferricyanide.Neither of these chemicals poses a serious health riskunless you are one of the very few people who may havean allergic reaction to the chemistry. Ferric ammoniumcitrate is often found in iron and vitamin supplements andis mostly annoying if it becomes humidified and sticky.Potassium ferricyanide is a stable compound that onlybecomes a risk if it is heated beyond 300°F or if it is com-bined with an acid.

Part A—Ferric Ammonium Citrate (Green Type)In the green powdered state, ferric ammonium citrate isa light-sensitive compound that changes from a ferric toferrous state when subjected to ultraviolet (UV) light.Once mixed into solution it is subject to mold growthafter a relatively short storage period. This moldy state isnot detrimental to your cyanotype ambitions and can beavoided by adding a drop or two of Formalin (formalde-hyde) to the solution. If mold does appear, it is easilystrained off by decanting the solution through a coffee fil-ter. In extreme cases the mold can be simply skimmed offthe top of the solution with a pair of chopsticks. In anyevent, this mold growth is not something that shouldcause you to lose any sleep. In hot and humid weather, trynot to let the chemical sit out in the open too long beforemixing it into solution.

Part B—Potassium FerricyanidePotassium ferricyanide is the other half of the formula andis responsible for the blue color, when combined with theferrous ammonium citrate. If the chemical is in goodcondition it should have a nice orange red, sometimesreferred to as “ruby red,” color. If it is in bad conditionyou’ll see yellow lumps and you should avoid using it.Potassium ferricyanide is not particularly toxic because thecyanide group is bound to the iron atom and is not freeto behave as a poison. The cyanide part of this chemical

can, however, be released as a hydrogen cyanide gas if itis subjected to a strong acid, so be diligent about avoid-ing acid contact. Any disposal of potassium ferricyanideshould be accomplished by diluting it with an excessiveamount of water and disposed of in small amounts overa period of time. Do not throw it away in the trash in adry state.

Making a Sensitizing SolutionYou will need a nonmetallic mixing beaker and two darkglass or plastic 500 ml to 1,000 ml containers that willhold the mixed solutions. The easiest way to introduceyourself to the process is to purchase a premeasured dryor wet pack Cyanotype Kit from a supplier such as Pho-tographer’s Formulary or Bostick & Sullivan. If you arefrugal and intend to do large pieces or a great many prints,keep in mind that kits from any source cost as much aswould a virtual lifetime supply of cyanotype chemicalsmade from raw chemicals. After buying the chemicals inbulk, all you will need is a gram scale and some basic labequipment. The following is a classic cyanotype sensitizerthat, with the exception of Dr. Ware’s New Cyanotype, isessentially identical to the vast majority of published cyan-otype formulas.

The CyanotypeSensitizing Formula

STOCK SOLUTION A

400 ml water (68°F)100 g ferric ammonium citrate (green type)

Add water to make a total solution of 500 ml

STOCK SOLUTION B

400 ml water (68°F)40 g potassium ferricyanide

Add water to make a total solution of 500 ml

Parts A and B can be separately mixed in normal ambientlight and will work best after a ripening period of 24 hours.The Part A and B cyanotype solutions, if stored separatelyin dark glass or opaque plastic containers with a good seal,will keep indefinitely. When mixed together, their usable

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life is a relatively brief 2 to 3 weeks. The sensitizer is so sim-ple to prepare that there really isn’t a good argument forhaving a combined A and B solution always available.

Standard Working SolutionMix equal parts of Stock A and Stock B, that is, 25 ml ofStock A mixed with 25 ml of Stock B to make a 50 mlworking sensitizer solution. A healthy sensitizer will beclear yellow-green chartreuse in color. This is also the colorthat your dried paper or fabric should be just prior to print-ing. If, after using good chemistry, you see blue or blue-gray at the dry stage it is likely that your paper or fabrichas been fogged or the humidity has affected the sensitizer.

A Very Brief Word About MakingNonstandard SolutionsIt is an acceptable idea to alter the chemical compositionof the cyanotype formula in order to achieve variations indensity, and a few beginning options are discussed below.I have found that greatly increasing the percentage pro-portions of both the potassium ferricyanide and ferricammonium citrate to water will result in an increase in thedensity of the blue. This solution may solve the chronicfading problem that has plagued cyanotype on cottonmurals in the last few years, because the quality of cottonhas been compromised by additives in manufacturing. If,however, only ferric ammonium citrate is increased youwill often experience a “bleeding” of the shadows, whereasan increase in potassium ferricyanide will result in a printwith reduced density in those same values. This last obser-vation is dependent on the type of paper you are using.

