/ FERTILITY PERFORMANCE OF

WORKING WOMEN IN TRIVANDRUM

DISTRICT: A CASE STUDY

[REFERE~

D. R A D HAD E V I

/

A THESIS SUf MITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE FOR THE

DEGREE OF ~\OCTQR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS THROUGH

THE INSTITUTE ·OR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CH.ANGE. BANGALORE

1978

.(;,6073

~.~:H.~

CERTIFI CA TE.

I certify that I have guided and supervised

the preparation and wr1t:1nr, of the Present thesis

entitled "Fertility Performance of Working Women

in Trivandrur' District I A case study" by Smt.

D. Radha Devi who worked m this subject in the

Institute for Social and Economic Change, .-.1 0 vi rt1 B lIZ.

Banealore from ~ 1974 to September 1977.

Signature or Guide.

CERTIFICATE,

I certify that I have guided and supervised.

the preparation and writing of the Present thesis

entitled "Fertility Performance of Working Women

in Tr1vandrur' District I A case study" by Smt.

D. Radha Devi who worked on this subj ect in the

Institute for Social and Economic Change, i~OVii.MF'>(.1Z.

!angelore from ~ 1974 to September 19??

Signature or Guide.

mx:LARA TICN ,

I declare that this thesis is the resuJ. t

or my own work and that it baa not been either

wholly or in part submitted for any other degree.

Due aclmovledgements have been made wherever

anything haa been borrowed from other sources.

IS·~·(qYt' D, Radba Devi.

ACKNO WLEDG»11!N1B ,

This thesis i8 an outcome of the work done

at the Institute for Social and Economic change,

Bangalore, under the supervision and guidance ot

Dr. V.lt.R.V. Reo, during the period 1974 -1977.

DI". Rac, insp1te ot tUs important incessant

activities made it possible to guide me in my

research. I am grateful to him and I hope the reader

is able to guage the depth of my expression.

I had the benefit of advice from Dr. Rams

Kumar, Reader in Demography, University of Kerala,

at the 8tage ot planning this investigation.

Dr. Sreenath, Read of the Department of Statistics,

Bangalore University, was helpful. in formulating the

sampling plan. Dr. K. Srjniva88ll, Director, India

Population Proj ect, Bangalore, offered his comMents,

criticisms and sugeestions at the draft stage of the

thesis. Dr • .P .H. Rayappa, Fellow, Institute for

Social and Econanic Chanre, during the very short

period made available to him, was good enough to go

through the earlier version or the theSis and suggest

11

iii

improvements. Mr. P.K. Ghosh of the same Institute

hed, whenever I sought t given advice on statisti­

cal techniques. I thank them all without implica­

ting them for the short comings that may remain.

The co-operation received fran the staff of

the Institute library wall • pleasant experience.

Among them, Miss Usha Rangenathan needs special

mention since I used. to approach her more

frequently. I thank them all.

I acknowledge with thanks the financial assis­

tance provided by the Institute for part of the

research period.

My niece, Sakthy, vas my constant companion

during my field work spread over a period of fom­

.,nths. She VB8 for me the source, as her name

implies, or energy during 1b1s arduous period.

I take this opportunity to thank her proi'usely.

It is a difficult talk to acknow1edee the

help rendered by one's own friends, so I reserved

th_ to the end. Miss Rathna Venkannaiah (now

Mrs Retna Manjunath) procured for and presented to

.. at the right time an indispensable book which

vas bot available :in India. Mrs Raj eswari Che.nd.ra­

sekharan lent fina:1c1al support at the final stage

ot the work. Mr. A$.. Choudhury solved the proble!!!

ot computer progr8I!lll1ng at the time ot analysis ot

date. Mr. C.N.C. Unni typed the earlier and f1nal

versions of the thesis, and Mr. C. Vijaye KtI'I1ar typed

the tables. I am deeply indebted to one and all of

them.

Finally, my sincere thanks are also due to

those who should go anonymous. They are thQ

660\marr1ed women each of whom listened to ••

patiently and gav ••• answers during the course of

interview lasting about an hour at a stretch. But

for their co-operation the thesis would not have

materialized. With than should go, anonymous, the

best of my friends fran ¥han I had to and 11d seek,

but did not let, permission to mention here ai ther

his name or hi. assistance to ~e.

D. Radha Davi.

TABLE 01 CClltll1"

'age

AGUOliUDlI.NTS II

LIST ~ TAflJ.aS viii LIST OP t' l~taES •

CIIAPTBA 1 • IrrT~l OD ~T 10M 1 1.1 2~a .. of referenoe and objective. 1 1.2 Plan of .tudy I

CKAPTE.t 2 I DATA Arin IlETHOO iJiZ ANALYSIS 7

2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Identifioation of varlabl.~ , 2.3

2.4

Data 2.3.1 Data colleetlng 2.3.2 Al'ea 2.3.3 Population 2.3.4 Sa.pllng pjan

2.3.4.1 Sa.pllng 2.3.4.2 sa.pllng 2.3.4.3 Sa.pling

2.3.~ The intervle. ~tatl.tlcal teohnlque

lnstrll:lent

teohnique .ize procedure

, 9

10

11 11

12

13 14 14

'I 2.4.1 Path analyal. 16 2.4.2 Goodnes8 of fit 22 2.4.3 Measurement of var1ables 22

CHA'TEl 3 • IIYPor~S ILED PA TH:.i AND rHE 13 JUSTIrlCATION 27

3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Variables and their reiationlhlpi 29

3.2.1 Ca.te 29

3~2.2 1el1g10ft 39 3.2.3 Pre __ ar:la~e ~esldentl.l

background of wife ..

3.2.4 P~ ... arrlage r.sldentla1 background of husband ..

3.2., Current ~ •• ldence .. 3.2.6 C~reftt ago of wlf. eo 3.2.7 Fecundity - al evaluated b,

the re.pondent hersolf ~3

3.2.8 ~o~k lnde. II 3.2.9 Non-occupational Inco.. ..

3.2.10 Period of spouse's abseBoe .. 3.2.11 Education of wlfe ., 3.2.12 Pre-aarrlage work .xpe~leno. 62 1.2.13 Ag. at •• &-rlag. .2 3.2.14 Education of husband " 3.2.1~ Occupation of husband .. 3.2.16 Husband', Incoa. 11 3.2.17 ~l'e'. roason for working 12 3.2.18 Occupation of wife 15

3.2.19 ~lf." Incoa. 78 3.2.20 affective duration ot mar!:'!a:}e 79 3.2.11 ra.lly Incoae 10 3.2.22 FaJll1y structure 3.2.23 D •• lred f •• lly size

3.2.24 A gree.ent on number 3.2.~ First birth Interval 3.2.26 ao1e conflict 3.2.27 Use of oontrac;eptlon 3.2.28 Humber ot chlldren

U 89

of children 90

90

92

93 97

3.3 $Uf:lmary of the r,11a tlonlhlp, 98

CHAPTaa ... IHjj iU~J UJ.T:i I itU! .Ul'hi .4 OIIiH 102 4.1 Introduotlon 102 4.2 Trimmlng of the Bod.1 102 4.3 Dllcussion of tb. r.lults 109

4.3.1 Number of ohlldren ever born 113 4.3.2 U.e ot contra;optlon 12.1

4.3.3 ?irst birth interval 124

,,1

4.3.4 Agn ... nt of numb •• of ohl1dr.n 124

4.3.' Desired family olza l~

4.3.6 Pamlly atructure 127

4.3.7 Pamlly Inec.. 128

4.3.8 Effective duratlon of aarrlage 129

4.3.9 'ife's education, rea.ofts for wo~klng, occupation and lnoome 130

~3.10 Husband's educa'lon, occupation and Income 133

4.3.11 Age at aarrlage of w1f_ 13~

4.4 Ev~luatlon of the m~del 13'

CHAPTE:l ~ • f\ CQ!;!PA.lliorl ~ THE 'B:tTl1.ITY D~T:.~.lNAlfTa 0* .caIIt.,;; AND NQII. .vQ1KIU.:i ~QEN 142 5.1 Introduction 142 5.2 AveraJe number of children fo~

tho two s •• ples 142 5.3 Fertility deter.lnlnts of non-

working woaen 143 ~.4 Evaluation of" the model 1&4 5.5 A ooa,.rlson .f the fertility

deter.lnants of work1ng and non-wortlng _a.en 1~7

CHAPTE:l 6 • S~.i Y AND C01fC1.IIUMG .tLlM.UCS 1~9

6.1 Summ.~y 1~9

6.2 Concluding remarks 162

6.2.1 policy 1mpllcat1on. 162

6.2.2 soepe for furtbar ~ •• oarob 168

118LICll\APHY 112

yl1

table.

2.1

2.2

3.1

3.2

LIS r OF IABLaS

Variable& (and tbeir abbreviations) usod In tho anal,als

Ueasu~ament of yarlable.

;ausa1 ajents and theIr dependant v~~~able. with expected direction of relationshIps

Hypotheslzod paths - working women

4.1 ~o=~olatlon coef:lclents (rJ1

), medns and atandard deviations - .o~tlng \'Jooon

'age

1

24

99

101

IOJ

4.2 All path cooffIc1ents (Pji(a11) -norking _o.en 104

4.1 SIgnificant path coefficients (Pj1)-working .... n 106

4.4 Adjusted coefficient of multiple dotcralnatlon for full and restr1cted mociols - work1ng wo.en 107

4.~ The differ4nce between obs.rv.d correlattons and path coefficients (r jl - Pj1) - working .o.en 114

4., [::Qcoapoal tlon of the total alloclation bott';Gen the var1able child o'en ever born and Its deteralnants 121

4.1 Expacted correlation coefficIents (r!1) - wo~tlng wo.en 131

4.8 DIfference between ob.erved and expected corrolatlon coefficients (r~, - r31) -working .... n 139

5.1 l~?othesl.ed patbs - non-wortlng .... n 144

I.a Correlation coefficients (r j1 ). means and standard d.vlatlona -workln~ .a..a 14'

.111

All path o .. fflcienta (PJI (all) -non-working wo.en

Significant patb coefficients (PJ1) - non~/orklng wQaen

.~,!j'J~-~ad coefficient of lIlultlple dc~,-, l'oina&i.gn f or full and 1'8strlcted modola - non-wol'king wo •• n

Expected correlation coef~lclents (r!l) - non~Yortlng wo •• n

01f£0~'cnoe between observed and expected oo~relatlon coefficients (r j1 - rjl) - non-working waaen

146

147

15~

156

PlgUl".a

e.1

4.2

4.4

4.8

LIS r OP r l.JlJaES

Illustrative four varlab1. path diaJ'-.

Path diagram for significant pa~ho - wOl"klng WOD.n

Path ~tCl)reD of tht! dctcrDllni1nt~ of ehil'Jren over bo:-n - \1o:kln!J woaen

P~th d1agl"am of the determinants of usc of contraceptlon - working \'lOQon

Path dlagl"" of the deteralnants 0' 6Jrooment Oft numb.~ of children -working woaen

Path diagram .f the deter.taants of dOGlrec faal1y al.e - wOl"klng woaea

Path dlagl"aa of the dete~lnants of tamily structure - wOl"klng wo..n

P~th diagram of the ~etermlnants .f fa~11y inoQl. - working wo.en

'ath diagra. of the deteralnants of effective duration of .arriage -work! ng __ eft

Pag.

28

112

llS

122

lZ

126

121

128

129

4.9 Path dlagra. of the deter.ml'ants of t'1!fo's eduoatlon, zoe.aon for r/ol"klng, occupation and 1nco.. - WOl"k1ng wom.n 131

4.11

P:th rl1~Jra:l! of the detel"lllnant~ of husband's education, occ ... tlon and lr.com. • WOl"tin~ WOD.n

Path dlagl"aa of the dete1"alnanto of ale at .arriage - wOl"kln3 wOllen

Path diagra •• f 11gnlf1cant path. of non-.o~klng .... n

•

133

131

149

CHApna I

mT.l 00 ~r ICII

1.1 ,(1'11 of £,'.r.D9 ••• nd abjectly •••

Th. purpo.e of this ,tudy 1, to exploro and .xpl.in

tb. factors that dateralne the f.rtllity behavlour of working

woa.n. F.rtillty atudles ass •• l.portance •• inly beeaua.

fertllity Is on. of tb ... JOE co.ponenta of population growth.

r •• ~u13tlon in India h •• b •• n Incra •• ln3 v.r,

r.pldly over the d.cad.,. Accordln~ to tbe ;enaUI of Indl.,

1971, the growth r.t. In India wa. 2.48 p.r cent p.r .nnus

d~ing th. p.rlod b.twe.n 1961 and 1971. If thl. gr~'th rat,

oontlnu~G India would double b.r population beior. the end of

tb. present G.ntu~y. Tb. population qu.stlon i. not •• r.ly

quantitative In natu.. but ia al.o qualitative, b'GaUl~lt

ba. iaportant Implications upon tb. quality of Ilfa .nd tbe

.. 11 b.ln~ of tb. p.opl.. Ag •••• l. (1973, 7-8) re.arks that In

a.at of the dev.loplng eountrl ••• arrled .o..n In the age group

17 to 37 ar. b.vlng contlnuou. nutritional deflciency beca ...

