cycloplegic refraction in optometric practice 1337594763401 2
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Optometry in Practice Vol 6 (2005) 107120
2005 The College of Optometrists
Introduction
Although new methods of refraction have been developed
over the years, cycloplegic refraction has remained a time-
tested, reliable and valid procedure for obtaining refraction
data. In non-communicative or uncooperative patients,those with functional visual problems or whose visual
acuity (VA) cannot be corrected to an expected level,
cycloplegia is often essential for an accurate assessment of
refractive error. Also, cycloplegia is often necessary in
patients with inconsistent responses or symptoms, and in
patients with media opacities or aberrations (Amos 2001).
Without cycloplegia, determining the refractive status of
young patients with accommodative esotropia,
pseudomyopia or latent hyperopia would be much more
difficult.
An ideal cycloplegic would have no ocular or systemic side
effects; it would be able to produce a rapid onset ofcycloplegia, inhibit accommodation completely for an
adequate period of time and then swiftly restore effective
accommodation. It would also have the capacity for safe
administration in general practice by appropriately
qualified personnel. There is no single cycloplegic drug that
covers all these requirements (Amos 2001), but some
agents do satisfactorily achieve the desired clinical result
with minimum disadvantages.
Here we review drug mechanisms, instillation techniques
and the uses and adverse reactions of common drugs that
can be used in cycloplegic refraction.
Method of Literature Search
Pertinent articles on cycloplegic drugs published in peer-
reviewed journals were identified through a multistaged,
systematic approach. In the first stage, a computerised
search of the PubMed database (National Library of
Medicine) was performed to identify all articles about
cycloplegic drugs published up to March 2005. The terms
cycloplegics, cycloplegia, paediatric and pediatric,
cyclopentolate, atropine, homatropine and tropicamide
were used for a broad search. In the second stage all
abstracts were examined to identify articles pertinent to
our review. Copies of the entire articles were obtained.
Bibliographies of the articles retrieved were manually
searched using the same search guidelines. Key textbooks
were also searched. In the third stage, articles werereviewed and information relating to the use of cycloplegic
drugs in optometric practice was incorporated into the
manuscript.
Drug Mechanism
Cycloplegic drugs block the actions of the parasympathetic
nervous system. Pharmacologically they are known as
antimuscarinics, anticholinergics, cholinergic antagonists,
muscarinic antagonists, parasympathetic antagonists or
parasympatholytics. The muscarinic receptors are
normally stimulated by the release of acetylcholine fromthe nerve endings of the parasympathetic system. When
stimulated, the ciliary muscle contracts, pulling the ciliary
body forward. This relieves the tension in the suspensory
ligaments, which support the lens. Consequently, the lens
becomes more convex, which results in an increase in
refractive power to produce accommodation. During
cycloplegia, when the receptors of the ciliary muscle are
blocked they are no longer receptive to acetylcholine and
accommodation is not possible (Bloom 1998, Titcomb
2003, Viner 2004). The end result is that the contraction of
the ciliary muscle is blocked and the iris sphincter muscle
is relaxed, resulting in cycloplegia and mydriasis.
Instillation Techniques
Pre-instillation assessment
Before any cycloplegic agent is administered, a satisfactory
pre-instillation ocular evaluation should be performed.
This practice not only protects the practitioner legally but
also gives valuable information on potential
contraindications to the intended cycloplegic as well as
obtaining baseline clinical information that may not be
Cycloplegic Refraction in OptometricPracticeFrank Eperjesi PhD and Karen Jones BSc
Division of Optometry, School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham
Date of acceptance 29 July 2005
Address for correspondence: Dr F Eperjesi, Division of Optometry, School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle,Birmingham, UK
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F Eperjesi & K Jones
obtainable under cycloplegia. The following informationcould be taken before drug instillation:
a full and detailed history, including visual, general
medical, allergy, drug and family history
distance and near VA
pupillary reflexes
refraction
slit-lamp examination, paying particular attention to
anterior angle configuration
tonometry, where the patient might be at risk of closure
of the anterior chamber angle
Obtaining patient or parental consent before administering
any cycloplegic drug is recommended (Bartlett 1978); thiscould be in the form of a verbal consent followed by an
appropriate entry in the patient records or a more formal
signed consent form. The College of Optometrists provides
information sheets on the instillation of cycloplegic
drugs (www.college-optometrists.org/professional/
cyclopentolate.htm and www.college-optometrists.org/
professional/tropicamide.htm) and these could easily be
adapted into a consent form.
Drop instillation
The procedure for instilling topical medication into the eye
consists essentially of inclining the head backwards so thatthe optical axis is as nearly vertical as possible. The lower
lid is then retracted, and the upper lid held back with the
thumb or forefinger. Patients should then be asked to look
over their head in order to move the cornea away from the
instillation site to minimise the blink reflex. The drop
should then be instilled into the lower conjunctival sac,
keeping the bottle tip away from the globe to avoid contact
contamination. The lids can then be gently closed and the
head brought forward. Children can become very
distressed during this procedure; the level of distress can
sometimes be minimised by careful explanation of the
instillation process.
Use of anaesthetics
The most commonly used cycloplegic is cyclopentolate 1%
(see below). Because it is unstable at neutral pH,
preparations are acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid to
around pH 4 and this leads to stinging on instillation
(Sutherland & Young 2001). It has been suggested that
instilling a local anaesthetic before a cycloplegic agent can
lead to more successful and less stressful drug instillation
(Leat et al. 1999). The topical local anaesthetic
proxymetacaine 0.5% stings considerably less than other
anaesthetics, takes less than 30 seconds to anaesthetise
the eye (Boozan & Cohen 1953) and the anaesthetic effect
lasts for 1025 minutes (Havener 1983). Therefore,proxymetacaine 0.5% is becoming the anaesthetic of
choice (Leat et al. 1999, Shah et al. 1997, Sutherland &
Young 2001), despite the fact that it is also acidified with
hydrochloric acid to a similar pH as cyclopentolate and can
cause discomfort.