Low Contrast/High Contrast Solutions and ControlsContrast control in cyanotype is, to me, often about con-trolling the visual associations of lighter to darker valuesin the negative translation and extending the range ofcyanotype tonalities. It is common to experience a fairlysignificant loss of tonal gradations during the washing,toning, and drying stages, and the following suggestionsare options you might take if your image is exhibitingproblems of too high or low contrast.

A simple solution to reduce contrast is to dilute thestandard working sensitizer solution with a small per-

centage of water. The greater the dilution, the softer theimage. You may also create a lower contrast image bydeveloping the image in a white vinegar concentrationthat is described later on in this chapter. Another methodof controlling contrast is precoating your paper with avariety of weak acid solutions such as 1% oxalic acid or a1% glacial acetic acid. In most cases, depending on thepaper you are using, precoating, and drying, an acid bathwill intensify darks and extend the visible tonal range. Beaware that regardless of the increase in density, this tech-nique will often flatten the mid-range values and take thethrill out of the highlights. You can also achieve lower con-trast appearance in your image by using the sun as yourUV source. Cyanotype exposed by sunlight tends to pro-vide a longer tonal range than does a mechanical UV lightand thus creates a lower contrast image by a light to darkassociation.

A higher contrast solution can be mixed by adding 4to 6 drops of a 1% solution of potassium dichromate toevery 2 to 4 ml of the standard A + B sensitizer mix. Thismodest addition to the sensitizer will often let you printa poorly defined negative, but it may also degrade a por-tion of the middle tonal values. To make a 1% solution,mix 1 g of potassium dichromate with 100 ml of distilledwater.

A similar contrast boost effect can be realized byadding a few drops of an ammonium dichromate solutionto the initial water development bath. This percentage canrange from 1% to 10%, and the exact amount that canbe effective will depend on the strength of the percentagethat you elect to use. Begin testing by making a batch ofidentical exposures through a Stouffer T2115, or equiva-lent, step-graded transparent scale. Process the first printin plain water as a control. Then make a specific diluteammonium dichromate solution and add 10 to 15 dropsof it to a liter of water and process a second test print.Write down the information, add either more ammo-nium dichromate or water, and make a third test. Proceedwith the testing until you have established a set of work-ing parameters that you can use effectively.

Contrast can also be managed in other ways. If you leta first coating of sensitizer dry thoroughly and then recoatit with a second application of sensitizer, you will notice aremarkable increase in the density of the darker values. By

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the darker value’s association with lighter values, both thecontrast and the clarity of the image appear to be enhancedwell enough to merit this option when you are experienc-ing problems. Be aware that the double coating will oftenmean a longer exposure time. The best option is to makea great negative that can be specifically used for the process.

The Negat iveThe cyanotype is a contact printing process like a pho-togram. As is the case with other non-silver processes, acyanotype sensitized paper is exposed with sunlight or anultraviolet (UV) light source and will require a negative(s)that is the same size as your intended print. I have had suc-cess with a wide assortment of negative types and can usu-ally get a good-looking print by adjusting the way I workto fit the negative’s potential. This is one of the primary

reasons that the process is such a great one to begin learn-ing alternative techniques with, because success comesquickly to the rookie. I really do not have a specific gen-eral recommendation for a cyanotype negative. I’ve hearda lot of advice that recommends using a negative thatwould print well on a paper grade of 0 to 1 (indicating afairly high-contrast negative density of about 1.5 to 1.7)and that this particular type will do well with using a stan-dard A + B sensitizing formula. This is true, but the samesuccess can come from negatives that do not specificallymeet this recommendation. My best advice is to make anice negative and learn the process with it.

Paper and Fabr ic Sur facesAlmost any type of paper or fabric can be used in the cyan-otype process. This is, of course, dependent on what type

Figure 6–6Laurie Snyder, Sun and Pressure, 1992This is a fine example of Laurie Snyder’s work in the genre of artists’ books. The piece is 15”224” when opened and consists oftwenty-seven double-page spreads of ink monotypes with cyanotype. It is quarter bound in linen and handmade flax paper.(Courtesy of the artist)

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of statement you are going to make or what your inten-tions are with the print after it has completed its cyanotypejourney, that is, gum bichromate printing, collage, paint-ing, paper sculpture, clothing, etc. Those options willdetermine which surface will be appropriate for you. Gen-erally speaking, the best paper to use for a single image willbe a quality hot or cold press paper like Arches Platine,Fabriano Artistico, Lana, Arches Acquarelle, Saunder’sWaterford, Somerset Book, and Crane’s Platinotype.These papers are neutral pH (in the middle of being acidicor alkaline) and already have a good sizing built into themduring manufacturing. They are also specifically made to

withstand the rigors of extended immersion times inliquids.