0' ~p •• t.d pr9gaancl ••• nd l,ctatlon. Tbls results In 'a,tern.l

d.pletion' and lncrea •• d rl._ of '.aternal mortallty' whicb i.

dir.ctly corr.lated with .vory pregnancy b.yonJ tbe third.

Tb. probl ••• f grOWing population 1. v.ry ao*" In the

.... 0' Indl. '.p.elally -I tb b.r approxl.at.ly one hundred,

1

•

.1111on reproductive couple. (A~arwala. 1973. 160).

ae.llalng tbe ~Jency and t.po~tance of tbe problem India

Introduced falllly planning on a 'Jov8rnmental level. Tbe

gOVG~Am8nt baa been apondlnJ enormous lum. of mon.y to spread

knwoled98 of faally plannlQ9, to e~oat. a favourable attltud.

tow.rds ... 11 'amlly Dorms and to 1nereal. tbe number 0'

people practlalnJ birth control. aut to quote Prof •• tao.

-'n tor .. of the .ffect on reduoing the birth rat. tbe Impact

of tbe f.ally planning progr .... up-to-date haa not been of

an Impressive order- (191 •• ~). Thus It ..... aoc •• aary to

find additional ways and .e •• s whlcb w111 have a retarding

.ffect on the growth of population.

III ••• tern countrl""!s WOl't partiCipation of .url ..

.... n prcv~d to be an 1aport.at cause for the reduction of

f •• l1y sl.e. Se.eral recent researcbe. oonducted outside India

.upport the proposltion that working wom.n bave 'ewer obl1dren

tban noo-workinJ _o..n (il"e8~n 11. 11-, 195QI Heer. 1964,

Keel' and Turner, 1965, ribe1pton. C .. pbell and Pettersen. 1966,

Collver, 1968, H.ll.r. 1968, _lebel, 1970, aerent, 1911). -Tb.

aaJor tbrust of tbe tneorie. of dlffe:entl.1 fertility 1. the

•••• rtion tbat lower fertility Is aa .. elated witb .vallabillt,

.f .l'.rnatlve to aotber ~ol" ,.u.p •••• 1969. ~l).

-0.kl09 wo •• n develop outslde lnter.st. and contact.

"at ... p.te with tbo •• of the t •• lly. the lncoae they earn

.111 enable tb .. to develop bl~b .~and.rd. of oonsuaptlon which

• they will be reluctant to brlng down by bavlng large f •• l11e.

(Collver, 1968, ~6-57). Blate (1969) also corroborates thl.

findlng. Sbe reports tbat foro901ng .. ploymont 1. considered

•• an Indirect COlt by tbe wo.kln~ ~lfe bearlng additional

children. Purther.ore, .-ployment .tten glv •• lata.factlon

alternatlvQ to oblld:en such a. oom~anionlblp, rocreatlon,

atlaulatlon and creatlvo activity, or th. meana to suCh

•• tlsfactlon In tbe fora of financlal r •• un.ratlon. TbGse non­

f •• illstic actlvities d •• and tl •• and resources wbicb place

oonatralnta upon f.al1y .lae. Tbesa oonstralnts In tho~ tUZft

depend upon re.ponlibl11tle. Involved In tbl work •

.... ~1.1nJ the "e.ults of hl. Itudy !Cupinlty (19711

I Tbese findings .. , al.o hallo lIIpllcatlona for population oonuol In tbe developing countrles. Tbe, sUJJest tbat a. a part of progra .. to reduce fertility, theso oountrle. sboulJ encoura;e and provide opportunltl •• for WOllen 01 child bearing aje to ente~ the labor force. But .Olt tDportant. they .bould enoouraJ. wo.en to rem.1n In tbe labor force througbout their entlre ohild-boarlng age •• In 80 doing, tho conflict betwe.n the .other role and that of a worter wl11 be Increalod with lt~ conseqU'" effect on fortl1lty reduction ••

It appea:. tbat he II .u~ge.tln9 partlclpatlon of .. :rled •

women 1n tbe wort force a •• pollcy to reduce fertillty. Collver

and Langlol. (1962) aftor examlnln~ the 1.bour force partlolpatlon

of fe •• l.s for twenty countries of dlffe~ln] level. of .odern­

lzatlon concluded that.

The .. ployaent of woaen 1, partlcularlv lmpor~ant in tbe "'er-developed are~. today, not only bocausG of ltl ,..ltlve oont~lbutlon to economic production but .1.0 beca ... 0' its neQatl.e effect .. fertility. In fact the

• latte~ .ay well prove to b. of .ore algnlflcant ..... quenc. (P. 367) •

• "GY.~. fertility as woll aa labour fore. partiolpatlon ar. aultl-dlmenaloAal concapts and the .lx of the •• diDena10ns change; concomitantly with the le •• l .f .odernlaatlon. Hence tbe context In which fe .. l. labour forc. partiolpatlon occurs in a less .odernlaed a.tt1n~ and tho d •• og~apblc .ffeet of thla participation .. y b. quit. dlff.~.nt fro. • aodQrnl&Gd I.tting ('eller, quoted In Conc.pclon 1974).

'a a ~e.ult, the lnyer •• relatlonahlp betwe.n f •• aa.

labour force partloipatlon aad fertility found In a..,

••• noaloally de.eloped countrloa ar. fouad to be eltber •• ak

or ab&~n~ In Dany deY.lopin~ countrle. (CODcepolon, 1974).

Al&o -..,Irleal r .... rob baa tended to d •• onatrote tbat labo~

f.~oe par~lo1patlon as. 1& .a, not be ao I.portant a. tbe type

of eaployaent that 1& engaged In by wortlng woeea- (Concepolon,

1974, $03). Thus, It appear, that there la no clear-cut

.gr .... at ~ut the lapact of wo.e.·, wort partlolpation on

fertility 1n the d.v.loplng countr1... Thi, could be att~lbwt.d

to lack of lndepth atudl •• enqul~lng Into tbo natura of the

f.rtll1ty behaviour of wortlng wo.en In dev.loplng oount~l •••

This study 1. Intended to fill up a part of the lacunae

In this fl.ld and 1. oonfined to a oa •• atudy Involving field

.o~k In an Indian dlatrlct.

In tbl •• tUd, ••• odel tor •• plalnlng tbe fert'llt, .f

werking wo.on will be deyeloped u.ln~ variables geDerally I ....

to b. deter~nlD~ fertility aDd .o~k related ver1.ules wblcb are

• expected to govern tbe fe~tlllt, of w~tlng women. This .odel

.111 be tested with tbe help of data colleoted for working

woa.n. Beside., a, • corollar, to tbt, .aln study, the .odel

developed In the context of worting wo.en will be truncated to

exolade WOl"k-.t'elated yariables and wl11 b. tested using data

oollected from non-working .... 0. Tbl. I, dofte to gain a.

InalJht into tho dlffer .. ce., If any, In tho role nf factors

~ther~ than wor&-related Yariabl •• ln deter.inln~ fertl11t,

between those two .ectlon,.

1.2 Pl.9 of stydY'

... Idea the pre.e.t Cbapter tbls Itudy oontalns tty.

Chapters. Chapter 2 ~lv •• a detailed description of the data

oolleoted for tbe pU~pOlo of the study and tho oetbod of

snalystl 'ollowed. Tbe study I, conducted tn a path anmlytlo

Ir ••• wOJIk.

Cbapter 3 ooncentrates Oft the justification of tbe

eau •• l ol"del"lng of the variables. Tbe ptlnclpal objective of

this Cbapter II to set tbe .tai8 for tbe aaJol" r.l.areb of tbl1

.tudy.

The Interpretation of ~ .. Iulta of the patb analy.tl

relating to ~orklng WODen are given in Chapter 4. aach Yariabla.

I. taken loparatel, and their dete~1aaftt. dealt~ with. The

Cbapter Is conoluded by an evaluation of the patb model uI.d.

Cbapter 5 de.18 briefly wltb the 'actors that determlae

~e fertility behaviour of Aoa-wo.ting woaeft with a view t.

• d.te~lnln9 il and how lar it oo~r •• pond. to that of .o~klQg

5J .....

Cbapte~ 6 ~iv •• a luma~, of tho findings of this Itud,

aad the conclusions ar~lvod at.

CHAPtea II

Thero are tb •• e .ajo~ aectlon. ln thls Chaptar. Tbe

fl.at sectlon llstG out tbe yarlables of lnterest ln thls

atudy. The second sectlon gives the detalls of the collection

of data. It Is divided Into aub-aectlon dealing wltb data

collecting lnstru.ent, a.ea from whleb tho data ••• collected.

populatlon of lntorest, aa.pllng plan and lntervl... The third

provide, tbe d.t.lla of tbe at,tlstlo.l tocbnlque Ulod in this

study.

2.2 1ge951£1&1"11 If xI,lib1a.1 'ith the belp of previous r •• eareb In tho fleld, 10g1.

and tbeorYt twenty seven varlab195 affecting fertll!ty .ere

obo.en tor at~Gntlon In tbe p~Q&ent &tudy. Soae of tb •••

var1aule$ are dlreGtly related to fe~tll1t, wbll. other. exe.t

their lnflu~nGe Indirectly. These Variables .re listed belo.

with ~bo v~rlable fertility at tbe end.

----.-I.ber

VAillABUS (AND THEIR A.9aaeVIAT1OOS) _ED IN THIS ANALYSIS

___ .If .--- ______ I

••••• Ie_ II... • .ae T. wr •• a._ ._ Variable Abbrevlatloft

.. -.. - -- .. -- ., .. --- .. - -- - - ..... --.. - - .. ---- .,

• ,

•

• •• - .. - ------ . - __ aM_ .......... __ ._ _. --- ---

Vulable Altbnvlatloo

- - -~ --- - - ---- ~ - ~ - - ~ - ~ ~ -- - - ~ ~ ------aol0 oonf 11ct

uae of contra~.p~lon

Bueber of children eve~ bo.a ... -----.. -................... -..... ~ ......................... --.......... ----~-------------......... . .. A dotalled dlacuGslon of tbele var1ablos 1noluding tbel •

.. t~ and contont II given In the next Cbapte~.

2.3 ~I

ro~ obvious ~03.ona, p.la4ry dati bad to be collected on t.... vurlables f~ .. the field. Reace tbe lnclu.lon of tbe

field Itudy ~ich oonltltutes tbe .. Ja~ part of this .o~k.

2.3.1 jata pgllgct!ng Ipjtryglpta

Tho interv1 .. lohedule d •• l~nJd for thl. pU~pOl ....

pre-tested and rov16ed ap;>ropl'lately before uso for collecting

tbe ~.qulred data.

lb. ord.~ g1van to the que. tiona 1n tbo lohedule i. ye~,

1.po~tunt 10 p~imar, data collection (No •• ~ and Kalton, 1973a

346-34'). In this schedule qu •• tiona .ere '0 or~anl.ed tbat

iela p.~aonal and les8 controver.lal on.. 'Iuch IS .oclo-economlc

cbar~cterlstlcs, caste, ~11910Q etc.) preoedod those of a ~.

lntl~ate naturo 3uch as thOls relating to birth control p~actl0 •••

This .. s followed by quostlons on wort pa~tlclpatlon. The ~ang.

OYor to questions totally UArelated to fa.l1V pl.nnlQ~ •••

.. looaed by the lctarvlewees.

AltoJl~ther there .. re 136 question.. Thl .. larlO RtIlIber

sbould not GOm. al a .urpri.e a. tbe sGbedulo waG deslgned \0

get dotallod infoNation oa both work and fortlllty. 1\ lao aost

.f the s.ructured qU~8tlofta callod 'or dlffo~ont 8ubsequent

qU~9tlons dependlng upon the an.~er to the previous query.

loae queatlOM •• re Mrely .aaat to find out \"Jh6tber the ....

"dar,tood tbe question properly. A aumber of duplicate

que.tions were included to chock conslstenoy of the lntervlewee'.

,"espons.. Ca:. was also taken to aee that tbese duplicate

que.tions woro placed ,t a dl.tan~ from ea~b otbar In orde.

to provlde • r~.l check on oonsistency.

2.3.2 A,eal

Tbe ara, .eleotad for .tudy i. Trivandrum District. It

I .. tbo .outb(H .... O.t dl.Ulct In !Ceral. State with. population

of 2,196,606 (according to 1971 cenau.) and an ara. of 2,192

Iq.~. This district 1& d1vlddd into four administrative

divisions known a. Taluts wh1ch a~& further classified lnto

94 villages and ten to\'1ns. Of the ten towns, Beven ere non­

aunlclpal town., t .. are munlclpal town. and one 1& a corporation.

The corporation, tho capital of '-ral. atat., is further divided

loto fortyslx census warda.