The reasons for instilling a topical local anaesthetic before
the cycloplegic are twofold. Firstly, if the cornea is
anaesthetised, the stinging, irritation and lacrimation due
to the second drop, the cycloplegic, will be diminished
(Shahet al. 1997); this is particularly useful if more than
one drop of cyclopentolate is required. In a group of 29
adult subjects there was a highly statistically significant
reduction in total discomfort with cyclopentolate instilledafter premedication with proxymetacaine compared with
the use of cyclopentolate instilled after a placebo
(Sutherland & Young 2001). Secondly, the local
anaesthetic may increase the absorption of the cycloplegic
agent (Viner 2004). The disadvantage of this technique in
a paediatric population is that if the child is adverse to the
first set of drops, he or she may make it extremely difficult
for the second, more important drugs to be instilled
(Bartlett 1978, Leat et al. 1999, Viner 2004).
Proxymetacaine 0.5% should be used with caution as it
may cause epithelial and stromal keratitis if used
repeatedly over a period of a few hours (Doughty & Field
2005).
Spray instillation
Ismailet al. (1994) found that spraying cyclopentolate on
to the eyelashes of a gently closed upper lid resulted in an
easier application with no compromise to the cycloplegic
effects. Goodman et al. (1999) also tested a spray
instillation technique and found that patient discomfort
associated with the spray was slightly greater that that of
eye drops but this was not clinically significant.
Paradoxically, the spray was better received by the
parents.
Dosage
The dosage for all cycloplegics should be the minimal
concentration that will achieve the clinical task
satisfactorily. To overmedicate when maximum cycloplegia
has been reached increases the probability of systemic
absorption and therefore intensifies the side effects. In
other words, using several drops of a cycloplegic when one
drop is sufficient is poor practice (Amos 1978). As with all
ocular drugs, the chances of systemic side effects can be
reduced by occluding the eyelid puncta for a few seconds
after drug instillation (Chang 1978, Viner 2004), although
this is not always possible with children.
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Cycloplegic Refraction in Optometric Practice
Degree of cycloplegia
After the cycloplegic has been instilled and the time limit
for maximum cycloplegia has been reached (see below),
the optometrist must then decide whether the degree of
cycloplegia is adequate to permit a reliable refraction.
Mydriasis is not necessarily a good indicator of when full
cycloplegia has taken place; therefore it is best to check for
cycloplegia by looking at the reflex with a retinoscope. If
cycloplegia is complete, a non-fluctuating retinoscopy
reflex is observed. If accommodation is active, then
fluctuation of the retinoscopy reflex will be seen. If
fluctuation is present, there are two options: use another
drop of cyclopentolate, or wait for a few more minutes and
check the retinoscopy reflex again (Moore 1997). Another
way of assessing monocular residual accommodation
would be to obtain a subjective response on the clarity of a
near-text target, although in many children performing this
type of check test is impossible.
Types of Cycloplegic Drugs
Cyclopentolate
Cyclopentolate is a synthetically derived antimuscarinic
and is formulated as a hydrochloride salt solution. It is
classified as a prescription-only medicine (POM) that canbe used and supplied by an optometrist provided it is in the
course of professional practice and in an emergency
(exemption level 1).
Cyclopentolate should be instilled 3040 minutes before
refraction (Moore 1997) and a further drop can follow after
515 minutes if necessary, particularly in patients with
heavily pigmented irises. It rapidly produces cycloplegia of
short duration with maximum cycloplegia after 1560
minutes (longer onset in dark pigmented irises) and the
effects last between 8 and 24 hours (Ansons & Davis 2001,
Chang 1978, Moore 1997, Titcomb 2003). This drug seems
to be the eye care professionals drug of choice for
cycloplegic refraction (Ansons & Davis 2001, Shah et al.1997), probably because of its rapid action and minimal
side effects. It is considered to be highly effective in most
cases provided retinoscopy is timed to coincide with its
maximum action. Cyclopentolate is available in 0.5% and
1% strengths in Minim form and in 2% strength in a dropper
bottle form, although this dosage is not routinely used as it
is very likely to result in side effects. To reduce the chances
of systemic effects, patients under 1 year old should
receive the 0.5% formulation (Mehta 1999, Scheimanet al.1997). All forms should be kept between 2C and 8C.
Cyclopentolate is structurally different to atropine (see
below) and can therefore be used when a patient has an
atropine allergy. Instilling three drops of 1% cyclopentolate10 minutes apart produces retinoscopy values comparable
to those obtained when children are atropinised for 3 days;
using more than three drops in one session increases the
chances of side effects (Moore 1997).
Cyclopentolate does not produce complete cycloplegia, but
leaves a residual amount of accommodation of about 1.50D
or less (Leatet al. 1999). However, this depth of cycloplegia
is adequate for most cases and also means that a tonus
allowance does not normally need to be considered when
calculating the final prescription (Viner 2004). It has been
reported that if residual accommodation exceeds 2.00D,
cycloplegic refraction may be unreliable and inaccurate
(Amos 2001). One randomised masked study reported that1% cyclopentolate produced adequate cycloplegia in a
group of 313-year-olds (Goodmanet al. 1999).
Atropine
Atropine sulphate is a solanaceous alkaloid derived from
Atropa belladonna. Atropine has been known since biblical
times. It is an organic ester of tropic acid and tropine and
is the most potent of the antimuscarinic drugs (Titcomb
2003). It is classified as a POM, while changes to the range
of medicines that can be sold, supplied or administered by
optometrists have classified atropine in exemption level 2.
This means that atropine is only accessible to optometristswho have undergone appropriate additional training and
are accredited by the General Optical Council.
Atropine is rarely used in optometric practice. It has a slow
action and a duration of 12 weeks. Atropines length of
action completely rules out its use in infants under the age
of 3 months because of the risk of stimulus deprivation
amblyopia and it is associated with a significant number of
possible side effects in children (Viner 2004). Its use now
seems to be mainly confined to the Hospital Eye Service
and a few specialised optometry practices. It is available in
the form of 0.5% or 1% drops or ointment. The ointment
form provides longer drug contact time with less systemic
absorption than drops but, like most ocular ointments,often causes smeary vision and has the added disadvantage
of being more likely to cause contact dermatitis and
inhibition of corneal epithelial mitosis (Rengstorff &
Doughty 1982). It should be stored between 8C and 25C.