Other paper options, some of them esoteric, thatwithstand the rigors of wet processing are those such asthe 22˝230˝ Gampi Torinoko and Hahnemuhl etchingpaper that you can purchase by the roll. There are a widevariety of rice papers available at well-stocked art supplystores, and I recommend buying small pieces to testbefore committing to large amounts. One recommenda-tion that I read about was a roll paper, 18˝250’, that wassimply labeled Oriental Rice Paper for Sumi. The paperwas tenaciously strong in water almost to the point of

Figure 6–7Sarah Van Keuren, Seth HoldingWreath, 1996Sarah Van Keuren made this wonderfulcyanotype portrait and then altered itscoloration by performing a gum bichro-mate process on top of it once thecyanotype was finished.(Courtesy of the artist)

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being like fabric. Generally, sizing beyond the manufac-turer’s own process is seldom necessary for cyanotype andwill only be relevant if you intend to extend your ideaswith other processes such as gum bichromate. With cyan-otype, whether you size or not is really dependent on theoriginal attributes of the paper you buy and what yourintentions are. If you feel sizing is called for you can sim-plify your life by adding a ml or two of liquid gum ara-bic to each 40 to 60 ml of the cyanotype A and Bsensitizer mix. This will help suspend the coating on thepaper’s surface.

CoatingThere are several ways to coat your paper or fabric. A totalimmersion technique is the best method for fabrics butuses an awful lot of sensitizer. If you’re mixing from bulkchemicals this will be of little concern to you. Spraying isa suitable application technique for large paper sheets butI think the best method for paper under 16˝220˝ is tocoat with a hake brush or inexpensive foam applicator.Both brushes are made without metal ferrules (the metal-lic section that holds the brush hairs to the handle), whichcan cause problems in many of the alternative processesshould metal come into contact with your sensitizerchemistry.

I like to coat under a few strands of miniature non-blinking Christmas tree lights, or low level ambient roomlight. Apply your sensitizer quickly and evenly using a gen-tle vertical, and then horizontal, stroking technique andbe wary of leaving puddles of sensitizer on the paper’s sur-face. Single coats work quite well if you get the rightdegree of saturation. The quality and thickness of yourpaper will determine the degree and amount of sensitizeryour paper can accept. If your prints are consistently thin,even following extensive exposures, try a second coat oncethe first one is completely dry. As a rule, most qualityartist’s papers will only require a single coating

Once the paper has been coated well, dry it in dark-ness or very low light by tacking it to a wall (be careful ofstaining the floor and walls), hanging it on a clothesline,or placing it on a drying rack (not one used for black andwhite print drying). You may use a hairdryer on a cool set-ting to speed up the process, but be sure to wear a respi-rator when doing so. When using a hairdryer, avoid

excessive heat and focus on the back of the paper ratherthan the coated front.

Be sure that the paper is “bone” dry because any mois-ture left in the paper will become an instant developer dur-ing your exposure (remember, this is a water developmenttechnique), and your print’s detail and clarity will be com-promised with fog. Do not use a clothes dryer for dryinga coated fabric. The heat will be detrimental, and the pos-sibilities of staining future loads of laundry are quitereal—which will make you very unpopular at home.

A coated dry and ready to print cyanotype will be alight green-yellow color. Again, if it is blue prior to print-ing then you may have a chemical or moisture problem.Often you will see a mottling (an uneven coating) on thesurface of the support, especially with fabrics, but thisproblem is often uneventful after exposure and develop-ment. Try not to touch the print surface because the oilsand moisture in your fingertips may alter the chemicalcoating in those spots.

Hake BrushJapanese hake, or Chinese jaiban, brushes are made ofwood and stitched hairs. They are desirable for alterna-tive and non-silver process coating due to their lack ofmetal ferrule and aesthetically organic look and feel.The absence of a metal ferrule is important, because itis often detrimental for any metal to come into contactwith an alternative emulsion. The only problem withthese lovely brushes is their tendency to shed hairs dur-ing the coating. A solution to this shedding is simple. Takeyour hake brush and run a single bead of Super Glue®

along the hairs where they come into contact with thewood handle. Repeat this step along the opposite side,being careful not to use too much glue. Do not smooththe glue with your finger or you will have “hake finger.”

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A FEW WORDS ABOUT THE SUNBefore we begin exploring all of the alternative processesthat follow in the book I want to mention the sun as thebest light source you can use for contact printing. Unlessyou are working in a cold and dark climate most of theyear, in which case you might think about becoming apoet, the sun provides the most efficient and least expen-sive means of exposing your contact negatives in printingframes. However, serious or cold climate based alternativeprocess printers swear by a UV exposure unit because theyfeel it provides a consistent and controllable light sourceyear round.