According to 1971 can.uII there •• re 11.04 lath feaal ••

In Trlvandrum district. Of tb •••• 11.7 par coot .e:e .. ployed

and they conatituted 26.7 per caat of the total wo.ker ••

2.3.3 £pDMllllgQI

Tho .~udy Is l1mlte~ to .... ft ... r tb. ,,8 01 twenty,

ft:'!'ently _r:t>led and usually living \,/lth thl)ll' h_banda. fM

Sewer age 11~!t of twenty y.a~~ •• s set on the baal. of the

fact tbat .oat .aaen In K.~al. 1.t .ar~led ~Qpa=atlvely late,

~e .v~rate age at ~ •• rtarye being 19.9 ?.r. (Gulatl, 197~. 1227).

ThIs woull"! also help to red uce the bl •• 1ft the ... pl. t".t could

be unnacoss~l'lly introduced by including womon wbo are yat to

"Ye thoil' flr8t baby. The upper age lhi' was .et at ale 49

91.1n J a largor .. argin for wo.en for reproduction, evon thou-.

durlnJ the laEH. E lve ,aara of t.bl£ •• span tho chances 01

bavln~ childron are yary remote. Thus apart fl'os tbe usual

ps-actlce of l11111tlnJ tbe • ..,le populn Ion ultbin • partlculaZ'

aJe ~oup a iurtbo: conatralnt .a. tmpoaed bV inslatlng tbat tbe

.... n ChOSGR muat havo bad at l.aa' one live birth. Tho qualified

.... ft for the pl'enent study oan be defined lhu31 Currentl,

.. rrled women In the a~e g:oup 20-49 and bavlng at least ofte live

birth and usually 11ving with their huebands. to Identify

wo~kln9 wooen. work ~g d~fln~d In this study as anv type of

~~gular work undertaken by a ... an •• ay from har boa. and which

.111 brlD9 her an ineo.. In cash or kind.

2.3.4 1'121199 a'aDI 'or the purpo •• of tbe pre~ent study two ... plos .. r.

Hqulred, one Ncb for worklftg aDd non-wozokin\;j _.en.

In ordar to obtain ~ ..... ples the prl.e ~q~.t.

12

.. r~ complet~ up-to-da~o 11.t. of the -qualified" w~klft~ aDd

Qon-wo~klng women lo~ the .uola dls~rlct. ~c~t~es, as tar .a .... k1ng WOIIlOrl VlO_';j c.mG.i~Aad. tAe .1:a .Cleo to contaot WCDGn f ••

all major typus ox Clcc.:upa tlol1 In tlb1ch .,OAlOn are general!y 'ound

to be _ployed. Thus an .ddl·tlonal I'oqull"ellent for tho wOl'lclnt

__ n \.,06 their deul.l.d o~o""cl-'11J,"-dl~ alas~!flo.:! list •

• ~vert tb~ datJ aval1.ble for fulf11l1n~ thsGG requl~~~ont.

"-:-e lacking.

Under the ol.ou.etaftGeSt two altarnatlvea .. re open te

, .. "'Qarch~r. ilr.t was '0 have a co_plote lilting of all

tile bouseboldG In Trlvaradrum dlatrlct - tbe •• a'c,ueeI 388328

and florG .pre . .1d over an area of 21~ 8q. Jan. - 80 .a '0 lde"tlf,

tho ~o~kin~ women and thon drawing a • .-ple, and the second •••

'Q d~.w an enormOUG ... ple from tho total population eo that a

.easonably large nu.ber of the "que11fleJ" women could be

obtained. au~ bG~b ~hos~ provGd Lmp~ac,lcal as tber ~.~e

p~oblbltlv.ly exp~nslv. and tlae co".ua!n~ conGld.~ln~ the

~.'OUrcos and tl .. avallahl! for an individual re .. areh.~.

2.3.4.1 IIIP1109 t'cho1SY"

A ... plin~ tocbn1~u. au1table 1n tbe &beene. of a

.&~lin9 f .... bad to be devl •• d. Tbus dletatld ~r. by the

cons ,;ralnts lnYol-".d than by the pS"lnolpl.s of ••• pling, tIM

chol~~ fell on quota .aa~llng. This teohnlque aa, bft d •• crlbed

•• at~atlfled uaplill9 wltb il .ore 0," leso Don-random Hleotlo •

• f unlt3 ~lt~ln .t~ata (;o:~~sn. 1972. 137). It 1~ r~.li&~d

t~t quota a.~llQQ 'S not a technique tbat 1& widely

13

.. ed' bec.uae of Ita non-rand •• procedure and tbe ~e.ultiA9

lack 0' knowl.dge about th. probability 0' inclualon 0' population units in tb •• aaple. Since tbe obJ.ctive of thi.

thesi. 1. not quantitative pr.dictlona, but qualitative

explanation., tbe use of thle teOhnlqUe of quota .a.pling •••

felt Justlfled.

2.3.4.2 iIIe" ,1;1'

...... klDg wo.en, the total a-.pl. alae .a. d ••• ~l •• d

Oft the baal. that there .111 be about forty to fifty ca.e. OR

~. averag. In laGb of the nin. (ref. Table a.2) categorle ••

Thia glv8 •• total ... ple al .. 0' 360-4~ working wo.en. The

l"'~ llait of tbo raaJe 0' the expected .a.plo size .a. equall,

divided aaonJ rural and ~ban area. - ,lvlng a ltmlt of at lea.t

180 ca.e. In .ach. Tbl. number wa. dla~lbuted .. 089 tbe

dafferent occupatlon.l groups according to tbe proportional

dl.trlbutlon of tbe occupation In tbe 1961 census of Trlvand~ua

district. (Occapatlonal tabl •• of 1971 cen.us .ere Dot

p~11.hod at tbat ti.e.) But even tbls dlatri~.tlon can be

treated only a. an app~oxl .. tlon a. the working ' •• ales .ere

aot ,laaslfled according to their clYl1 .tatu.. Tbe roqulred

au.ber of Individual o.a.s •• re equally divided .. oag the

'.leoted .a~da/Ylllag •••

1 'or a detailed dlscusalon of thla, ~f.~ CA ....... ~uota Sa.,11ag-, ~uaotl of tb. lAxal .t!j"tlc11 SAql~ i .. l •• A (General), Vol. CXV. 19~2. pp. 411 23.

Por non-wortlng wome. it wa. deolded that a • ..,le of

2~ divided equally between rural and uzban aroas would be

adequate. They were to be enuaoratod fro. the 8a •• aroe f ...

wbe .. worklng wo.en .ere oontacted. Tbis deci.ion .a. taken

t •• ate tbo envl~onmental conditions th. s ••• for botb tbe

wortlng and the non-wo.klng wo.en.

2.3.4.3 'IIPllD9 R£,codYE"

The procedure adopted ••• a. '0110W8. t .. nty per cont

.f the fiftysix urban ward. .nd twenty per cont of the nlnet,

four vll1age8 in the district .e:. randomly sole.ted. In tbe

.eleoted are. an atteapt was .ade .long the 11nes .uggeeted

by ... or (1~2. 411-423) to get adequate ,eographlcal .pread.

On arriving at the .eleoted .~ •• tho first call .a ... de at the

near.at bouse. Proceoding along the Sa.e l1ne every flf'b

bouse wa. contacted. ~hen a Junction of two 0. .ore roads .a •

• eached alwoye left and right t~fta by t~n .ere taken until

~ required number of botb working aad Don-wo.klng women ....

•• acbed. It .as a180 decided that not .ore than on. person

.... ld be intervie.ed from a particular hous~hold. On the

whole 404 working .o..n and ~6 non-workln~ women w.~ contacted.

2.3.~ The intgrvi •••

Po~ facilitating adequate and accu.ato ... pon8e to th.

que.tlonnalre. the respondent, were told of the purpose of tbe

survey and as.ured tbat tbe, fora part of a large group of wo .. n

.... it .a. in ended to oontact. They were also assured that

tbe Information oollected f~ .. thea will be kept .t~lctly

oonfldoDtlal.

All tho Interviews .. re perlonally oonducted by the

.e.uarcber. tbl. belped \0 olarS'y any confu.lon about tbe

point of any question or any a~lgulty of sn ans.e~. aa and

wben It aroso. Tbe intervlewer neitber paased Judge.ente upon

tbe ~oapondent's be'av1our nor .. de any atte.,t to .adlf, tbe

stat •• onts aade by tbe ~spondeftts. Tbis objectivity was

seft.~d by the ~spoDdeDt. aad .ade It eaaier for th .. t.

aDs.er questlons relating t. iatlBato aad personal .attor.. To

.... 1t .lso evidently provided .n oppOrtunity to put Into words

•• periencol tbat tbey had been unable to or rel.-tant to

diseuse with otbers. ADotber •• jor adva.'.;e ... tbat .s .11

tbe scbedules .ere oanvalood by one pora .. tho Into.viewer

varlaDco - kind of noo-&&apllng error - .. s beou~ht to nll.

II general respondonts .ere most cooperative.

~o11abl11ty of tbe rosponao •••••• a~d by ohocklng tbe

.ft .. era to tbe duplloate q .. stlona included In tbe acbodule.

Accuracy of rospons. was based on the Intervl"or', judloment

of -'-tbor tho anawer w •• reliable or not.

2.4 il*tlatlc.l tachnlgy,'

In order to ,u~larl&. tbo e.planatory effocta 01 • large

.umber of variabl.a, It waa neoolaa~, to find • 1U1table

atallatlcal teohnlque. litb t.enty eight varlablos oro ••

clasaiflcatlon wlll b ..... var, oomplex aftd leoJtby. ~urtber-

·ore In suoh tabulation, In e~ch .ub-oell tbere will not b.

"ougb oaa~s to glv ... aalnglul ~e.ult. unless the ... ple

.lae Is very large. Alao pr.s~atatlon of such lar~e and

..... 0 .. ,tatlstlcal table. are Dot usually w8looa. wben

altornatlve .. thod, whioh oan provide aultlple variable

explanatioaa witb alatau. nuaerlcal d.sc~lptlon are available.

under the clrou..taa •• 't It wal declded to use the techniqu ••

01 corr.latlon and patb ana1y.ls for thl. .tudy.

2.4.1 tltb ap.ly.1 ••

'at.b analysls i.~- a·powerful and m.aningful approacb t~

analy.lng causal relations and correlatlona ••••• (Hel'~t 1969,

69). the •• tbod la d •• ~tbed b~lefly below.

1ft patb analysl. one start. wltb a pre-deteralned .au.al

. ordering _on') tbe variables under oon.ideratlon. .ltb twenty

eight variables In tbls study, tbe::o can be 28 I possible .a, •

• , ordering the va.lable., a" a8 x 27 • 7~6 possible dl~eot

oausal rolation.hips (Including reOiprocal caus."tlon). All

.uob ord.rln~s and causal relatlon.hlps .111 not be .eanlnglul

aad, therofore, a partloular causal orderlAg baa to ~ Obo ••••

"lob ac~ordln~ to tbe ~e •• arcber, ba •• d on his knowledge of

theory, best e.plalna the rel.\lon8h1ps. Usually tbe •• tbod

adopted 18 to order the var1ables t .. porall, sucb tbat an

.ffect can never precede 1ts 04US. 1ft t~. tbe eauaal

~elatlon.hlP1a.oag tbe variabl., are explained with raferefto.

t. euob an otde~lDg.

17

The flrat at.p In cau.al ordering Is to .eparate ~

tbe -lnput.- (variables that are acsu.ed to be not causally

"elated to one anothel" even thou~h they may be correlated)

~lcb have causal priority over all otber variables (Hel,e,

1969a '1). Tho order 1n which inputs are placed Is lmoaterlal

,lnco they a:~ treated a' coapletely Indepondent of the

variables chosen.

The next Itep la to order the dependent varlablea

according to their causal prioritios. It ahould be rea.abered

tbat apart from inputs all other varlablos will be a dependont

variable in one re13tlonahlp or the othe~. Al.o, & dependent

variable In one ~alatlonahip .ay be an Ind.pondent variable

in anotber relationship.

If variable. are ap~c1fled a. '1; Xa, ••• In according

to oausal ordering, variable Xl can depend on variable. Xl. '2'

•••• '1_1 (all or aome of thea) but not on variable, 'lTl'

"+2' ••• , Xn-

III • alaple path analytic .odel, luch a. the one adopted

In tho study, an assumption II aade tbat the ·systea of conoern

contains no reCiprocal causation or feedback lo)ps- (Helse,

1969. 4'). That la, any causal looping f~om a variable ~ck to

&taelt elth~r directly or t~ough ~tb.r .er1ables are ruled out. ,

Thus dlrect feedb~ok loop of the fora I[+XJ and indlreot

feedbaok loop of the fara Xl~Xj are excluded.

"-xl k

Once the ca .. al ordering 1. over, the next .tep 1. to

draw tba path dlag~a. incorporating .11 tho .G .... d patba.