To reduce the likelihood of systemic effects, patients
younger than 12 months should receive the 0.5%
formulation (Mehta 1999). Atropine 0.5% is recommended
in lightly pigmented irises while atropine 1% is indicated in
the refraction of children with darkly pigmented irises,
those with a constant strabismus with a suspected
accommodative element or when cyclopentolate has
proved to be ineffective (Ansons & Davis 2001, Moore
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F Eperjesi & K Jones
1997). Interestingly, Rosenbaum et al. (1981) found thatatropine revealed a mean difference of only 0.34D more
hypermetropia than cyclopentolate in a sample of
esotropic Caucasian children.
When using atropine for refraction in children under 30
months, it is recommended that one drop of 0.5% atropine
is instilled three times a day for 3 days before refraction
and once more on the morning of the refraction. For
refractions in children between 30 months and 5 years,
one drop of 1.0% atropine is instilled three times a day for
3 days and then once on the morning of the refraction
(Ansons & Davis 2001). When using the ointment,
however, it is not usually instilled on the day of the
examination because it takes about 2 hours for theointment to dissipate and even a thin layer of unabsorbed
ointment may interfere with the refractive procedures
(Ansons & Davis 2001). The instillation (three times a day
for 3 days) is done at home and is probably excessive, as
maximum cycloplegia is achieved by the second day. This
does however allow for missed instillations and also
ensures effective relaxation of accommodation in even the
most resistant eyes (Amos 1978, Bartlett 1978, Chang
1978). The use of atropine also generally requires a tonus
allowance of about 1.00DS to be made to the final
prescription, because atropine completely abolishes all
accommodative tonus, and when the cycloplegic effects
wear off, if no allowance is made, the resultant prescriptionwill be over-plussed.
Homatropine
Homatropine hydrobromide is a semisynthetic alkaloid
formed by combining mandelic acid with tropine. It is a
POM and has also been classified as an exemption level 2
drug. It is not as potent as atropine and does not last as
long, although it does last slightly longer than
cyclopentolate. It should also be stored between 8C and
25C. For homatropine to produce satisfactory cycloplegia,
one drop of 2% homatropine is required every 10 minutes
up to a total of three drops or one drop of 1% homatropine
every 10 minutes for an hour (Chang 1978). Maximumcycloplegia occurs in 3060 minutes and may last 12 days
(Chang 1978, Titcomb 2003). Because it needs to be
administered several times before adequate cycloplegia is
achieved, homatropine is not considered to be suitable for
cycloplegic refraction in young children and only becomes
an option in patients who are in their late teens or older. It
has been replaced by cyclopentolate in clinical use
(Titcomb 2003).
Tropicamide
Tropicamide is a synthetic derivative of tropic acid. It is a
level 1 POM available in Minim form in 0.5% and 1%
dosages. Tropicamide has a faster onset, 1530 minutes,
and shorter duration of action, 46 hours, compared with
other antimuscarinic agents. This is due to its greater
diffusibility and a higher proportion of unionised drug that
is available for corneal penetration. The 0.5% dosage
produces mydriasis only, with ineffective cycloplegia. With
the 1% dosage maximum cycloplegia is produced 25
minutes after instillation and lasts only about 1520
minutes, after which the cycloplegia is unreliable.
Although it takes up to 6 hours for cycloplegia to wear off
totally, most patients will be able to read 24 hours after
instillation (Bloom 1998, Chang 1978, Titcomb 2003).
Tropicamide has been described as unsuitable for
cycloplegic refraction in children (Leatet al. 1999) and as
clinically useless in all but those patients with very light
irises and in cases of hypersensitivity to cholinergic agents,
eg patients with Downs syndrome (Moore 1997).
Interestingly, however, one study (Twelker et al. 2001)
reported less than 1.00D difference between cycloplegic
retinoscopy results obtained with two drops of
cyclopentolate 1% and two drops of tropicamide 1% on a
group of infants with an average age of 5.7 months. If used
for cycloplegic refraction and if retinoscopy is delayed
beyond 35 minutes after instillation, a further drop isadvised (Bloom 1998).
Other drugs
Two other cycloplegic agents, scopolamine (also known as
hyoscine) and oxyphenonium bromide, are not commonly
used in optometric practice so will not be discussed further
here.
Table 1 summarises the main cycloplegic properties of the
common cycloplegic drugs.
Determination of refractive error
The main reason for using cycloplegic drugs in optometric
practice is to obtain an accurate assessment of refractive
error. Without cycloplegic drugs active accommodation
may affect retinoscopy results. Furthermore, cycloplegic
refraction has been described as an essential part of the
paediatric ophthalmic assessment (Shah et al. 1997) and
the cornerstone of strabismus evaluation (Mehta 1999). As
well as aiding refraction, instilling the cycloplegic drug also
allows a better view of the fundus during ophthalmoscopy;
this is important since retinal lesions may produce visual
loss and strabismus.
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Cycloplegic Refraction in Optometric Practice
Some eye care professionals advocate cycloplegic
refraction of all children on their first visit to an
optometrist. However, it is probably more appropriate to
select certain groups of patients for whom a cycloplegic
refraction is essential:
those who are poorly cooperative with near or distanceretinoscopy
patients with fluctuating non-cycloplegic retinoscopy
reflex
unexplained reduced VA in children
individuals with manifest strabismus, particularly an
esotropia
those with significant or unstable esophoria
children with a family history of strabismus, amblyopia
or high hyperopia
patients with suspected pseudomyopia
children with a history of strabismus observed by a
parent or guardian
children with anisometropia greater than 1.00DS
cases of reduced accommodation
in high hyperopia in a child of < 2 years
those with suspected latent hyperopia
in variable and inconsistent subjective responses
patients with suspected non-organic visual loss
in symptoms unrelated to the nature or degree of the
manifest refractive error (Evans 2002, Jones & Hodes
1991, Leatet al. 1999, Moore 1997, Viner 2004)
Poor cooperation may have several causes, such as mental
or physical constraints or through an obstreperous
disposition where the child is noisily aggressive and
stubborn (Viner 2004).