Why is sun best? It’s free, really bright, and nothingcan come close to the good feeling you’ll have sittingaround outdoors printing with your friends and family.Remember them? the people who have missed you all ofthose years while you’ve been in the darkroom? Secondly,in the summer your exposure times are short and pleas-

ant, and it is easy for you to monitor your progress. Out-side, the light is bright enough to read the exposure of youredges and their density. Simply observing the changeswill give you a lot of information because alternativeprocess exposures are easily determined by this evaluationmethod. When you think that you are close to beingdone, it is a simple matter of picking up the frame andmoving into a shaded area to check on the details of shad-ows and highlights. This is especially true with processessuch as POP, salt, and Ziatype.

Of course there are variables with the sun that you willnot find with a UV printer unit. The time of year, timeof day, humidity level outside, and overall atmosphericconditions will all have something to do with your expo-sure. A misty and foggy day that makes you squint youreyes will often be an ideal one to print. Printing on a win-ter’s day in New Hampshire, where I have my studio, willoften be frustrating due to the low position of the sun andthe dryness of the air, but the other nine months of the

Figure 6–8Stacia Smith, Something in Blue, 1999(16”220” Cyanotype)(Courtesy of the artist)

year are great. Use the winter to enrich your life with otherinterests or make (see Appendices) or buy a UV exposureunit equipped with daylight tubes. Do not waste yourtime with filtered “black-light” tubes like the ones thatmake Jimi Hendrix posters come to life because they arevery inefficient exposure sources. You may, however, suc-cessfully use an unfiltered UV tube.

Expos ing the CyanotypeWhen your coated and sensitized paper or fabric is com-pletely dry, place your negative in contact with the coatedemulsion and double check to see that it will read correctlywhen it is completed. The negative that you use will workvery well if it has an average negative density in the rangeof 1.4 to 1.6. Be aware that you will be losing a consid-erable amount of density in the wash and developmentstages, so it is important that your highlights are able toprint. Next, load the negative and coated paper into yourcontact frame so that the negative is next to the glass ofthe contact printer and the coated paper is behind the neg-ative. Be sure that the hinge part of the frame back strad-dles the negative/coated area so that you can undo oneside of the frame during exposure if you wish to check onyour progress without losing registration.

The most common problem in cyanotype printing isunderexposure, where the highlights and middle valueswash out in the water development. It is not a question ofwhether they will wash out, but to what degree. Depend-ing on your negative, you will have a short or a long expo-sure, with darker negatives obviously taking more timethan lighter ones. In summer sunlight, a short exposuremight last 1 to 3 minutes, and a long one up to a half anhour. It is generally a good idea to make a test print.

There are several ways to test exposure time during theexposure. When I am teaching a workshop class how tomake cyanotype murals in the sun, I often use the studentsas photogram objects on a sensitized bedsheet. During theexposure I periodically lift their fingers to check on thecomparative densities. This allows me to see what the baseemulsion is doing in adjacent comparison to the open

exposure next to the student’s finger. Unless they aresweating a lot, this is a good method of calibration. In acontact printing frame, I often place a small opaque objecton the glass so that it covers a separate swatch of emul-sion that I had added to the bottom of the paper duringcoating. By quickly lifting the opaque object I can deter-mine where the exposure is and how long I have beforethe processing begins. As you will discover, overexposinga cyanotype is a difficult thing to do.

A test strip can be easily made by coating a piece ofpaper with the sensitizer, drying it completely, and plac-ing a negative in contact with the emulsion. Put the sen-sitized paper and negative in your contact frame and laya series of opaque strips over the coated test piece. Thesestrips will be removed, one at a time, at predeterminedintervals and then processed for the information. You canalso use a transparent step wedge for this task, but I feelthe negative’s information from the test is often moreimportant than how many gradations you might achievewith it. When the test exposure is done, process it in tapwater until the whites have cleared and there is no evi-dence of yellow in the wash water. Then quickly blow-drythe strip, and you’ll get a rough idea of approximatelywhat the best exposure will be. Be aware that cyanotypeprint values will darken over a period of days as the printoxidizes. You can accelerate this oxidization by immers-ing the washed print in a weak solution of hydrogen per-oxide.

Cyanotype is a printing-out process, so you can exam-ine your exposure as you go, providing you are using ahinged contact printing frame. I generally like to see, ina predevelopment examination of the exposure, highlightdetail that is a great deal denser than I would be happywith in a finished print. Occasionally, I want my deepestshadow details to have a nearly solarized look (the den-sity has begun to reverse itself and is transforming to alighter, almost metallic-negative-gray). I also watch theoutside-coated borders that have no negative coveringthem. Often the best cyanotypes will be realized when theoutside borders have reversed themselves to a near silver-gray. Another general piece of information is that thickerpapers often take a bit longer to expose than do thinnerpapers. Always write down your exposure time on thepaper so that you can evaluate your progress over thecourse of a printing session.