The path •• re ahown In a path dlagra. by unltirectloaal a.-o ••

golnj from Independent Y~r1abl.8 to tbe variables d.pendlAg

Oft them. Curvod double headed arrows aymboll •• _u.l,aeel

oo~r.1atlonG batwoen Independent variable ••

P.th an.lysl ••• a .... coapl.t. d.teralnatloD of the

d.pendent variable. aut In genor&1 it 1. not p061lble to

Include all tho variables that deteralne the v.rlatlon 1n the

dependent variable. Tbll. It baG .... nec.8aa~ to Intro.JuG.

residual yartable. to .cco~t for tho unexplained •• rlatlOD

In tho •• pandent varlabl;]s. Tbese r'Jsldual varl.ble. are

.s.umed to be uacorr.lated wlth the v.riablea l.mediate1y

determining the deponJont variableG UQde. Gon.lderatlon ond

with each other. Tbe mean va1uo of the rosldual variable, la

a.a .. ad to be aero. In a patb diagram the rosldual paUl .e.glng

I •• re.idua1 variable to depen.Jent varl.ble .1so .111 be

lndlcated by unidirectional .:rowa. But ~ dlstlngulsh resldu.1

var1.bles from m.as~ed Gausal varlab101 literal aubac.lpt.

a~. attached to ~ealdual varlablos.

The path coeffiCient of tho poatulatod rolation.hlpi

1ft a patb d1agr ••• re Iftd1cated by .yabol1c O~ ntaerlcal value.

e.tared boslde the a~... The patb c •• fllel.at PJI •••• ~el

the fractloe of tbe .tandard deviation of tbe dependent ow

.-dogeaGO. variable, ~, for whlcb the Indopandent o~ exog.ftOUI

variable, I, ls directly ... ponalb1e. In .tbe~ wo~d •• PJl 1a

l' the proportion of the e~andard d.vlatlon~of varlable J wh~ch

weuld ~ found If yarlabl. I varies to tbe e.ae extant ae In

tbe observed data while all other variable. are bald conataDt.

It 1s acceptod notatlon 1n path analys1. for the first aUbe

script to refer to the dependent variable and ior tbe ......

one to Indepcr~.nt variable (.~Ight, 19641 17). Tbe patb

... fflclent may be of ,ltber elgn.

The baalc lo~.ula fo~ path analyals lal

• ~ ·jl , Pjk ~U

.~.ro .ubGc~lpta J and 1 ~.f.~ to 'wo variable. In tho syat ..

aDd the lDdex t runa oYer all ~e v.~l.bleB from wbich pa~e

lead directly to XJ (l.a. 'Jk exlata). Alternatively the

above equatlon caA be expanded by auc~.e.ive application of the

fo~.ula Itself to -tl. If thie ie don. the cor~.lat'on betw.en

two vorlablos caD b ••• ' ..... d a. the ... of the product. 0'

all paths connectlAg the two variables (Duncan, 1972, 121-122).

TbuI, path analysla cont~ibutQs to tbe interpretatlon of the

cau.al system allowing on. to deca.pOIG the oo~~.latIOD

coefficient bet •• eft any two .ariabl •• Into direct effect ('Jl)'

i.direct .fleot and co~r.l.tIOQe due ~o GOaQOD or corralated

caus.s o~ .f'.ota .ba~ed wlth otber e&o~.nous variables (Dunoaa,

1912, 137-130).

''''£1~!'''5'' 84. thoee parte of a .arlabl.'s total • 00 5& ara tran .. itted oe .edt.ted by .ariabl •• speclfted •• lnterv.Dln~ between tbe Caua~ and .ffoct of lntere.t in a model. Tbat t., they t.ll ua bow .uo • • f a 91vea .ffect occurs bec~u.e \be .. nlpulatlon 01

• the aDteoedent varlaole wbloh In tu.n change the oonsequent .artable. The dtreqi .ff"f of one yarlable on anothor 18 .lap y t at par of ita total effect wblch is not tran •• ltted via intervening variahles. It II tbe efiect .hlob r ... lal wben int.~­veDlng varlabl •• bay. been beld GOn.tant. Althou~ .. rafer to aa.edlated ef'eota a. 'direct', the possibility a'-a,s exists that additional intervening variables .. y tra .. alt part or all of the effect. In ualng causal torms it 18 necossary to epeelfy the .ode' involved. Tho dl.tlnctlon betwoen dlroct and indirect effects, lite that betwoGn cau.al and non­causal coaponenta of assoclatlon, rol~tQs to a apeoi­fie causal model (Alwin and Hauser, 197~. 39).

the sua .f these direct and Indirect effects are

~.'.rred to a. tetal .flect and tbe correlations b.tweon two

varl.blos al total aS8ociation by tho autbors. Tbe.e

t.~lnologles .111 be used In tbls study.

l&llple patb analysl. alaln a'8 .... OS llno:}r, adi1 tlv.

~alattoftS .-eng the va~l~lcs. Thus, If Xj Is d.pQftdont Oft

Xl- X2' ••• Xl the relatlonahlp can be expressod a.

Xj • Pj l 11 • Pj2 x~ + ••• + Pjl Xl Rhara x,'. arG mea,gred in standard .co~ •• (I.e. In .tanda~.

deviations from the moan).

a •• 'dea \be •• '.ptlons alr.ad, mentionod, If tile .ual

.. thodolojlcal assumption. involved in aultlvarlate "9~e •• ' ..

analysis are met, tbe standard ~e~ell'Oft procoduros c.n be

applied to estt.ate the path ~fflclent. In tho kind 0' equation given above (H.l ••• 1969. ~1).

Tb. aultlpl0 cor •• latlon coefflclents artllng out of

'b • .agroasion ana1yall provide the basls for obtatnlnJ the

21

"Ildual path coefflclents, Tbe residual path o .. fllel.at .,

a depeQdent variablo Gan be calculated uslng tbo squared

.ultlplo correlation coeifioient ca 2 ) of tbe corr •• ponding

equation by tbe fo~ula

PJU .Ji •• 2

Wbere the .ubae~lpt j ~'er. to the dependent va~labl. and

.ublcrlpt u refer to the ~asldual variable.

The introd~ctlon of ~ .~aldu.l variablo In the cau.al

.yale. ,_ another advantage 01 patb analyst.. It help. to sbow

tbe laportance of the Independent variables cbo.en. The 00-

efficient of re.ldual variable .ealure tbe proportion of the

.tandard deviation and it. square represents tbe proportion 01

t~e varianco of the depeadent .arlab1e c~uGed by all unaeaaur.'

variable. out~lde tbe ooaaldered patb aodel. TbuI, if tbe

cbos.n Independent variable. explain a large portion of varlance

., tbe dependent variable, then residual path ooefflclent w111

1M .. all. In other llozda, ••• al1 re.ldual paa coofflcl."t

.eana that the path equations are ~.aIOftably GOaplete.

Once the path o .. ffic1ents are •• tt.ated the probl .. 0' d.ter.lnln1 wbether t~y ar. algnlflcaat O~ not (tbat Is,

whetbur ~c;:;.G of the pctha hypothealzed do exiat o~ not) arls ••

The non-significant patha, If 8ay, have to be deleted I~ .. tbe

path eed.l and .odel par ... t.rs ~e-e.tl .. t.d. There , •••

accepted procedure to guide one In this .atter (Duncan, 1912.

123, Hel •• , 1969, 61, Land, 1969, 34-3'). -lather, anr deol11on

22

to delete. postulated path .uat be based on a atatlstioal

test of slgnific3noe o~ ou aft a~bltra~v crlto~lon of 11 •• of

t~. ~atalnau patb" (Land, 1969. 34). This study wl11 aco.pt

al .1~iflc~nt a patb coafflg1aQt ~OIe ra. rogre.alon

ooefflcliJnt is al(1nlflcolAt at. 10 p.~ oQat lavel *- ntter-:i:.o ·De-

f..ormulate tho -path model.

1.4.2 ~dn9jii of rUt the guGdQ.~a of a poatu1a~od medal can oe dete~ln.d by

$Plou1atio9 the *xpected c~relatlona baaed on the path

coefiicients. If these .. a 1~11ar to tho obaerYed ODe. tbere

Ie ~aaon to believe that tbe path model 1¥ ·V~ud·. Howeye~. "

they are different. one may conoludo that oithor SODe patba

•• :0 erroneously .11m1na~ed or rusldual variables ara correlated.

Statisticallv tb.re II DO way of knowing tho situation.

Smplrlcally eltber aay be the 0.5 ••

In the present analysi. -goodnQss of fit- will be

perfo~ed to .~. bow olos~ the .xpo~tod and obs~rved correlatlona

a". to eacb other aa._ln9 DO correlatlona .. on9 residual

varlabl •••

2.4.3 ye'&M£1I,8' 9' X.r1tb1".

'atb analysi •• ~&uaoa ~ •• sure •• Qt of variables on interval

acale. 'olnt-dlchot~mous varlabl03 ara tro~tod as a special

~ •• e of lnte&val .~a18 ~.asu:eD.'" (Land, 1969, 33). But 1ft

aocial sclQnce tbe~. are qualltativa va~~aOlcs .blOb pe~it onl,

ordinal scalo meaau~om3nt. The:e are dlfferencea of opinion

23

.. 009 scholars a. to the feasibility of u.lng ordlnal data In

path analY91 •• 2 Boyle (1970) in his study of ordlnal data In

~latlon to path analysl. ca •• to tbe conc1us16n that ·It .111

not Y'V,111 be daftge~ ... to a •• uae an interval leal. based on

.. tagetl.s· (p. 448). Lebovita (1910) after Gx .. ining tbe

consoquenc •• of tr.atlD~ ordinal data as 1f the, .. re lnte~val

.... out with two IUggeltlons to get around tbe difficult, of

•• lag ordinal data In patb ana1ysls. The firat ... to • ••• lga

• 11n •• r .co~lng .,at .. according to tbe avallable evidence oa

t •• distance betw •• n ranks. second, .. a all rank ordor

eategorie8, ratb.r than ~llap.lng thea into a ~al1er numbe~

••••• (Labovlta. 1970, ~23). A.on~ the writings along the ••

11 ..... ntlon aav b. made of thoso by ~ovlt& (1967), Labovlta

aad LUlMot (1969) and <lold (1969).

From tbe list of variabl •• ' ..... ted e.rll.r. it ca.

be loon that tbero are a few .arlables .uOb aa Ga.to aad

occupations tbat ar. at. be.t ordinal aDd IIIbloh are to be bandled

ear.full,. In handling these data an att .. pt will be mad. ,.

follOW the .u~":J.stton. giv.n by Labovitz. His a"';I\:JG&t1on of

tbo linear &c~ln9 5YSt •• baa been adopted even thougb bis •• cond

sugJestlon ha. to be Ignored out of nec.salt,. It Is ~.co9ftia"

-------------.-----_.--------_.--------------------------------------------a SCholar. ltke • .,le (1910) and Labovlt. (1910) a~9ue tba' the ~ •• ults of patb analys's .111 not ba distorted by u.ing ordinal data ift the .yet... But others lite ~11son ~1912) '.el_ tbQt It.ictl, apeaking ordinal d,ta cannot be applied to lntorval .esle .... urea.nt.. s.hol.~a have not yet c ... to an .greemant •• gardlng this .atte ••

.. tbat In accepting Labovit.'. flr.t augge.tlon error oould be

co.ltted In tbe aSlignment of valu·,}s to tbe I'a. ord.r oategorle ••

In the ablanca of literature to lu~gelt aore valid .'Il~at

.f .cor •• tbe proo.dure adopted bere •• , be ju.tlfled. All.

LaboYltl'. ~ •• oar~ l~loate Igob prooodaro •• Y not be or .ruol.1

laportance. AI for htl IGcond lagg .. 'lon all oat090rlo1 tb.t

have boon obaorved In ~eap.ot 0' oertaln variables like

oocupatlon bad to be oollapled Into broader oat.gorl.l. Tbl1

'a. to be done becauae It w •• not .~ •• bethor .aab of tbe

oategorles ... really dl1fer.at from tbe otbocs. 000 could,

.... v.r •••• tbat. tJae .. tegol'l.a that bave been obaol'Yed oan be

g%ouped lnto different broader catogorles lad tb.t there exlltl

difference betwoen such b&oadel' oat~~orle ••

t ............ , 01 all tile varlabl .. ~ lnoluded 1ft the

study are p~G'nted In the rollowlog Tabl- 2.2 •

••• ____ ....... -.. •••• _. _____ ~~ .. __ .__._. ____ r •• _ ... ___________ ..--._-.....-

RaabeI' Variable

------~~~----~---~~ 1. Caste

2. aellgloD

3. a.,ldontlal "ctg~ound • f -11.

--3. 2. 1.

2. 1.

2 • 1.

ValuoG .sslgnod and categories ---------- - -

Lo. oa.te lateraedlate oalt. Hl~h ... te

.... 11M ... Catbollo, otbo~.