Advantages and disadvantages
In general, the advantages of cycloplegic refraction are:
accurate patient fixation is less crucial
accurate retinoscopy can be achieved more easily
latent hyperopia is revealed refractive error can be confirmed (Viner 2004)
there is a better view of the fundus during
ophthalmoscopy
In general, the disadvantages of cycloplegic refraction are:
distress to the patient on instillation of drops
subsequent breakdown in childclinician relationship
photophobia caused by dilated pupils
decreased ability in close-work tasks
a risk of ocular and systemic side effects and adverse
reactions (Tables 2 and 3)
difficulty in assessing axes in the presence ofaberrations resulting from a large pupil diameter (Leat
et al. 1999, Viner 2004)
Furthermore, with atropine, the extended period of
induced blur can act as an effective dissociating device and
may cause patients with an esophoria or intermittent
esotropia accompanied by uncorrected hypermetropia to
lose control of their already fragile binocularity and lapse
into a state of constant esotropia (Mallett 1994, Viner
2004). This will not occur with cyclopentolate (Mallett
1994).
Table 1. Summary of the main antimuscarinic agents and their strengths, duration and indications (Titcomb 2003)
Drug Forms and strengths Time to Duration of action Indications
available maximum effect
Cyclopentolate Multidose eye drops 1560 minutes 24 hours Anterior uveitis
0.5%, 1% Cycloplegic refraction
Single-dose eye drops Fundus photography
0.5%, 1% Ophthalmoscopy
Homatropine Multidose eye drops 3060 minutes 12 days Anterior uveitis
1%, 2%
Single-dose eye drops
2%
Tropicamide Multidose eye drops 25 minutes 6 hours Fundus photography
0.5%, 1% Ophthalmoscopy
Single-dose eye drops
0.5%, 1%
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F Eperjesi & K Jones
Table 2. Ocular and systemic adverse reactionsassociated with cyclopentolate (Manny & Jaanus 2001)
Table 3. Systemic adverse reactions associated with
atropine in children (Manny & Jaanus 2001)
Table 4. The residual accommodation, in dioptres, after
instillation of two drops of 1% tropicamide in one eye and
1% cyclopentolate or 5% homatropine in the fellow eye
(Gettes & Belmont 1961)
Wide dilation of the pupil can also create excessivespherical aberration in the ocular media, resulting in
difficult retinoscopy and refraction. The best guideline for
retinoscopy is to neutralise the central 4mm of the pupil,
ignoring the periphery. Also, a retinoscope light of low to
medium intensity helps to reduce any aberrations. In
addition, an allowance for ciliary tonus is sometimes
necessary, and the practitioner must consider this
allowance to determine the appropriate refractive
correction for each patient (Amos 2001, Viner 2004).
Strabismus
When a young patient has an esotropia, cycloplegics can be
used to determine whether the esotropia is fullyaccommodative or not. When a cycloplegic is instilled into
the eyes, the eyes often converge more because
accommodation is incompletely relaxed, and if the patient
tries to overcome this, the cycloplegic convergence
becomes overstimulated. If cycloplegia is complete and the
eyes straighten, this indicates that it is a fully
accommodative esotropia and glasses will hold the eyes
straight. In accommodative esotropia, it is essential to
determine the full amount of hyperopia as it is vital to
prescribe the correct plus-power lenses to relieve the effort
placed on the accommodative convergence system (Amos
2001, Morgan & Arstikaitis 1967). In the presence of a
constant or intermittent strabismus, it is often necessary toocclude one eye. The non-occluded eye maintains fixation
and retinoscopy can be performed on axis with less chance
of error (Moore 1997).
Residual accommodation
Gettes & Belmont (1961) determined residual
accommodation to measure the efficiency of cycloplegic
drugs. They investigated atropine 1%, cyclopentolate 1%,
tropicamide 1% and homatropine 4% with 1% paredrine.
Efficiencies of 100% for atropine, 92% for cyclopentolate,
80% for tropicamide and 54% for homatropine with
paredrine were noted. Table 4 shows the residual
accommodation after drug instillation.
Near-fixation retinoscopy (Mohindratechnique)
There are some potential adverse reactions, side effects
and legal issues on the use of cycloplegic drugs (see below).
Alternatives to using drugs have been suggested. One such
method is near-fixation retinoscopy (often referred to as
the Mohindra technique: Mohindra 1977a, b). This
technique relies on the fact that young children are likely
to be attracted to a retinoscope light in a darkened room.
Ocular Systemic
Irritation Drowsiness
Lacrimation Ataxia
Conjunctival hyperaemia Disorientation
Allergic blepharoconjunctivitis Incoherent speech
Elevated intraocular pressure Restlessness
Visual hallucination
Diffuse cutaneous flush
Depressed salivation / thirst
Fever
Urinary retention
Tachycardia
Somnolence
Excitement / restlessness and hallucinations
Speech disturbances
Ataxia
Convulsions
Age Tropicamide Cyclopentolate Homatropine
(years) at 30 minutes at 60 minutes at 60 minutes
09 6.25 (n = 6) (0) 2.5 (n = 6)
1014 3.65 (n = 20) 1.6 (n = 5) 2.6 (n = 15)
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To keep infants attentive it has been suggested that feedingthem can help; feeding also helps to relax the
accommodation and widens the palpebral aperture
(Mohindra 1975). Retinoscopy is carried out at 50cm on
one eye while the examiner or a carer occludes the other
eye. It is assumed that the eye undergoing retinoscopy is at
its resting accommodation level when the retinoscopy light
is maintained at a minimum. In an adult population the
accommodative response under these conditions has been
shown to remain stable at 0.70D (Owens et al. 1980). The
American Optometric Association recommends near non-
cycloplegic retinoscopy when frequent follow-up is
necessary, when the child is extremely anxious about
instillation of cycloplegic agents and when the child has
had or is at risk of an adverse reaction to cyclopentolate ortropicamide (Scheimanet al. 1997).