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Judy Seigel has suggested a technique where the expo-sure is stopped halfway through the exposure and thenresumed to completion after a wait of several minutes. Shereports that this interrupted printing results in noticeablybetter shadow details and separation without losing high-light or D-max integrity. I haven’t tried this technique ina formal experiment yet, but Judy’s suggestions are alwaysworthwhile, and this may be another good control optionto use.

Development : Water o r Ac idTraditionally, the cyanotype is developed out in a waterbath. This is the least complicated step possible and is thepreferred development by most everyone who works withthe process. The one shortcoming of water developmentmay be a moderately limited tonal scale.

An alternative development process, one that oftenproduces a longer tonal scale, is the use of diluted acidicsolutions such as distilled white vinegar or acetic acid. Thenice part of this alternative is that the tonal range of val-ues will be extended without having to lengthen the expo-sure. The downside is that by trading for a longer tonalscale you will often lose on the comparative highlight toshadow contrast in the print. You might think of an acidor vinegar development bath as one that turns the cyan-otype into a soft graded paper.

The simplest solution to begin experimenting withwould be household white vinegar, which is generally theequivalent of a 5% concentration of acetic acid. Whitevinegar can be used straight from the bottle or diluted withwater to give you more flexibility. In its pure state, it isworth about 2 to 4 levels on a step table. Here are a fewsigns to look for if you decide to use vinegar as a devel-opment option.

u White vinegar out of the bottle: A significant increasein the range of values (2 to 4 steps) but a relativedecrease in the contrast. This might be a good formulafor negatives that are hopelessly too high-key. A hydro-gen peroxide “oxidation-hit” will have little effect onthis straight vinegar developed print.

u Vinegar and water 1:1: Some of the image’s highlightcrispness begins to return without a loss in the steptable. Hydrogen peroxide has a negligible effect indeepening the blue in the print.

u Vinegar and water 1:3: A 2 to 3 step increase in mid-tone values, better highlight detail, and the hydrogenperoxide adds a little “intensification” to the blue.

u Vinegar and water 1:5: Still a pretty decent range inthe additional steps and the highlights are better.Decent D-max (maximum density) equal to the otherprints in the test sequence, and the hydrogen peroxidehas a modest effect.

Using Mike Ware’s New Cyanotype Process, explainedlater, the effects of vinegar development are less distinct.That fact is somewhat irrelevant if you are using Ware’sformula, which has a longer and similar tonal scale and asofter look to the overall image. Ware’s process doesemploy an acid development that has a softening impacton the contrast.

Acid Postdevelopment BathAnother alternative in developing cyanotypes for addi-tional tonal range is a technique of rinsing your water-developed print in a mild acid bath following thedevelopment. Adding this acid bath step will often resultin an intensification of the darker values while reducingthe lighter ones. Traditional manuals, such as the KodakEncyclopedia of Practical Photography, suggest a postdevel-opment bath of 4 to 5 drops of hydrochloric acid per1,000 ml of water for a few minutes. I have also heard ofcyanotype artists who use weak solutions of citric acid,both chemical and natural, in this step. For fun, trysqueezing a few lemons into a water bath and note theeffect. You will likely see a bit of clearing and a marginalintensification of darker values.

Washing and Ox id i za t ionAfter exposure and development, wash your developedcyanotype print in running water for 5 to 15 minutes oruntil the highlights have cleared to white. You should nolonger see any yellow-green coloration in the water.Shorter washing times may leave ferric salts in the paper.Too long a washing time will cause both fading, througha pigmentation loss, and a decrease of highlight details inthe print.

If you need instant gratification, try this: After the firstwash, remove the print from the water and add a splashof drugstore grade hydrogen peroxide to the water bath.

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Reimmerse the print and watch the blues go to an imme-diate and intense deep blue. This action causes the high-lights to appear super white because of their relationshipto the dark blues. This intensification “trick” is everyone’sfavorite. Really, though, all that is happening is that youare accelerating the oxidization of the iron in the print thatwould happen naturally in a few days without this step.Don’t forget the wash stage after being thrilled.

Clear ing Your H igh l ightsA 1% to 5% solution of oxalic acid can be used (1 to 5grams of oxalic acid to 100 ml of water). This solution isparticularly successful for spotting blue stains out of high-light areas. Take all necessary precautions when usingoxalic acid because it is toxic.

If your print is overexposed (which is pretty hard todo), mix up a solution of sodium carbonate, approxi-mately a pinch to 1,000 ml of water, and immerse yourimage in it until it begins to fade. Watch for the first signs

of yellow. Too strong a concentration or too long in thesodium carbonate solution will have a serious bleachingeffect. If you feel you went too far with this, you can con-sult the toning section for techniques on where to go next.Tannic acid would be a likely option. If you opt to donothing at all, save your overexposed cyanotype for aBlue-Van-Dyke print or a gum or simply throw it out anddo a new one.