Uzobaa aural

Table 2.2 (oontd.) --_.- ______ . ____ •. ____ M .... _.~~_' ___ E_._. __ ' __ '_T ____________ _

lumber Variabl. Valu.s as.lgfted and cat.gorl ••

--------------~-~-~---------~----4. Reaidential background

.f husband

~. Current resld.n08

6. Current ale of wl'_

,. Fecundity .. liort ind ••

9. Non-ocGUpatlonal lnooae

10. Period of .pou •• •• absonce

11. WI'.', .ducatlon

12. 11'." pre-.arrlage work expuMnce

13. wlf.·. age at .. Z'rlage

14. Husband t •• du~tloft

l~. Huaband', preaent occupation

.16. Husband', occupatiOftal IncOlN

17. Wlfe t , roa.on fo~ working

2. tlrban 1. :lural

Actual aJe co-pleted In ,.ars

2. EecU'nd 1. Sub-fec\lnd

latto of number of yeaza worted to number of ,.ar, .. rrl.d .xpnasiJd aa percentago

Actual expres,.d In teza. 0' _upeea

Actual period coaputed and .xpressed aa nuaber 0' aonth.

Number of aabool year. coapl.t.e

Actual number 01 aontha worked ".fore aarrlag.

Coapl.ted age at the tlae ., ..rrla~

J.ab.1' 0' aobool ,ears ooapl.tat

9. Higber pro'esalons and adalnistration

8 •• iddl. adainlstration 1. Middle profe~slon 6. Lower profesalons and

adainistr,tlon &. Skilled worker. 4. stilled .anual wort.ra 3. Plantation worker. 2. Other unskilled aanual

wOJltera 1. 'ara worter. O. Ufteap loved

Actual lncaae .xpressed 1a tenaa of rupee.

1. Pinanc1al 2. Otber.

r.ble 2.2 (ooDtd.) ___ , _, _. __________ • _________________ • ____________ ._ • _____ ..... _ __. 1 _ •• -- .. _-...... Varlable Value •••• lgaeel

and oategorle.

------------------~-~-~-~~~--~--~-18. Present occupation of

wlf.

19_ Ilf.-s occupational lnc~

20. E".ctlve ... atlon 01 .arrla9_

21. P_ll1 lno ..

22. _11y structur.

23. ~Ilr.d I •• l1y Ilze

24. Huabead -,,. .g ..... at a. ".,Mr 0' oblld,,_

•• Plrat blrtb In\arval

26. aolo confllot

21. GI. of contraception

28. No. 01 children evel' bOl'n

lb ...... cal. val ...... clasllflcatlon a. tbat 01 husbaftd '. (La.t catogory le aot. .ppllcable)

lD ..... xp •••• ed in tora. of . .,. .. Actual .ffectlve duration ln aontbs

Actual In rupee.

2. Nuclear 1. Other

Actual numbel' of oblldren d •• lred

1. Both agree 2. Other an ••• n

C .. puted Laterval be .... . ."eotlv_ aerrlage ... "-, .... , live bll'th _&pHlled •• ..-bel' 01 aonth,

2. Hlgb lntenalt, 1. Low Intenalty

1. Usersu 2. 'Others

Actu.l no. of live bll'th.

•• I ••• IN ••••• -.-- F -... • •• IE H •••• _a_a_._. n II a _. ____ _

c*,taa III

HYPOTHESIZSJ MTtIS AID THEm JUSTIFICATIOI

3.1 Intioductl ••

The justification for a'5 .. 1ng the exiatence of

relatlonehlp betwoen any pair of variables In this study i.

baaed .. lo1y on tbe work 01 otbera wbereln botwe.n the aa ••

pal= of variable. rolatlona b.ve bean .bownto exl.t. In

••••• whe=e au .. ' .... d.ftGe .. , not a.all.ble In the literature

logic and commons~ftSa fo~ed the guldellnese Tbe lizeetloft'

.' the relationahlp., In tba oase. where tt.. pre.edenee

oannot be decided Upon waS alto baaed eltbe~ on the literature

or logiC or commonseeae.

The literature surveyed are mostly .tudio. conducte.

In va~louG parts of India becauae tbe ,001al aituatlon and

therefore, tbe behavioural ,attera. of the pe.ple 10 Indl. ~e

different f~oa that of otb.r oouotrl •••

The discussion of tbe variable. will be organl&"

tbu •• eacb variable .111 be Introduced a. a cau.al a3e.

'eglnnlng wltb variables that are ~elatlvely Independent aad

proceadlng In order to varl.bles that are relatively d.pendent.

A variable 1 •• ald to b. relatively dependont wben tbere are

other variables that operate •• direct or 1ndiroct oa ..... ,

It. At the tt.e of introduction of a v.~iabl. a. a oau •• l.

a~eftt. first. gooeral ..... ata. If any .e~rdln~ the Ya~labl. )

It

introduced wl11 be ~lv.n. Thi. will be follo.ed by a ~ Ine e{t/el-

dlscus'lon~or this variable on other var1ables. Howover, the

discus,lon f/l11 be confined to thol. "arlab18~ with which

tbore 15 a Jil'oct ralatlon.hlp. Tbis 1s bQcausiJ tbo Indirect

~elatlon.hlp ~111 be apparent wh.n these dependent variable,

.1"0 In turn ,a·,cus.3d •• lndep "ndent variables. POI' exam;:>le,

If vari.ble Xl determines variable '2 the I"oa'ons for thinking

••• hall be ~=ovld.d first. Howevor, any discus.lon concerning

12 - wheth0= :olatlng to the ~easurament and/or to Its

, .... tlcal l~').lcation. - will be po'/tponeJ until it i. the

turn of variable X2 to be considored •• a cau •• l agent. (The

.,q~.nce of in:roduction of c.u8al agents will be according to

tbe temporal o:Jerlnge) Next will be ~lven a discussion of the

•••• urement of qu.ntification of the variabl. whel'ever such a

discuslion 1s found necessary. In th11 connoctlon I'ofor nce ma,

alao be mada to rable 2.2 wbero the variables .nd tbeir •••• ur.-

ments are 'livon in Tabular fon. The diroction of tbe relatlon­

.hlp betwoon oach caulal agent and Ita depondents are presQnted

1ft Table 3.1 Jiven at the ·:::nd of tbl. Cha;)tel".

Tbe orJani~atlon of thl. chapter can bo .ade Bore clear

with the help of the following 4-varlable path dla91'aml

W PI~urc 3.1 Illustrative four yarlable path dlagraa.

19

If the postulated caus,l re1at1onshlp 1s aa ln the ,bove

dlag~a. the dlscusslon will be organizod thua •

• ben variable Xl i8 introduced a. the causal agont ,

geDora' dl~cu3.1on of tho variable, lf found n.c.~aary, will be

given followed by a dlscus,lon of It I relation wlth varlabl. ~

,ad varlable 13• Howevor, Xl" lnd~ect .ffocts throu9b 12 on

X3 and on X. wlll Dot be discuased. This rolatlonahlp will be

clear wben '2 1, lntroduced a, tbe cau.,l aJoot and a. It'

dependents '3 and '.-

"ext In the .equence wlll be a dlacucslon of the nlture

of the variable Xl and Ita •• aaurement.

Once the discus.lon about varlable Xl 1. over. the next

Yarlab1e '2 wl1l be lntroduced .a • causal aJea' for dllcusslon.

provided tbe t •• porel ordering of tbe four yariables In tbe

dlagraa are Xl' '2' '3 .nd '.-

3.2.1 Casit'

e.ate ',It .. la one of the .ever.l types of aocla1

stratiflcatlon (Harper, 1970. ~l). In Indla It i. a1aoat

universal and the •• mbarehip ie hereditary (Davl., 1973, 370,

380). It -baa. dlstlnct. tr,:lditlona11y deflned llfa at,l.,

cuatOlll. rltuals and behJvlour pattern- (lIaJa1, 1972, 1). 1'be

.tatua of caste 1. d.te~lned by ritual purlty, .. alth and

poll~lcal poINl" (A leonder. 1968, 41, Harper, 1970, ,,>. Ia

-

.oclati •• wbero fallily bulldinJ activities are detena1ned

mostly by cult~=al and institutional factors, a study of

fertility by CJ5tO bocomes more lnterostln,) and revealing

(3axena, 19u3. 136).

'hil~ consider1ng tho oaste .embersbip one is faced

with dlfflcultios because 1n the p~e$ent sa.ple there ar.

people belon]in:] to different religions. Dividing Hindus by

caste •• mborohlp are non-objectlonable since oaste syste.:

within KinduisQ 1. univer.ally accepted. As 'ar as the otbe~

religious Jrou;)~ arc ooncerned - bere Chr1at lana and '.'iusl1ma

also nead b0 conslder~d a. the sa.ple confinas, besldes

Hindus, only to tbos. two re11g1ons - the jenoral bellef 1s

that casta eye.oll 1. 1napplicable to non-Hindu religious groupe.

That Is, caato sy.tem, 1t is believed, can be understood, aa

Harper (19701 72) succlntly puts ltG, ·only when vie.ed agalnat

the r.ll~lous aatrix of Hindul ••• •

Korl~VOC. oven in no~KI;ldu religious Jroups 1n Ind1a one

could ob:l ::,vo, -exis tonce of asa.nti8lly similar &y~ t.om of

strJtlflclti:m- (Harpor, 1970. 72). The oxplanation to sucb

Itrat1flcatl.i;} ac;)n) nol'loftKindul can bo provided only by

-d •• onstrltlng that \boae bell.fs of Hindus moat relovant to

the cage 6YS_00 are allo bel4, to S08e Jeg~ea, by similarly

stratified nO.1-Hindu g~oup8 such .1 Ch~lstian& and '.tuillas­

(Harpar, 1970, 12). The necessary evld!noo for the existence

0' stratification .imllar to Hindu caste among 'erala Cbristiana

and ~ualims will be provided later. aaio:. that the rolationshlp

31

.. tw •• n caate and o~r varlable. included 1n tbe .tudy will

be discussed. ~b.n thie is done on the baai, of va~lous ,tudi.'

one could obtain ovldence only In ~.peot of H1ndu ca.t •••

Since .tUdI •• ba,.d on 0 •• ,. ,ystea within the non-Hindu

religious groups and other ~elated vari.bl •• Included In the

'tudy Ire not a.allable .e h.ve to perfor~ a.sume that tbe

lon.lu.lo"s arrived at In relpect of Hindu castes and other

variables apply to non-Hindu c •• tea also.

Tb. relatlonsnip b.tw.en .aate .-.herlhip and

educational achi.ve~ent are Itrongly ,upported by empirical

flndings. ael. (19621 164) reported tbe percent of aale

literates to be 82 .. on~ Hindu hi~ber oa.tel. 30 "Oft~ HindU

inter •• dlate oastes and 19 for Hindu l~le~ ca.tos. Driver' •

• tudy of oontral India (1962. 29) lndioated a e,.teaatlcally

declining percent of ~elpondents both in rural and urban area.

who had above prlaary .chool education •• one DOV.' down the

alx ea.te categories fr08 Brabmlns to sobeduled Castes. Gi.t

(1~4. 134) alao o~e~v •• a aimilar pattern when education wa,

classified as -low education" end -bigh education-. ay -low­

educatloQ b ... aDS tho.' with le.1 than 4 yeara of education

(including 1111t~rates) and 'hl~h' education InclUdel all tho ••

',-;1th five ,ears 01' more 0' educatlo!l. A.on) tlse foUl' .. at.

cat930rie. - 8rahBlns. non-8rahmlna. BaCkward Ca.tOG aDd

Scheduled CAstes - 1n My,ore City, the percont with low oducotlon

worked out to be 6.6, 63.6, 71.3 and 91.2 respectlv.ly. For

the Sa •• oaste oat&gorlea 1n Bangalore corresponding flguros

I

'2

•• ~. 4.2. 62.~t 16.1 and 86.2. In Ke&ala, Alexander (1968.166)

.. p.&t&d tbe per eeat of llt.~at.a to be 44.6 for Brebalns,

21.6 for Nayarat 1.3 'H Izba .. a I"d 1.2 fN :;cJ\odulecf Castos.

Tbe .. pirleal ovidence. thus, lndlcat •• a con,~1~uou.

eduGational lne~ualltv &aOD; \be dlffsrEQt oestes.

The influence of calte Oft .... a·. wort partiolpatlon

lee.' to be r~tber lntereetlng. It Is generally found that the

low.r cas~e woaen start wortln~ fro. ve~y early aJe unllko upper

cast. _o.&n. ~~o '.planatione ~an be given for thll. Pirst ,.

tbat the .... n ift upper oaate eategorr. even If the need tor

wo~k partioipation arisea, will be reluctant to do '0 oonslderlag

'beir a.au.ed 'social stat .. '. aut tbe l .. er caste women will not

'e aufferlng t~oa anv such statuI consciousnesl and will be takiDg

up jobs when clrcum.tan~o& require it. Since the type of ~ork

which they are porforalng do not ~al1 for any kind of Ipecial

training or higher education it II easier for thea to partloipate

In tho work wo~co. The type of occupatlonl 1n wbieb 1 .. calt.

woaen are usually a.p1oyed ( ... ~1et far. ••• k) naod only

Oble~v.tlon and practice.

Ano~r factor .ffected by c.ete 1s age at .arrla~.

Lower casta people marry oarl! •• ~~ otbere (Agarwala. 1~1.

105). Tbls ear1v age at aarrlage •• , a1ao b. becauee of the low

education and poor standard of l1vLDg.