Retinoscopy is performed by neutralising the retinal reflex
in the two primary meridians of the eye using loose trial
lenses. The gross sphere cylinder form is then calculated
from the meridional findings. Mohindra (1977b) has
indicated that 1.25D should be added to the spherical
component of the gross sphere cylinder findings. This
adjustment factor was found by comparing subjective
refraction and near retinoscopy results on 27 adults; it
takes into account both the 2.00D working distance and
0.75D residual accommodation (Saunders & Westall 1992).
Results from a study using a larger sample size and infantsubjects indicated greater agreement between near and
cycloplegic retinoscopy (two drops of 1% cyclopentolate)
when 1.00D is subtracted from the spherical component of
the gross retinoscopy result for those patients less than 2
years of age and 0.75D subtracted for those over the age of
2 years (Saunders & Westall 1992). Good reliability
(Mohindra 1975) and validity (Mohindra 1977b) of the
near retinoscopy technique have been reported but some
concerns have also been expressed. Opinions vary as to the
accuracy of this technique; if, during retinoscopy, the light
does not provide a stimulus to accommodation and the eye
assumes its normal resting state of accommodation, it
would seem that the results from this technique would be
reasonably reliable. However, it has been proposed thattonus is dependent on the type of refractive error present,
with hyperopes having a greater amount. If this were true
then it would result in the Mohindra technique
underestimating the amount of hyperopia seen (Viner
2004). Borghi & Rouse (1985) reported that cycloplegic
retinoscopy found on average 0.500.75D more hyperopia
than near non-cycloplegic retinoscopy and Twelker &
Mutti (2001) found an average difference of 1.04D.
However, Wessonet al. (1990) found in their infant group
an average of 2.12D more hyperopia using cycloplegic
retinoscopy with cyclopentolate compared with the near
non-cycloplegic technique and recommended cautionwhen substituting near non-cycloplegic retinoscopy for
cycloplegic refraction.
Interestingly, Chan & Edwards (1994) reported that for
Chinese children (aged 3.55 years), multiplying the
spherical component of the refraction result obtained by
static non-cycloplegic retinoscopy (fixing at 6m) by 1.45,
adding 0.39 to the product while keeping the astigmatic
power unchanged, the total refractive error (ie the error
that would be found using cyclopentolate 1%) can be
accurately estimated.
Adverse Reactions
All cycloplegics have the potential to cause significant
adverse reactions. All the antimuscarinic drugs abolish
normal pupil reflexes to light and near vision and therefore
result in photophobia and a decreased ability to perform
near-work tasks. Photophobia can be reduced by the use of
sunglasses or a brimmed hat. It is also prudent to warn the
parent or carer of a school-aged child that near-work tasks
will prove more difficult until the effects of the drug have
worn off. Also, cycloplegia is contraindicated in all patients
with a history of angle-closure glaucoma (Amos 2001,
Bloom 1998, Viner 2004).
From the clinical perspective, reactions associated with
topically applied cycloplegic agents may be classified as
allergic or toxic. A variety of predisposing factors for
adverse allergic or toxic reactions exist, and these include
use of high concentrations, overdosage and ocular and
systemic conditions allowing increased systemic drug
absorption. Adherence to certain general principles will
reduce the risk of adverse reactions to cycloplegic agents
(Bartlett 1978):
All medications should be kept out of the reach of
children: as few as 20 drops of 1% atropine can be fatal
if taken internally
The ointment form of atropine will decrease the risk ofsystemic absorption
Excessive solution or ointment should be wiped from
the eye after instillation
The lowest concentration and least dosage frequency
consistent with the diagnostic purpose of the drug
should be used; most adverse reactions from
cyclopentolate have followed the administration of a
higher than recommended dose
A conservative approach should be taken in drug
instillation in patients with injected conjunctiva as
hyperaemia increases the rate of systemic absorption
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Before the drug is administered, consideration shouldbe given to its potential adverse effects relative to its
potential diagnostic benefit to the patient
Patients, or their parents, given atropine ointment for
home use should be cautioned to use only as directed;
in contrast to what some patients or parents may
expect, no additional benefit results from receiving
more than the prescribed amount of drug
Any known sensitivity to a specific cycloplegic agent
can often be bypassed by substituting another
cycloplegic
Iris colour
The efficacy of these drugs is influenced by the amount ofiris pigmentation, which is reflected in the colour of the
iris. Until recently the classification of iris colour was
imprecise, and iris pigmentation has been defined in broad
categories such as light or dark, or blue or brown.
Subjective comparisons to standard photographs or to
painted glass eyes have resulted in greater standardisation
and a better understanding of the effect of iris
pigmentation. With new computer technologies, objective
determinations of iris pigmentation promise improved
accuracy in predicting the response and perhaps the
dosage of cycloplegic drugs in individual patients (Manny &
Jaanus 2001).
Cyclopentolate
Adverse reactions from this drug include stinging on
instillation, reduced VA and glare. Adult patients should be
advised not to drive or operate machinery until the effects
of cycloplegia and mydriasis have worn off. The only time
that a miotic drug should be used to reverse the effects of
mydriasis would be if the patient suffered an acute attack
of closed-angle glaucoma following instillation of the
cycloplegic agent. A miotic drug could then be instilled to
reduce intraocular pressure. None of the antimuscarinic
drugs should be used on any patient with a narrow
anterior-chamber angle because of the increased risk of
angle closure (Bloom 1998). In the general population therisk of precipitating such an attack has been reported as 1
in 183 000 (Keller 1975).
Adverse reactions related to the use of cyclopentolate and
tropicamide are less common and less severe than those
associated with other cycloplegic drugs such as atropine
and homatropine, although there have been significant
isolated reports of cases of altered mental state, raised
intraocular pressure and closed-angle glaucoma with
cyclopentolate. Furthermore, heavily pigmented eyes
(dark irises) do not dilate readily (Priestly & Medine 1951)
and therefore extra care should be taken to prevent anoverdose. Cyclopentolate is available in a 2% solution,
although this is not recommended for normal usage since
it may produce psychotic reactions in some individuals.