Toning the CyanotypeThere will be times when you simply do not want a blueimage but still want to use the cyanotype technique dueto its flexibility and simplicity. The following are some for-mulas for changing the color of cyanotypes once they havecompleted the final wash. In general, it is a good idea tooverexpose your prints if you intend to tone them. Manyof the following formulas utilize sodium carbonate orammonia, which tend to radically reduce print density ifthe solutions are too strong.

Figure 6–9Laurie Snyder, House Books #1–#4, 1995This image, which is in color and a great deal larger in its original form,illustrates Laurie Snyder’s House Books #s 1–4. This is a wonderful exam-ple of making the pages for an artist’s book in an alternative process andthen constructing the book. Laurie’s installed piece is 85”260” and iscomposed of accordion fold books with hard covers.(Courtesy of the artist)

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A word of encouragement—many times the formulaswill not work as you want them to due to water types, con-tamination, time of year, etc. Take these formulas with agrain of salt (sorry, bad pun) and adapt them to your ownaesthetic. Very often, during workshops, I will simplypour and sprinkle formulas together to reinforce the ideathat the results from these toning suggestions are not setin stone, either alone or in combination with other ton-

ers. Besides, what have you got to lose? The process is sim-ple, inexpensive, and accidents often become individualand unique techniques.

There is the issue of permanence to consider. Thecyanotype, in a pure Prussian-blue state and handled cor-rectly, is permanent and one of the most stable alterna-tive processes. The toning steps change the chemicalcomposition of the cyanotype image, and it is occasion-ally questionable if all of these formulas can be describedas “permanent” after the fact. I have found virtually nodeterioration in the images I toned with tannic acid over20 years ago. This is not the case with images done dur-ing group toning demonstrations, where inadequate wash-ing times between steps are often the rule.

It is a good idea to dry your cyanotype prints beforetoning them and to let them oxidize for a day or so. This

Figure 6–10Brooke Williams, Self with Family, Jamaica, 1987(Cyanotype mural)Brooke made this mural piece while she was a student of mine at Harvard. The work documents a personal and family experi-ence while visiting Jamaica. The cyanotype prints have been toned with tannic acid to convert the blue, and the writing aroundthe outside of the six panels, containing quotations from Brooke’s journals and the writing of Marcus Garvey, is made on acetateand contact printed.(Courtesy of the artist)

These toning suggestions are essentially variations onthe theme of alkaline hydrolysis followed by the forma-tion of ferric tannate or gallate that forms the new colorpalette. They are interesting to play with and modify andalmost always look better wet than when dry.

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step gives the coating a chance to harden. After they havebeen dried, you should rewet them to tone. This soakingstage will allow the toning solutions to cover and pene-trate the paper’s fibers more completely and makes for asmoother-looking tonality in the print. The formulasgiven are equivalent in ratios, and you may feel free tomodify the amounts in order to adequately cover the sizeof your prints.

The Big ThrillHydrogen peroxide (3% drugstore grade) added to waterwill seem to super “intensify” the blue in your cyanotypes.The actual effect is simply an accelerated oxidation of theiron. This intense blue will occur eventually, given time,in any well-processed cyanotype. Hydrogen peroxide canbe used immediately after the yellow has been washed outof your print. Mix it casually and without fear, because thischemical is used to clean wounds and as a mouthwash.

Removing Blue: Yellow ToningThere are several chemicals that will alter the intensity ofthe blue in your cyanotypes. As mentioned, hydrogen per-oxide, oxalic acid, and sodium carbonate will all cause theblue to change, as well as solutions of chlorine bleach,sodium sulfate, sodium silicate, trisodium phosphate, andcommercial laundry soaps. You may mix solutions of thesechemicals and apply them selectively to remove areas ofblue, and in some cases you can alter the entire color ofthe print or fabric in complete baths.

For example, to make a yellow and white print, makea solution of trisodium phosphate in a ratio of 1 table-spoon to every quart of water. Dissolve the trisodiumphosphate in hot water in a plastic tub or tray, andimmerse the cyanotype in the solution until it fades to yel-low. Rinse the print with running water for 30 minutes,or run the fabric through a cold wash cycle without soap.The resulting image will be permanent.

Figure 6–11Grace Huang, Portrait of Stefanie, 1989Grace Huang, a classmate of Stefanie London’s, made this portrait of her incyanotype and split-toned it with sodium carbonate.(Courtesy of the artist)

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The Basic Tea TonerBuy some basic and inexpensive household tea (tannicacid) and make a very strong solution in hot water.Immerse your print in it until you have the desired tonal-ity. Using a solution of tea as a toner is a nice way to cre-ate a duotone image. The print’s highlights exhibit apleasant tan color while the blue takes on a slightlywarmer hue. If you don’t want any blue, just go throughthe yellow toning stage with trisodium phosphate andthen move on to the tea toning. Using green and herbalteas without tannic acid in them does not work as well.