To the extent that Cas~ eg,QGIIlc ,utus are into&--

llnked, an additional factor .:r.ti" -. ca.te partloipatlon

.e~e 4.2. 62.~, 79.1 and 86.2. In Kecal., Al ... Dder (1968.166)

.. perted tbe per cent of litoratea to b. 44.6 tor Brabalns.

21.6 tor Na,ars, 7.3 for IzbaYa8 aad 1.2 '0. Scheduled C.stes.

lbe .. plrlcal ovidence, thus, Indicates a conapl~uou.

educational inequality _OD;j ~e dlffsreat Mstes.

The lntluence of caste on wo •• n'a wo~k partiolpatlon

se ••• to be rutber Interesting. It 18 gefterally found that the

l •• er .. sta .0800 .tart wortlng trom vary •• rly a~e unll .. up,..

.st •• 0..... 1'wo 'xplanationa oan be glven for thls. Phat la

that the .... n In upper cast. oatego~. even 1t the Deed to.

.ork pa~tlo1pation arisea. will be reluctant to do '0 conslder1a,

their a •• u.ed 'soc1al statUi'. lut tbe l ... r .. ste wo.en will not

.. a.ffer1ng fro. any such status consciousness and wl11 be taking

up jobs when clr~um8taACO& rQqulre It. Since the type of wort

.hlch they are porfo~lng do not call for any klnd of apeclal

traln1ng or hlghsr education It 18 eaaler for them to part10ipate

In the work w~c.. The type of occupation. 1n .bich 1 .. oa.te

.... D are usually ..,loyed (exaaple, fara .o~t) Ased onl,

Ob.e~v_tlon aAd practice.

A.~r factor affected by aalte 1s age at .arrla~ •

..... r .. ate people ma:::, e3rl1e.t that\' tbo otbers (Agarwal •• 195'.

105). Tbls early age at •• rrlage .ay alao be boeau •• of the low

education and poor standard of llYiDg.

To the oxtent that Casto aftd e.., ... lo .tatU$ are lnto1'e

linked. an addltlonal factor rolatlftg .aate to wo~t partlolpatloa

II

• 1. operative. thu •• It 1. found that ... t of the low .aat.

people .. 1009 to ~. poor .ectlona of the society and alao

to In for larger work partlcipatlon. thus, floanclal

dlfflcultl •• MY b. the aajor factor that coapel tb_ to

partlo1pate In the labour force. Tho blgher caate peoplo,

on tho otbor hand, be'ong to the hlgber econoale .tatus

.. to gory and lIay not feel the plnch of monetary problem ••

They may view \1~rk pal"tlClpatlon as a .olution to th. b_ed_

at boae, t~ doolre to .ake U8~ of t~elr educaelon, tbo dealre

to enlarge thel~ aoclal cont~ct etc.

A elearcut and d.finlte rGlatlonablp ... obsorved ln

tbe ,..t between OwcupatloD and ... ~.. Occupations •• re

hlerarcblcally a::anged (Alexander, 1960. 80) and .ere rolated

to o •• te (Harper, 19101 ~5). In tbe words of .. rrlott (196~.

40),

$arvloe. are requlrod to be more lntrl~tQl1 dlttereatlatGd and graJustod by o.ate rant In 'erala than an,wbe:G .lse In ruzal India. to -. ceaplete ln .... ntl.l .ervlces. an ordlnary Ylll.~ .ust .. lntaln not juat one local ca.te ~.up of each kind of da. •• tlc aerv~nts .uch as w.sbe~en, ba~ber8, p~ios~s etc., but .ften tuo, tue., H .oro looal •• te gn ... of eaob klDd - .a"e .... n .. ates, barber caato., aDd .0 on -In o~ •• to provld. for the .eparat ••• eda of p.troD. occupying differeat oaste raat ••

Today there ....... b .... dlG.greo .. nt _ong .obolara

•• to the relatlon.hlp between tbeso two 'actors bocau.e In the

aa .. oat'90ry of wort one would find wort.rs froe .11 dlfforent

... tes. But .tll1 at .. , not be true to •• , that tbe ... t •

• ,.te. baa lo.t lts ~~lp In thl. ~ogard. For exaaple, for the

total p~olessloftal wo~ker" Gl.t (1954) atudled In My.o~e

Cit" tbe caste representation (percentage) was 29, ~, 3 and

2 re.pectively 01 B~abalft" nOn-Brabalna, Backward Caate. and

Scheduled Ca.ta.. Tbe .o~re,poDd'ng Ilgu. •• lo~ Bangalo~e

.ere 24, 4, 0.4 and 0.8 reapectlvely. Tbe ~.ve~ae orde~ ot

participation waS found ~ong .e.l-.tilled workera. the

percentage participation in ~Ylore City .. ' 3, 24, 3& and 46

and 1n ' •• galore 4, 21, 40 and 60 In that oJ'der for the foUl'

oaat •• .entlOAed above. Dlscus.lng about tbe d~op out. f ...

lobools 1n the are. of Sarpa11, 'stnalt aay. tbat, the .. ~r.

01 lower Gast •• who ar. ~en.rallv poor, attend lobool Irregularly.

This Irregularity In attendance la due to tbe fact that they

bave .o~k at b._ and -thGll" ps.·:onta pltefor apprenticing ttae.

In their .. ate occupation- (1~7. 104). on tbe other hand higb

... to obl1dl'ei\ attend echool l"&gul&l'ly beca uso thell" education

~1p thea in t~ir oaete occupation. Rotlce that bere education

'S treated .s an ent~y pe .. lt to one'a caste occupation.

Ca.te .yate. affect. the de.l~ed f •• lly slae and the

number of chIldren evor bo~n. Pl11al and Naapootbl~1 (1972)

wblle •• s •• llng the influence of caste and statu. on fertility

.Ufferentlal. In a l"tJral area in Tamil nadu found that caste

by its rigidity and tradltlon ~aalnod a sub-culture within

looloty and t~t caste nOrDS exerted .ore Influence on Individual

fertility behaviour than did locio-ecoaomlc status. In utta~

Pradelh Hindus .. re cla •• lfled lnto low .alte aad blgb caate

by Sinha (1~7. l~9) and he found tbe low oaate Hindu woaen

R- :3 o~ , CO"3~ O~5 +&3 • :oEV

"vLDg hl3h fertility oamp.red to tba blgb GaGte Hlndu wo.eD.

a •• ena (196~. 140) clasalfied caate. LDto upp.~. lnter •• dlatet

.Dd l~ oategorle.. He repori4d tbet .. ong the rural ~tar

Pradeah populatiQn to~l fertl1itv of upper oa~te waaen .. ~

7.3 wbareas fo~ thG ln~e~D8d1a~ oaate It wa. &.1 aad tor tbe

low casta G.3. He also Qxac1ned the ... te differences 1n

'.wtlli. if .. ong thMe who were engQ9«td in a~loul ture. Tbe

8". t.·end w.a found. total fertility for the upper oast ••

lntormediate caat. and lower oast ... re 1.7. 0.6 and 8.9

~espectlY.ly. In tbe f •• lly growth study of Trlvandrum,

(Department of Stat1st1ca, 1965) lt ... found that for woae"

wlth 1es$ than 10 y.ars of .atrlag. duration the .ve~.38 11ve

blrths were 3.2 for •• Irs, 3.3 for 8zhava. and 4.8 for 'other'

Hlndus.

Having thus dEscrUMd tbe eflect of caste on other

•• poets 1n tbe light of various .tudle., elaallflcatlon of

... te ls described below.

The classification of ll1radus Into the above three

.. tegorl~s of oeste doe. not po •• muon p~obl... a ... ong H1ndu.

• ... tes are ,"anted ln a certa in ordor. ~OQetiJI.8 a whol0 caate

.1u.tQ~ rgroupa of Ca6t~8 follow1ng 81al1ar occupational

occup13s a doflnlte ~81tlon 1n relation to other C8ste

clusters. Even "ltbln the ca~tQ cluatar there 18 oen.rally

a l"aDking- (lCa"_, 1968i 6). ~r"la 1. n~ exception. To

quote Marriott (19". 31),

I ! ! C l'''H~. "!~~ffi~lORE'

Ace ••.. bt ~Dl.~ 2-~'Y .~

tbe C30te rank1nJ h1era~cby of Kerala .Olt closely resemble soclolo~ic.l IJIl-typlcal concoptlons of tbe Uindu cas ~e hierarcby In that almolt every calte ~"oup 1:1 a Jiven Hindu v111aJ8 of thl1 r'~glon ls said to occupy a unique and practIcally unquestioned "ank, hiJber or lower than tbe rank of eacb otber local caste group.

. At the top 0: tho oaste hierarchy is the B:ahaln oaste, and

.ore or less oquivalont to th.~ are ~alr& of higher rank.

(Marriott, 1)55. 41). 30th these are included in the higb

oa.te catogory. The next group oonsl.t of all low caste Nair,

llke .eavcr~. washerm.n atc., and Ezbavaa (Thiyy.s). Tbes.

people evil;.,l;,tly do not. GO •• under bl)h c aato Nairs as abown

by Alexander (19681 43). The rest of the Hindu, who coae only

below the cas~oo already ~entloned, are Jroupad under the

.a tegol'Y, lo~: cas te.

A detailed d.8crl~tlon of the bellofs of H1ndu8 that are

relevant to caste .yat ••• aaong Christlans 1s Jlven by Fuller

(197&, 53-70), 1~ his analvsl. of -Kerala Cbrlstians and tbe

Ca.te ,y.~ODO" - an article from whiCh the pro~ent s~udV ba.

drawn extonGively for justifying tbe treatmant of all religlou8

gwouPI a' bolonging to one oo .... unity. Tbe Chrlatltlns In ,<.rala

are cl •• siflod Into thr.e broad c.:5tegorle5 - :;;,rlan Cbd.s .. ians,

Latin ~hrlGt1ans and New Chrlatlans, - basad on the original

ooftvorta fro:.1 nhom the IDabel'S of •• ch group clalaed thel&'

descent bel::>njod to and tbe date 01 original converalon.

ACcordlft~ to on'~ vie. the Syr1an Christlans ar8 dapon(jonts of

Naaboodirl J~~i~1ns and the converalon took place ln A.D. ~2.

Even thouih thore ar8 differences of oplnlon aa to tho accurJcy

37

of this view. Kar.e (196&1 292-293) found 10" of tb. custoa.

'ollowed by Srrlan C~l.tlaft. to be atln to that of Bra .. ln ••

even though by app •• rance one _Ill be doubtful a. to tbeir

de. cent from Haaboodlrl Brahain.. S,rlaD Christiana nevor bad

any unique traditional occupational apGclallzatlon. They .. re

.. lnl, land bolders and tr.4ers. In .oa. area. the, •• r.

po •• rful landlorda and .any of the ... re .01dlers 11te tbe

aalra. Status .. l.e the Syrian Christiana, thougb of N.abeodl~l

aaoe.try accepta tbat tbelr rank is below that 01 Namboodlri

&noesuy ~t.

but -they are of rank equal to the •• lra in tbe casto bierarOby.­

According to Brown (19561 168-69 cited in 'uller, 19161 &6)

Srrlana bave generally boen ranted equal to Nalra. He .ald

both could foraerly carr, aral, aad both pla,ed atallar role.

in village ... ganla. tion. A lao bO'tb bad 11ml1.r r 19bts ln land

aad both obaerved .t.11.r pollu.lon rules. But Puller 'inda

It diff1cult to agr.e completel, .• ith bls vi •••• be tbougbt

Naira ~. baviag a ~a.k above S,r1an.. All the .a .. , be add ••

-although today, .. y be, tbe gap narr .. ed.-

aetwe.n 1 ..... and 1&49 tbe 'lsberJIen castes .ere oonverted

to fo~ tbe •• co~d .ajor grouping aaong the Chzl.tlan6. Viae,

Latin CUlatlans. The, are aOltl, a_a Catbolic. with the

Latin ~lto ••

... C~lltl.ft' .. re 'o~d during the nineteonth and

early twentieth ceDturle.. tbe' ........ tbe low •• t ......

and a. In the •••• 0' tbe Latin C~l.tl&n. they too are d~."

aalnl, f~ .. the poo~e~ section. of the society. Thus

oon.ld_~lng both power and .~alth tbere are only two groupo -

tb. syrians at one Gnd and Latin and Ne. Cbrlstlana at tbe

other.

Tbe neft Christians are mostly labourG~s on tbo land, on the roads or 1n factorloa. Very few of them ,.. •• S8 land .f tbelr own. Soonoalcally, tbelr ,..itlon differ. llttl. from that 0' Hlndu Harljana. The, are reg~rded by tbo bigh .astoat and by many .f tb~l~ own ..... r., a. being of • etatu •• o~e O~ I ••• equal to that of the Harljanl (Pullor, 1976. ~').