Central nervous system (CNS) effects are usually reported
after a higher than recommended dose. Compared with
atropine, cyclopentolate causes more CNS effects, such as
confusion, difficulty in speaking, disorientation, aimless
wandering, schizophrenia-like behaviour, restlessness,
apprehension, amnesia and hallucinations (Beswick 1962,
Binkhorst et al. 1963, Kennerdell & Wucher 1972, Mark
1963). Fortunately, none of these lasts for more than a few
hours or leaves permanent problems (Jones & Hodes
1991). Allergic responses to cyclopentolate are rare and
may go unrecognised. Jones & Hodes (1991) described twopaediatric cases of hypersensitivity involving the
development of a facial and upper-body rash that spread to
the arms and legs 46 hours after instillation of two drops
of cyclopentolate 1%. Signs and symptoms had resolved by
the next day. Table 2 summarises the potential ocular and
systemic adverse reactions associated with cyclopentolate.
Atropine
Atropine and homatropine have the potential to cause
more significant systemic side effects than the other
antimuscarinics. Large amounts of atropine absorbed
systemically are toxic or even lethal. The fatal dose ofatropine is about 10mg for children (Mauger & Craig 1996).
Adverse reactions due to the topical use of atropine include
dry mouth, dryness and flushing of the skin, thirst,
restlessness, irritability and disorientation. A more
substantial side effect of atropine may manifest itself as an
allergic contact dermatitis of the lids, producing erythema,
pruritus and oedema. Allergic papillary conjunctivitis and
keratitis have also been reported (Manny & Jaanus 2001).
Atropine can also produce an increase in intraocular
pressure, respiratory depression, tachycardia (an
abnormally rapid heart rate: over 100 beats per minute),
closed-angle glaucoma, altered mental state and
cardiovascular effects. These adverse reactions to atropineare typically described as rendering the patient:
as blind as a bat, because of the cycloplegia
as dry as a bone, through inhibition of sweat and
salivary glands
as red as a beetroot, through increased vasodilation of
the blood vessels of the skin as the body tries to reduce
its temperature by an alternative means
as mad as a hatter, as the CNS effects, including
hallucinations, ataxia (inability to coordinate voluntary
muscle movements, unsteadiness, staggering) and
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psychotic reactions manifest themselves; thesesymptoms indicate an advanced stage of poisoning. In
severe intoxication states, the CNS stimulation and
psychotic phenomena may be followed by depression,
circulatory collapse, coma and death (Bartlett 1978)
Cramp (1976) reported that atropine used therapeutically
might cause a local sensitivity reaction, which is
occasionally violent enough to cause an intensely injected
eye with chemosis along with eczema involving almost all
the face. Atropine should be used with great caution in
patients with Downs syndrome and in patients receiving
systemic anticholinergic drugs because of potential adverse
CNS side effects (Manny & Jaanus 2001). Table 3
summarises potential systemic adverse reactions toatropine in children.
Homatropine
The side effects and adverse reactions from homatropine
are very similar to those of atropine, although they are not
usually as severe. Homatropine is approximately one-tenth
as potent as atropine. Hoefnagel (1961) reported four cases
of ataxia, hallucinations and speech difficulty in children
aged 91/212 years following one drop of 2% homatropine
repeated five to six times at 10-minute intervals. One of
these patients required hospitalisation to manage his
combative behaviour and tachycardia, which persisted for3 days, and hallucinations that persisted for 5 days. Other
reported toxic effects include constant muttering, shouting
and singing, and periods of relative quiet, insomnia,
restlessness, confusion and nausea. Allergic reactions to
homatropine can be seen in the form of lid oedema and
conjunctivitis (Bartlett 1978).
Tropicamide
Tropicamide does not cause many side effects, although it
has the potential to produce an increase in intraocular
pressure, especially for those patients with open-angle
glaucoma (Portney & Purcell 1975) and also an attack of
closed-angle glaucoma, although this is very rare (Keller1975). Wahl (1969) also reported one case in which a 10-
year-old boy developed an anaphylactic shock reaction
following instillation of 0.5% tropicamide drops. It was
reported that immediately after instillation of one drop of
0.5% tropicamide in each eye, the boy fell from his chair to
the floor unconscious. This was followed by generalised
muscular rigidity, opisthotonos, pallor and cyanosis. He
was fully recovered 1 hour later except for residual
drowsiness. This appears to represent an acute
hypersensitivity reaction to 0.5% tropicamide. Adverse
effects to tropicamide like this one are extremely rare
(Bloom 1998, Wahl 1969). Tropicamide has been shown to
be the safest agent (as indexed by changes in bloodpressure and heart rate) for dilated retinal examinations in
neonates (Manny & Jaanus 2001).
Gray (1979) has made several recommendations on
reducing the risk of ocular and systemic side effects
associated with use of cycloplegic drugs:
Avoid overdosage consensus suggests that best
practice is two drops from a Minim separated by 5
minutes, although it is not always possible in clinical
practice to instil two drops into each eye because of the
resistance of the child following the first drop. This will
reduce the amount overflowing on to the cheek and
being systemically absorbed in the nasolacrimal duct Occlude the puncta for 30 seconds following instillation
(Hillet al. 1974)
Choose the least toxic drug available that will give the
desired cycloplegia. For example, cyclopentolate 1% is
less likely to cause side effects than atropine, while
tropicamide is less likely to cause side effects than
cyclopentolate (Wahl 1969), but its cycloplegic
properties are questionable
Be able to recognise adverse systemic reactions
Be aware of predisposing factors for adverse systemic
reactions, such as fair children (Walsh & Hoyt 1969)
and patients with Downs syndrome (Harris & Goodman
1968) Avoid high room temperatures and humidity (Hoefnagel
1961)
Use of Miotics
To reduce the time taken for the effects of a cycloplegic to
wear off naturally, some clinicians advise the use of a
miotic, such as pilocarpine, after the cycloplegic
examination. However, miotic administration can cause
ciliary spasm, brow ache and an increased risk of angle-
closure glaucoma by the pupillary block mechanism.