Brown Toning #1

PART A

28 ml nondetergent, household strength ammonia added to240 ml of water

PART B

14 g tannic acid added and mixed well and added to 750 mlof water

Tannic acid mixing takes a little patience because it doesnot dissolve readily in water. Break up the clumps and keepstirring until the chemical is in solution. Immerse thewashed and wet print in Part A for a few minutes or untilit becomes pale. Then rinse the print for several minutesand transfer it to Part B for the conversion to brown. Inall of the toning formulas, too short a rinsing time betweenstages is the primary culprit in the discoloration of high-lights and paper base white.

Black Toning #1Immerse the print in a solution of Dektol. The strongerthe Dektol solution the more intense the goldenrod colorthat will present itself to you. When the blue is almostentirely bleached out and converted, rinse the print forseveral minutes in water and then immerse it in a solu-tion of tannic acid mixed to 30 to 50 g per 1,000 ml ofwater. You should see a smokey black color within 5 min-utes. Wash the toned print for 15 minutes.

Eggplant/Red/Black TonesUse the black toning #1 procedure and after the final washimmerse the print in the strong Dektol solution again orin an ammonia bath solution consisting of 250 ml ammo-nia to 1,000 ml water.

Black Toning #2PART A

3 drops nitric acid* added to 1 liter water

PART B

14 g sodium carbonate added to 160 ml water (5.3 oz)

PART C

14 g gallic acid added to 160 ml water

Begin by immersing your washed and wet print into PartA (nitric acid) for 2 minutes. Then rinse the print for sev-eral minutes, transfer it to Part B, and leave it in the solu-tion until the image disappears and then reappears as a verylight orange image. Then rinse the print for several min-utes and transfer it into Part C, where the black tonesshould become evident. Finally, wash the print for at least15 minutes.

Blue/Gray Split ToningAllow the cyanotype to age for a day or two and then rewetthe print. Mix a solution of 3 drops of nitric acid in 1,000ml water and immerse your print in it for 2 minutes. Thenwash the print for several minutes. Next, immerse theprint in a weak (a pinch to 1,000 ml of water) sodium car-bonate solution until a yellow split occurs, and then washthe print for several minutes. Mix up a solution of tannicacid of 25 g to 1,000 ml water and place your print in ituntil a blue/gray split appears. Finally, wash the print wellfor 15 to 20 minutes.

Red ToningFollow the directions for the blue/gray toning. Immersethe print in a light sodium carbonate solution (a pinch to1,000 ml of water) until red and then wash the print for10 minutes.

*Nitric acid is not a chemical to take lightly. This is evident as soon as you take the plastic top off the bottle and see the white vapors rising towardthe ceiling. Please do not be casual with this chemical. Be sure to read about it in the chemical section in the Appendix and wear proper protectivelab gloves and a mask when working with nitric acid.

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Eggplant Black #1This is a very casual kitchen formula when you don’t havea gram scale.

PART A

1 to 2 tsp sodium carbonate (very flexible) stirred into solu-tion in 1 quart water

Be aware of how much sodium carbonate you use in PartA. You may find that 1 to 2 tsp is far too strong a mix foryour prints. If this is the case, then either make a new Part

A with a pinch of sodium carbonate or add more water tothe solution.

PART B

4 to 10 Tbs tannic acid added and mixed really well into 1quart water

This tannic mix is much stronger than you may need toget the job done but I have found it works for me, soinclude it in this formula. If you find it is too strong foryour prints then simply reduce the amount of tannic acidin the Part B formula.

Figure 6–12Judy Vejvoda, Goddesses Pantry, 1992Judy, who is now a teacher, was a student ofmine and later in the graduate program at UNMwith Betty Hahn where she made this 40”270”construction of toned cyanotype images andmixed media on paper.(Courtesy of the artist)

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Dry your prints for a day or two and rewet them in awater bath. Begin by immersing your wet print into PartA for a very brief time. The sodium carbonate decomposesthe iron blue quite quickly, so watch it closely. I like toslip the print into this solution and immediately removeit to a water bath for the bleaching effect to take place.Generally, this stage is pretty flexible and the less iron bluethat decomposes, the greater the possibility of a split tonedimage. You may find, as I have, depending on the water,that as little as a pinch of sodium carbonate will work well.Next, rinse the print and immerse it into Part B for as longas you want to. The greater the time and concentration oftannic acid, the deeper the color. Be aware that at somepoint, the highlights will begin to stain. Wash the printfor 15 minutes and hang to dry.