Olleu.slng tbe loclal oonditlonl of tbeao ne. Chrlltlanl,

Puller sa,. that the 1 .. oalte Hlndus converted to C~l.tlanlty

with the hopo of •• caping f~oa tbe -lndlgnitiea impoled- on

the. by casto .,ate.. But .oon they ~Gall&ed that tbe~ p08ltlon

Is no better than wbat 1 •• a. before conversion.

ieabershlp In Syrian O.ste la -acquired a.~lptlvely by

birth" aven tbough exceptions .~e thore. It 1. true In the

case of Na. Chrl.tla •• a •• el1. aut It aust be kept In mind

tbat p~ovl.lone for Indlvidual aobillty betwoen oaat08 do exlet

wltbin Chrlstl.n communlty. ~itbout under-estimating the

pOlslble effects of thil factor, Puller Itat08, -Nonetheless,

wben tbe total contoxt re.alna In vlaw, I conolde~ that the .. e

of the te .. 'oaste' to descrlbe tbe Chri.tl.n g~oup. re .. ln

j •• tlfled- (19761 62). He found, .fter a deta1led Itud, of

Chrl.tl ... • place In eaate .,atea that -Chrlstlana and Hindus

fo~ one total coamun1ty, for the, are Integrated. albeit .ltb

.... quallflGatlona at both the babavlou.al and IdeoloJlGal

'evell- (P. 68) and tbat they are • ... bers of one total caste

•••

• 1,lt •• , not two sapa~at. oael .x1stlng 11de-bY-llde- (p. '8).

Balod on thl. evidence, for pu~po.es of the p~.s.ftt

analysis the Syrian Christiana .ere included 1n the 'higb

ca.te' ¢8tego~ and the Latin C~lltlanl and N •• Cbriltlan.

among the 'low caate' cat.go~.

Caato ',st •• prevail .. ong KUIlt.. aleo. Writing about

the caate practlcel of MUIll88, Ansari saYI, WAI far a. aoclal

p~oblems and their 801utlon8 .. ong Indian Uu.l1m, are concoraed.

It can be said that tbe attltud. of Indian Muallas bave been

aUbJected to Hindu influences· (quoted In "juadar, 1973. 303).

the aajorlty .f NUIlta. are flsberm.n, agricultural labourers,

pedlars and dally wa~ •• arners. They are, .a a ~roup, -Ioclally

and educationally baCkward on account 0' occupational stlgaa.

observance of purdah and tho avorslon to education through tbe

.ecllua of English till ya~ 1'.~entlY" (aov8l'naaent of Kerala,

1971. 90). They .. ~e thUG p" In the low caste oatogory for the

pr.sent analysis. In doing this precedence i, not laCking •

• arl'lott (1970, 13') In hi. anal,a'. of -Caat. ranklng and food

tran.actlon- also grouped all the MUlli. Castes Into the -Lower

Caat.- oategory.

3.2.2 4.11S1108'

unlit. the usual practice of dlYldlng th. population

.. ong th. different .ajor r.l1~'ou. groups, the present stud,

.111 attach importance to religious bell.fa wltb ~spect to u ••

• , oontraception and number of Chi1dr.n evor bO~A. It ,. not

forgotten that there are difference. In educ3tlon, age at

.atrlaJe e~c. accord1ng to religion, but these have been taten

1nto account 1n a deta1led .anner wben e •• te wa. conGldered.

Hence, In the present analysis people nill bo grouped ac~ording

to the ir tn J~;;l 1:C 11 910u9 belle fs.

ae1i91o~ could 1nfluence the bchavlourel patterD' of

lts arlherentJ by pr8.crlbln~ ee~taln no:as or proscribing oertaln

actlvltlas. In this respect a.o"9 Catholica lnd ~·~,Jslims tbere

are clear cut vlEhJ8 with regard to usc of cont,,~coptlon and

children evor born which will b. descr1bed 1n the follou1ng

para~raph$.

Catholic church 1s very .xplicit 1n Its views about

.se of contr.lcopt1on by its .ellbel's. These view. do not concern

populatlo:1 ~ro,.th. It 1s concol'ned only l1ith 'Ind1vidual

obl1gatlons : ·::>r ~)rocreatlon and parental responsibility'

(Notestien, 1969. 146). ·The Church holds that contraception

1s a~alnst nature, Is an lntrin.le evil and therefore Immoral·

(Cbacto, 1)761 30). Accordln~ to Pope Plus XII the .aln purposo

of conjugal act ls to get cbildren. Those wbo deliberately

frustrate ltc n~tura1 power are com~lttlnJ I ,1n against nature

-.bich is Sh300ful and 1nstrlnlica11y vlclous.- 1:1 tho word.

of Pope John XXIII, ·one cannot In any way rosort to erroneoul

doetrlnos and jlarniclous and fatal aothods to 11mlt of is pring.

Contraceptlon is aJainlt nature. Artificial control of

conception 1s oSGentially evil ••••• • (Chacko, 1976, 30). The

popula: bellof 1~ tbat children are sent to the .arrlGd couple

• forgotten that there are difference. In educ3tlon. ag8 at

.arrla~. 9~C. Qccordlng to religion, but these have been taten

Into accoun~ in a detailed .anner wben c •• te .aa conGiJeced.

Kence, In tho prcuent anelyals people vllll bo 9~ouped .c~ordi.Ag

to their knY::l religious beliefs.

aelijl- . could Influence the behavloural patter., of

lts arlher.nt~ by presc~lbln~ c.~taln no:as or proscribing .ertaln

actlvltios. In this respect .. on9 Catbollcs lnd ;,\ ... a11m5 there

are c leor cut Vi91;/S with regard to usc of contl'acoptlon and

children ever born which .111 be described 1n the fol1o~lng

p.l'a~rophz.

Catholic churcb 1& very explicit In Its viewl about

••• of con~r~~~ptlon by its ••• bers. these vlaws do not concern

population aro,:th. It Is conctJrned only l'/itb 'Individual

.bllga tlons :: ·Jr ~)rOOI'9a tlon and parental res ponalbl11 ty •

(Notestlen. 1969. 146). -The Church holds that contrlceptlon

11 a~a1n$t natura, 1s an lntrinale evil and therefore lmaorol·

(Chacko, 1)761 30). Accordln~ to Pope Plus XII the main p~p080

of conjugal act lG to get cbildren. Those who deliberately

frustrate I~G n~tu~al po •• r are co.~lttlnJ a aln against nature

-.hlcb Is shaDofu1 and Inst~ln.lcally vicious." I~ tbe word.

of Pope John XXIII, ·one cannot In any way rosort to erroneous

doctrln:>s :l nc! por niclous and f at.l .othoJs to limit of i sprlng.

Contraception is aJalnit nature. Artificial control of

conception is ossentially evil ••••• • (Chacko, 1916. 30). The

popular bellof Is tbat children are sent to the .arrled couple

41

by God and He would provide for them. Controlling Goncoptlon

.eana dlatruating QOd'a providence (Callaban, 1967. 47). Thua

when a religion speclflC411y '-poaos aanctlona agalnat tbe uae

of art1f1cial contraoeptlon one .ay be led to infer that • .abera

of such ro11gious groupa would show, other things ~alning

equal, high fertility.

It-liar Is the ..... f Mu.ll.s. To quote Klrk (1973. 72),

a.11910n 1. often •• ntloned as a factor potentlall, .ffectlng nata11t,. but .turlle. of thla subJeot are .oat frequently focuased on Roaan Cathollc8 becau.e .f the Churo.'s .ell known dootrlnGs conGernlng fa.l1, planning and birth oontrol. Moat writers Oft the d~aphy of tbe developing countrlas have .~.aa.d t~ absonce of .peclflc probibition In contraceptloft ift other major rellg10D~ •••••

1ft ., j ..... eftt thla restrloted .ie. la In error, at leaat a. It concerna the ~oal .. world. aaplrlcallr '.la. baa been a mOre effectlve barcler to the dlffua on .f f.ail, plann1ng than Catbolicism.

The orthodox Mu.lt.. believe tbat the pr~ary purpoae

., l1fo is proGroatlon. lob ..... l. quoted a. baving .ald

'aarr, and generate'. 1ft the words of Saauel (1963. 3&7) -the

au.11ma want to ••• tbat their .o.8n ... riChly fruitful.-

Marrl.~e haa been one of Islaa1c religious .a,. and procreation

for the perpetuation of apecle. (Al-Qalql1i. 1973, 3). DaVie.

(1976. 19-33) In bi. analyaie ot the relative fertility of

Hindus and Mu.lia. in India reported that tbe Mualt.a bad a

b1gber fertillty and that tbe two re11gious faiths hava dlreot

.ffects on fertility. Tbi. dlfteronco according to hla 1. not

a roflectlon 'of tbe .ffect of any 80clo-economlc yarlable '.uch

as edu"tlon'. He found that 1t Is due to d1fferenc,a In botb

42

-tradltlonal- .nd -.odern- patterns of behaviour bet.een the

two Gommunltle.. Other 'actors that are responllble can be

..... rll' stated thu •• 3 There are dlfterences In tbe prevalenoe

., widow .... r~l.ge .. ong the two rellg1tus groups. Muslt..

.... rry .Ora often than tbe Hlndu.. Also Hindus elbere to

rellgloue taboos on co-habitatlon very rellglously wblle tb .. e

are very ~a:o aaong MUlli... Unlit. HinduI, a.ong Mualt.

wo.8n the post partua laparation period la very ahort aa tb.l~

cUlt~a do not •• qulre the. to retu.n to tbel. parental boa.

for conflnement. Th ••• 'actorl ... t bo able to explain the

blgh birth rate .. 009 Muslima In India ... pared to otber •• 11gloua

I.oUps aven wbea tbay ha~o aial1ar patterns of early aarrlage

and a larger proportion of reproductive llf. apen' within

.arriaga.

A.oog Muslt.s, p~ventlng cbild blrth t-.pora.lly to.

~ ••• o .. of health and 'ealth alofte ia perattted by laws of

Islam but -the u •• of .ediol ••• to prevent pregnancy abaolutely

aad per.anent1y il forbldden by religion- (Pattah 01 ananl,

1973. 13). But ln g8.eral, actual p.actiOi of birtb oontrol

a.on~ Mua1t.a for any realon 11 very ltalted (Kirk, 1973a ~).

Thus, .a stated earlier. for the present .tudy lt •• 1

decided to consider religloul belief. regarding u.. of

3 Por a detall.d discussion ref.~ Chrlstle Davl •• , -Th. ~elatlve fertility of Hindus and Mu.l1a.·, Wllil' 1976, 99. 19-33 .Dd Dudley Kirk, -factors Affectln~ .alea .atalitY" 1A o. ~chlGfi.llr, ly.li1 ot\itydes \A'lEd r."Ax PlapnipQ, lb. 'opulatlon Council. Ne. York, 19131 pp. 72-91.

contr3:eptlon and number of chil..:!".n ever born instead of

oonslderlnJ the three .aJor reI1g1~u, raiths as it 1&. Th •

• aap1. popula~lon 1s thus dlchoto.1.~d by putting ~8thol1cs and

Musllas 1n one category and tbe ~.st 1n anothQ~ •.

The ili:ldu vl •• of fertility aftd birth control .....

to be d1lEe_'cn·;;' from that of MUIllm .. or ';athcllcs. It 1. true

tbat 1n Hlnduicm .arrlage i. peraltted and praised and 1.

oonsldered as a &pirltual Aece.alty. aut Hinduism 1& not

opposed to planned parElntbood. Tbe very fact tbat tbe Hindu

way of 11 .. ! o;;pects (ove .. tlaougb it 1s not strictly observed)

a Hindu to go throu~h th~ four stages of l1f6, tba Brahaachar,a

(tha celibat~ stUdent), the 9rba.ta (the bou.eholder), the

Yanapra&ta (tlv~ for •• t dweller) and the ~anya.a (renunclatlon)

lndlcato that "tho .ex life an~ tbe reproductive porlod of

Hl,du .ales ~'lo!'e ••• regulated and restricted by innumorable

do's, don'ts, and taboo.- (Chandra&ekhar, 19~o. ~4). There il

nothlng specifically agalnst blrth oontrol 1n tbe Hlndu

scrlpturos as ':1011. ~oreoyer there arll a number of uirectlve •

•• to wben coitlon 1s and 1. not perai •• lblo. All these can be

lnterpreted as .eans of regulating fertillty 'I no mod •••

te~nlqu.s of bl:th control were avall3ble then. ThUG lt .'Y

be .,f. to a5~ume that the Hindu w~y of llfa ls not a~alnGt b1rth

control. ampi~lcal .tUdles .ubstantlate this vlew. Po~

exaaple, Davl~s (19761 24) found th~t HinJus Ula mora contra­

cept1ve .. tbo.~~ cO~:lpared to their lIu.111l counterparts. III East

Patls t.an v111a;cG, ;ito.ckel and Cboudhury (1969) found that

r~~----- ~··-·l l REFERENC~_

~ . --. -- --

43

contr~ ;e~tion and number of Children ever born lnst.ad of

consider1n) the three ~aJor rel1gijus faiths as it is. The

saaple popula~lon 1s thus dlchotoml&~d by putt1ng wathol1cs and

Mus11 .. in one catagory and tbe rest 10 another •.

lb. Hi~du vie. of fertility aDd birth control see.s

to be d1fia~ont from that of Muslims or ~atholics. It i. true

tbat in Hlndui&m aarriaJe 18 peraitted and praised and 1_

considered as a sp1rltual necessIty. aut Hludu1sm 1s not

opposed to planned parenthood. the very fact th.t the H1ndu

way of 11 . .! e;;pects (ove .. \bough 1t 1s not strictly observed)

a HIndu to go through th~ four _tag.' of life, the Bra~charya

(the cellbat;~ Gtucient), the grbasta (the householder), the

vanaprasta (the forest dweller) and the ~anyasa (ranunclation)

indicato that "tho sex life an~ the reproductive por1od of

Hl1du males \10:.-e ••• regulated and restrlcted by lnnumor.ble

do's. don'ts, and taboo.- (Chandra.ekbar, 195~, '4). There il

nothing specifically aga1nst birth control 1n the Hindu

scriptures as ~JQll. Moreover there ara a number of uirectlves

.1 to when coition is and ie not perm1sslbla. All these can be

interpreted as aeans of regulatlng fertillty as no modern

'echnlques 0: bi~th control were aval13bla then. ThUG It •• ,

be •• fe to aS~aQe that the Hindu way of 11fe il not against b1rth

control. Sm?i:ic.l stUdies substantlate this view. POl'

ex.apl •• Davl.J~ (1976, 24) '.\lud that Hindus "10 aore contra­

ceptive .. tho:~:; cor:lpared '0 their ~ulll. counterparts. ll'l East

Paklatan v111J.)oG, Stoeckel and ~boudbury (1969) found that

tbe p~oportlon of Mual~a wbo have no knowlodg. of 'aal1y planning 19 double tbat of Hindus. Tb. p~portion of Hindus c~rently p.actlolng 'aall, planning is almost throe ttaes .a great aa Mu.l~ •• .. 11. tb. p~oportlon "0 baa ever pr~ctloed it la twlce .a 9rea~. A .ost strlklng result 18 tb.t a'-oat 90% of the Hindus who have eve~ practloed family planning are atill practlolng, compared .1th ~ fOr Mvallas (p. 34-3').