Furthermore, the effects of 2% pilocarpine have been
assessed in countering cycloplegia. It was found that therewas no significant effect in the decrease of pupil size or the
rate of return of accommodation. In some subjects,
distance VA worsened. Dispensing disposable mydriatic
sunglasses to the patient and allowing the cycloplegic effect
to run its natural course appears to be the best method
(Amos 2001).
Legislation
The following are guidelines that have been drawn up by
the College of Optometrists regarding the general use of
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drugs in UK practice; these can be applied to the use ofcycloplegic drugs (College of Optometrists 2005):
The optometrist has a duty to take due care in the use
of drugs in optometric practice
Practitioners should always act in accordance with the
current medicines legislation controlling the use of
drugs in optometric practice
Practitioners should not consider using a drug or group
of drugs unless they are satisfied that they possess the
knowledge and skills to do so. This is especially
important when a new drug is added to the
Optometrists Formulary
To protect the patient an optometrist has a duty to
maintain a reasonable level of knowledge of drugs andtheir actions through a commitment to appropriate
continuing professional development
Practitioners are encouraged to support adverse drug
reactions reporting schemes
The patients general medical practitioner (GMP) should
be informed of any suspected adverse reaction
When using any diagnostic drug, patients should be
made aware of the effects and possible side effects of the
drug. If the practitioner will not be available to deal with
any emergency that may arise following instillation of
the drug, he should instruct the patient to attend the
local Accident and Emergency department should any
adverse reaction occur
More specific guidelines (College of Optometrists 2005) on
the use of cycloplegia are short and to the point. Section
19.03 states:
Use of a cycloplegic should be considered for the following
reasons:
(a) To have an accurate assessment of the refractive error
(the major factor in amblyopia and/or squint;
(b) To have the best possible view of the fundus within the
limits of cooperation associated with the age of the
child.
Conclusions
Cycloplegic refraction can be of great use in optometric
practice, especially for cases involving latent hyperopia,
esotropia and non-organic visual loss. Non-cycloplegic near
retinoscopy may be appropriate in some cases where
retinoscopy using a distance target has proved ineffective,
but if there is any doubt as to the accuracy of the results a
cycloplegic refraction should be carried out. The most
appropriate cycloplegic agent is cyclopentolate
hydrochloride, preferably in Minim form; the 0.5% dosage
should be used for infants younger than 12 months and
those with CNS anomalies and the 1% dosage on otherpatients. Even though adverse reactions are very rare and
the effects are transient, it is important for the optometrist
to be aware of these and of the types of patients who are
likely to have a negative response to the instillation of
cycloplegic drugs.
References
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Amos JF (2001) Clinical Ocular Pharmacology, 4th edn. Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 4259
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Bartlett JD (1978) Administration of and adverse reactions tocycloplegic agents.Am J Optom Physiol Opt 55, 22732
Beswick JA (1962) Psychosis from cyclopentolate. Am J Ophthalmol53, 87980
Binkhorst RD, Weinstein GW, Baretz RM, Clahane AC (1963)Psychotic reaction induced by cyclopentolate (Cyclogyl). Results ofpilot study and a double-blind study.Am J Ophthalmol 55, 12435
Bloom J (1998) The College Formulary, pp. 1315. Available online at:www.co l lege-optometr i s t s .o rg /profe ss iona l /op tometr i s t s%27%20formulary.pdf. Accessed October 2004
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Borghi RA, Rouse MW (1985) Comparison of refraction obtained bynear retinoscopy and retinoscopy under cycloplegia. Am J Optom
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Chan OY, Edwards M (1994) Comparison of cycloplegic andnoncycloplegic retinoscopy in Chinese pre-school children. Optom Vis
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Chang FW (1978) The pharmacology of cycloplegics. Am J OptomPhysiol Opt 55, 21922
College of Optometrists (2005) Colleges Guidelines for ProfessionalConduct June 2005. Section 40.05-08. Available online at:www. c o l l e ge - o p t o m e t r i s t s . o r g / p ro f e s s i o n a l / gu i d e l i n e s /
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Cramp J (1976) Reported cases of reactions and side effects of thedrugs which optometrists use.Aust J Optom 59, 1325
Doughty M, Field A (2005) Minims proxymetacaine. Available onlineat: www.academy.org.uk/pharmacy/nopain.htm. Accessed 25 July2005
Evans BJW (2002) Pickwells Binocular Vision Anomalies, 4th edn.Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 37, 57
Gettes BC, Belmont O (1961) Tropicamide: comparative cycloplegiceffects.Arch Ophthalmol 66, 33640
Goodman CR, Hunter DG, Repka MX (1999) A randomizedcomparison study of drop versus spray topical cycloplegic application.