Violet Tones #1This formula is occasionally successful. Prepare a weakborax (commercially available in the supermarket) solutionand immerse the print in it until you see a color changethat pleases you. The concentration of the borax to wateris flexible, and you should play around with it. This par-ticular toner often looks good in the wet state but has a ten-dency to flatten out after drying. Water type will play a rolein determining the degree of violet you might get.

Violet/Gray Tones #2You can occasionally get the violet/gray shift by making asolution of 5 g of lead acetate in 100 ml of distilled water.Immerse the print in this solution until you see a color thatyou like, then wash the print well for 15 to 30 minutes.Be cautious of the lead acetate because it is not one of theharmless chemicals. Do not dispose of lead acetate downthe drain and continue to reuse the toner formula until itdoesn’t do anything anymore. It is possible to continue thisformula by immersing the print in a bath of citric acid fol-lowing the wash. This bath will result in a very deepblue/violet according to those who use it.

Yellow/Blue Split TonesThis is very simple toner and seems to work best in thecity, where there is a good deal of iron in the water sup-ply. Allow the exposed and washed print to age for a dayor two. Rewet the print and immerse it in a hydrogen per-oxide bath followed by a 15-minute rinse. Then place theprint in a very weak solution of sodium carbonate (apinch between thumb and forefinger to a 1,000 ml ofwater). Immediately transfer it to a fresh water bath toobserve the changes. Allow the changes to occur in thewash water rather than the sodium carbonate to achievethe split. After you are satisfied, wash the print well for15 minutes.

Figure 6–13John Wood, Hands, Beaver Pond,Windmill and Yellow, 1990This piece by John Wood is from hisColorado Series. It is a great exampleof mixing the attributes of cyanotypeand monoprint.(Courtesy of the artist)

Purple–Brown ToningMix up a hot solution of tannic acid at 70 g to 1,000 mlwater. To this solution add a drop or two of pyrogallic acid.Then immerse the print until the blue turns to a lilac colorand rinse the print for 5 to 10 minutes. If you like thecolor, simply complete the wash stage and don’t do anyadditional toning. If you wish to go to the purple–brown,immerse the print in a caustic potash solution made with15 grams of caustic potash to 1,000 ml of water until thedesired color is achieved. After toning, wash the print wellfor 15 minutes.

Gray to Reddish TonesMix up a solution of 48 g of copper nitrate dissolved in96 ml of distilled water. Add 5 drops of household ammo-nia and mix it well into solution. Immerse the print untilthe desired color is achieved and wash the print well inrunning water for 15 to 20 minutes.

Black Toning #3Immerse the print in a strong tannic concentration for 5minutes and then wash for 5 minutes. Then immerse theprint for very brief time in a weak sodium carbonate dilu-tion and immediately move it to a wash tray for 5 min-utes. Go back to the strong tannic solution for another 5minutes and wash the print again. Then immerse theprint in a hydrogen peroxide bath (casual dilution) for aminute, rinse the print, and return to the tannic bath forthe black. Finally, wash the print well for 15 to 20 min-utes. This formula has worked very well about 50% of thetime and will occasionally result in paper base staining.

Violet-Black ToningMix up a moderately weak solution of sodium carbonateas in previous formulas and immerse the print until it hasturned a pale yellow. Wash the print for several minutesand then mix a solution of 8 g of gallic acid, 0.5 g of pyro-gallic acid, and 1,000 ml of water rinse and immerse theprint until the desired color is reached. Wash the print for15 to 20 minutes.

Red-BrownImmerse an aged and wet cyanotype print in a solutionof nondetergent household ammonia and water, mixed insolution at approximately 8 ml to 250 ml of water untilthe print turns a violet color. Wash the print for 10 to 15minutes and then immerse it in a strong solution of tan-nic acid and water (25 g to 500 ml water) for 5 to10 min-utes. Wash the print for 5 minutes after the tannic acidbath. If you like the brown color, stop the process at thispoint and wash for 20 minutes. If you feel like going on,immerse the print in a strong solution of sodium car-bonate until a deep red-brown appears and then wash theprint well for 15 to 20 minutes.

Dark Blue/Blue Violet/Rose SplitFollow the directions for the rich red-brown. Quicklyimmerse the print in the strong tannic acid again and thenwash the print for 5 minutes. Then immerse the print inthe gold/borax toner formula used for salted paper ton-ing (400 ml distilled water, 3 g borax, 6 ml 1% gold chlo-ride) until you see the split. Finally, wash the print for 15to 20 minutes.

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Figure 6–14Phoebe McCormick, Shinto ViewsPhoebe, who races motorcycles, makes artists’ books, and teaches at the Art Institute of Boston, works with a vast assort-ment of processes and materials in the translation of her intentions. Shinto Views is a handmade book with cyanotype imagesthat capture the essence of her experience in Japan.(Courtesy of the artist)