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Gray LG (1979) Avoiding adverse effects of cycloplegics in infants andchildren.J Am Optom Assoc 50, 46570
Harris WS, Goodman RM (1968) Hyper-reactivity to atropine in Downssyndrome.N Engl J Med 279, 40710
Havener WH (1983) Ocular Pharmacology, vol. 5. St Louis: Mosby
Hill JC, Bethell W, Smirmaul HJ (1974) Lacrimal drainage a dynamicevaluation. Part I mechanics of tear transport. Can J Ophthalmol 9,41116
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Hoefnagel D (1961) Toxic effects of atropine and homatropineeyedrops in children.N Engl J Med 264, 16871
Ismail EE, Rouse MW, De Land PN (1994) A comparison of dropinstillation and spray application of 1% cyclopentolate hydrochloride.Optom Vis Sci 71, 23541
Jones LW, Hodes DT (1991) Possible allergic reactions tocyclopentolate hydrochloride: case reports with literature review ofuses and adverse reactions. Ophthalm Physiol Opt 1, 1621
Keller JT (1975) The risk of angle closure glaucoma from the use ofmydriatics.J Am Optom Soc Assoc 46, 1921
Kennerdell JS, Wucher FP (1972) Cyclopentolate associated with twocases of grand mal seizure.Arch Ophthalmol 87, 6345
Leat SJ, Shute RH, Westall CA (1999) Assessing Childrens Vision: AHandbook. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 1435, 243
Mallett RF (1994) Use of atropine. Optom Today 34, 4
Manny RE, Jaanus SD (2001) Cycloplegics. In: Bartlett JD, Jaanus SD(eds) Clinical Ocular Pharmacology, 4th edn. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 1501, 154, 158, 161
Mark HH (1963) Psychotogenic properties of cyclopentolate. JAMA186, 4301
Mauger TF, Craig EL (1996) Mosbys Ocular Drug Handbook. St.Louis: Mosby, p. 93
Mehta A (1999) Chief complaint, history, and physical examination.In: Rosenbaum Al, Santiago AP (eds) Clinical Strabismus
Management. Philadelphia: Saunders, p. 18
Mohindra I (1975) A technique for infant vision examination. Am JOptom Physiol Opt 52, 86770
Mohindra I (1977a) A non-cycloplegic refraction technique for infantsand young children.J Am Optom Assoc 48, 51823
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Portney GL, Purcell TW (1975) The influence of tropicamide onintraocular pressure.Ann Ophthalmol 7, 314
Priestly M, Medine MM (1951) New mydriatic and cycloplegic drug(compound 75 GT).Am J Ophthalmol 34, 6389
Rengstorff RH, Doughty CB (1982) Mydriatic and cycloplegic drugs: areview of ocular and systemic complications.Am J Optom Physiol Opt59, 16277
Rosenbaum AL, Bateman JB, Bremer DL et al. (1981) Cycloplegicrefraction in esotropic children. Cyclopentolate versus atropine.Ophthalmology 88, 10314
Saunders KJ, Westall CA (1992) Comparison between near retinoscopyand cycloplegic retinoscopy in the refraction of infants and children.Optom Vis Sci 69, 61522
Scheiman MM, Amos CS, Ciner EB et al. (1997) Pediatric Eye andVision Examination. Reference Guide for Clinicians, 2nd edn.Optometric Clinical Practice Guidelines. St Louis: American
Optometric AssociationShah P, Jacks AS, Adams GG (1997) Paediatric cycloplegia: a newapproach.Eye 11, 8456
Sutherland MS, Young JD (2001) Does instilling proxymetacaine beforecyclopentolate significantly reduce stinging? The implications ofpaediatric cycloplegia.Br J Ophthalmol 85, 2445
Titcomb L (2003) Use of drugs in optometric practice. Optom TodayApril 18, 2634
Twelker JD, Mutti DO (2001) Retinoscopy in infants using a nearnoncycloplegic technique, cycloplegia with tropicamide 1%, andcycloplegia with cyclopentolate 1%. Optom Vis Sci 78, 21522
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1. Which one of the following is not a characteristic of
an ideal cycloplegic drug?
(a) rapid onset of cycloplegia
(b) partial accommodation inhibition
(c) swift accommodation restoration
(d) easy administration
2. Cycloplegic drugs act on the:
(a) parasympathetic nervous system(b) sympathetic nervous system
(c) iris dilator muscle
(d) Mllers muscle
3. Which of the following is useful to know before
instillation of a cycloplegic agent?
(a) K readings
(b) refractive error
(c) colour vision status
(d) cup-to-disc ratio
4. Cyclopentolate 1% stings on instillation because:
(a) it has a pH of 6
(b) it is mixed with anaesthetic
(c) it is diluted with hydrochloric acid
(d) it reacts with melanin granules in the iris
5. The chances of a systemic adverse reaction following
on from instillation of a cycloplegic drug are reduced
if:
(a) an anaesthetic drop is instilled first
(b) the practitioner waits 5 minutes before instilling the
agent into the other eye
(c) eyelid puncta are occluded
(d) the iris is well pigmented
6. In young children the level of cycloplegia is bestjudged by:
(a) the amount of mydriasis
(b) accommodative amplitude
(c) clarity of near text
(d) retinoscopy reflex fluctuation
7. In a patient with lightly pigmented irises, maximum
cycloplegia following instillation of cyclopentolate 1%
would occur after:
(a) 1560 minutes
(b) less than 60 minutes
(c) between 60 and 80 minutes
(d) more than 80 minutes
8. The cycloplegic drug of choice for most primary eye
care practitioners when examining healthy children
over the age of 12 months is:
(a) atropine 1%
(b) cyclopentolate 0.5%
(c) tropicamide 1%
(d) cyclopentolate 1%
9. How much residual accommodation is cyclopentolate1% considered to leave when maximum cycloplegia
has been achieved?
(a) +0.50D
(b) +1.00D
(c) +1.50D
(d) +2.00D
10. According to one study, approximately how much
more hypermetropia did atropine reveal compared to
cyclopentolate?
(a) 0.25D
(b) 0.34D
(c) 0.44D
(d) 0.55D
11. With respect to tropicamide 1%, which one of the
following is true?
(a) Maximum cycloplegia lasts 1520 minutes.
(b) Maximum cycloplegia is produced after 1 hour.
(c) It can be used on all children as a replacement for
cyclopentolate.
(d) It frequently results in systemic adverse reactions.
12. Which one of the following is the most appropriate
correction factor to apply when using the Mohindra
technique on a child less than 2 years old?
(a) +0.25D(b) +0.50D
(c) +0.75D
(d) +1.00D
13. Which one of the following is not a known adverse
reaction to cyclopentolate?
(a) altered mental state
(b) upper-body skin rash
(c) restlessness
(d) brachycardia
Multiple Choice QuestionsThis paper is reference C-2001, CET number EV-6280. Three credits are available. Please use the inserted answer sheet. Copies can beobtained from Optometry in Practice Administration, PO Box 6, Skelmersdale, Lancashire WN8 9FW. There is only one correct answer foreach question.
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14. Which one of the following approximately relates tothe risk of developing acute closed-angle glaucoma
following dilation?
(a) 1 in 85 000
(b) 1 in 185 000
(c) 1 in 285 000
(d) 1 in 500 000
15. With regard to the use of pilocarpine as a miotic
following the instillation of a cycloplegic agent,
which one of the following is true?
(a) Pupil size quickly returns to normal.
(b) There is an increased rate of return of
accommodation.
(c) Distance visual acuity improves following instillation.(d) There is no significant effect on pupil size.
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