3.2.3 il'91d.pUal taae'SEpugd of wi( ••

It Is bellev~d that traditional! .. and large faal1,­

alndednass .re labedded In the minds of those Who had ape.t

.oat of their llf. tl .. in rural arQaa. OOe cay tberet~e

expeot such a background to influonce other characterlstios

.elevant to faall, .1~o sucb aa education, age at aarriage.

number of children de.lred etc.

Iduoatlonal 'aoiliti •• are higher 1n urban areae. The

n.a~nQ~& of eduoatlonal centres would ~educe tbo coat of

eduo.tlon. Tberefore, the prob.bl11t, of aore people ~ttiftg

education 15 11kely to be hlgber .aong those growing In urban

.re •• OOQpar~d to thoa. in rural .r.... IOreo.e., girls In

~b.n area .~e attracted by the outside •• rld and highor

edUcation ls one way through which it c.n be attain.d (:!o.s,

1961. 212). "hrotra (1966, 167) distributed ~rala woa.a In

tbe .ge ~oup 1~4 according to their educational .tanda~d

aad found that in rural areas tbe p.rcenta~e of llliterate •

•• s 49.1, of llteratoB and with pr1aar, schooling waa 47.2 and

., .a~rlcula:es and abovQ .a. 3.1. The correspondin9 flg~.s

for urban araal .. re 3&.~, &1.4 and 10.1 respectively.

tbe proportion of Mu.l~. wbo have no knowlod.. 01 faal1y planning Is double tbat of Hindu.. Tbe p~portlon of Hindus currently p.actlclng f •• l1y planning 1. a~o.t tbroe times aa great aa Nuallaa. while the p .. portlon ~o haa ever practloed It 1. twice .1 great. A .oat atrlklng ~esult 18 tbat aiaOlt 90% of the Rindul who have ever practiced f •• ily planning are Itlll practicing, compared witb til fOr lua1188 (p. 34-3~).

3.2.3 i llad"'1.l,,, 2 77.' of ~'11',.

It a. bellevud that tradltlonall .. and large faall,-

.lndedae.a are l.bedded In tbe .1nds of tho.e wbo '-d Ipeat

.oat of thel. lif. tl .. In rural .r.... ane may theref~e

expeot .uob a baokground to influenoe otber characteristio.

relevant to faally liz8 .uch •• education, .ge at -.rrlage.

auaber of Oblldren d •• ~.d etc.

Iduoatlon,l 'acilities are higher In urban aroas. Tbe

n~,u"ne;,;a of aducoli".lonal cent.re& would reduce tho coat of

educutlon. Therefore, the probability of .oro people getting

education 1& likely to be hlgber •• ong tho.e growing In urb.n

.re •• oomp.rcd to tho80 In rural .r.... "reoy.~, girl. In

urb.n .rea .~e attracted by the outside world and higher

education Is one way through wblcb it can be attaloed (~OSI.

1961. 212). "hrotra (1966, 161) distributed Keral. woaeft In

~ •• ge group l~4 according to tbelr educational standard

aid found that In rural areas tbe p.rcenta~e of Illiterate •

•• ' 49.7, of 1lte~atos aDd with pr~ary .choollng waa 41.2 and

., .. ~rl.ulate& .nd .bove ... 3.1. The corre5pondlng fig ....

for ~n araa ... re 3&.~, 11.4 .Dd 10.1 r~.p.otlvely.

AJe .t .a~:la3e 1. al.o .ffected by rural-urban background

before aarrlage. Aocordlng to DrlYer (1963. 72), -early

age .t aarrl.ge II especlally p~oalnent In the vill.g •• , ••••••

ae 0 ••• to thls ooncluslon after .xaalftlng the aedlan age at

.arrlage for clty wlves .nd rural wlves In n.gpur dlatrlct.

Th. modi .. aJe f.~ clty _lyea .a. 1'.' rears and for tboir

rural coanterpartl 13.6 years. In ~rala (daman, 1966, 71)

thG moan .Je at •• rrla~e f.~ rur.l f ••• laa •• s 19.9 aad f ••

urb.n lamales 20.7 y •• rs. Mayar (1974) .1so found .t.l1ar

results In Kera1& •

.... 1".11'. lar;e fa.lly .... a:e 'owmd to be COIUIOft In

rural areas than In urban .r.... Thu., a person wbo had spent

.o.t of bar life tl .. In • rur.l aot up, .111 be, other thing.

r ... lnlng equal, In f.vour of large ' •• 111es and .111 de.lre

a large numbe~ of children comp.red to tboa. who bad apent •

• aJor pa:t of thelr pro-.arltal life t1ae In an urban area.

The pre...arrlag8 r'lnldentlal background of "lfe alao

affects the ag~ ... nt bet-.e. huSband and wl'. retarding tbe

number of Children they .hould have In \be , .. 11y. AgroeDen'

or dlsapeeMnt on any matter ... t be pnoMed by • dlscusalon

of the saa.. A gl~1 born and brouabt ., in a _ural .taosphere

_Ill be more ~eluctant to dlscusa .. ttars relating to fa.l1y

plann1ng oODpared to • cit, bred...... tbls .ay be beGau.a

the traditional attitude toward. 11f. aad bebavlo~ pattara.

are found to be .ore .. ong thOle In tbe rural area.. Thu. one

.. , .xpect no discussion of the .attar ..oft~ the ... en wltb

~UI'al background. Even 1f "-he husbands bring up tho topic

they wll1 only be too happy to .ccept and execute the deo1alon.

taken by tbo~ husbands than making deci.lons on thel~ own.

S lal1a~ 18 tbe G •••• 1 tb tbe .e of oonuaceptlon. S, this it ls a.ant that ~u~al people .111 be ~el.ctaftt to ...

contraceptlve .... p.red to those 1ft tbe urban Iroaa. It ha.

been gener.lly notl.ad th.t .ny .e. development f1rat appear.

ln tbe urban letting and .lowly penetratea lnto tbe rural .r ••••

Birth control technique. are no exception. ~n.r.ll, the rur.l

.ind .ill be very slow 1n adoptln3 a",thlQg IMW that .ere ba-ough'

to tbelr notloe.

low tbe relationshlp betw.en this background variable

and tbe number of children .ver bo~n .ill be examined. In ~ •• t

•• ngal (Datta, 19611 69) the urbln -.rital fortillty ~.t ••••

found to bo cons latently 10 .. 1' than that of the ~ural •• rit.l

fertility for all dlffe:ent ale groups. ~h.n Itandardlaed fo •

• 11 agel the a ••• tre .. ft' observed. Th.t I., the ....

children ever born ... 3.01 for urban I •• ploa and 3.41 f~

J.-ual ••• ploa.

POl' the pU~OI. of the pr •• ent study tbil var1able 1.

dlcbotomlaed Into ~ural .Dd urban. The ala •• lfiGation 1. ba.ed

on the ao ... r to the question on tbo place wbe=e the respond.nt

had apeat .oat of bar 11f. t1 •• before .arrla~.

3.2.4 ."ld'0$111 back9E9UOd of hu,b,pd •

• 1 In tbe .a.e .f wlf •• a EJlatlon.hlp la expected

41

.. twe.a bUlband', pr .... rrlag. rural-urban background and

education. Tb. rea.OGG for the aa.e .re almllar to that of

.1f.· ••

1ft dlscus.lng tbe ~elatlonablp between .If,'. back~rouftd

and agro3mont on number of Ohl1dren It .al atat.d that a .....

with a rural background will b. mOro willing to aooapt aad

execute her husband'. decl.1o~ than a .... n with an urban

ba ckg»ound. By the • alae toten 1 t can be &a ld tila t a con wi til

• rural background w111 be l.~e wl1l1n~ to discuss .. ttur. 01

•• xual 'aportance with his wife or to l.t participate In

•• tlng declslona l.ave alone accepting a dcct.loft taken by b.r.

The Eoaaon la slr.lple. The traditional ballof that Dan 1.

8uperlor to women and tblt ~ 1& ~ bos& of the family Ie

lnbedd&d in bls !lind.

3.2.' ~r'9t rt,ld'ngtl

C~:.ftt r aldenee refer. to th, location In whl~ ~

respond.at ... Itaying wh.n lnt.rvlewed. A path eacb will b •

• xt.nded from current residence to Income of both husband and

wif.. It 18 l1k.ly that dilference may exiat bvtw~cn u~b.n

and rural ar •• s 1n wage& paid for labo~ evon wben occupation

18 beld constant. This loGOae differences affect .oatly t ..

l.bou~ clasG people.

It Is also aus,act .. that cur~ent re.lueu~~ affects the

'.ally .truetu~. In urban are.s where ~.rnl&atlon and

lndu.trl&ll~tlon pla, l~.~tant rol&$ the chances of change In

... the attitude to.ards I •• lly 11v1ng arraageaente ... t be aore

than in tbe rural are... Consequently a larger num~ 01

nucl.a~ f.aillos are expeoted to be found In urban than tn

ruzal areas. To quote O •• al (1964, Ill), ·the belief that

urbanization leada to the braak up of tbe joint family ayat ..

ia yery widely prevalent and baa • '.1.1y loog standing.· aut

this view 18 Dot unanlmoualy agreed upon by scholars. The

.ain p~oblem i8 oentred around the definition of jolftt 'a.ily

given by different authors. 1ft tbe economically developed

countries lnor •••• d ~banlz.tlon and Industrialization ...

acooepanled by a la~9.r p:oportlon of ftuclaar f •• l11eB. This~

accordlraJ to C .... lr. (1956, 4 quoted in R •••• 1967, 21.> I. the

outcome 01 ·8Y~ryth!ng oGBbl".~ ••• Institution. inconststont

wltb the aoed. of an Indue trial SOCiety -are 810wly unde~lned

•••••• Thus, It .. y not be • .tt. unaaie to hypoth.si •• tba'

nuclea~ '.al1108 are more likely to be associated wltb urban

araj9 than with rural areas. Kapadia (1966, 296) In ex .. lning

tbe etudles conducted by De •• 1 aad Shah 1D auoda aDd A_dabad

~aspoctlvely found that In BarOda the per cent of joint f •• l11 ••

in urban a~ea •• ere only 64.0 per ca.t o.-pared to 78.6 per cant

In rural .~eas. Tbe corresponding figure. for A'-edabad .. re

60.6 per c,)nt and 75.4 per cent respectively. Driver (1M3. 44)

a180 fOUnd i direct relationship betw.en joint fa.l11e. aad rural

residence oontrol11ng for age of wife In his s~ud, of Nagp~

district.

Curent r .ideDce .froct~ th~ U~~ of contra~optlon ••

49

.ell. A, the o:;ciot, .OVe. up In the rW"al-urban continuum

the bouloholJ J'o ••• "elatlvely unimportant as a producing

unit and the ocono~lc signifloance of oblld~en decline,

appa"ently. .~ lao in Ul"ban .et up wbere primary .duca tlon 1.

required and nlnlmum a~e labour la.1 are onforced, large number

of children bOCJm.s a liability. This wlll develop In the

.'nds of cou)lo~ a feeling to lll:2it tho SiZl of the fa.lly.

Ioreover 1n u~~an area$ tbe availability or contracept1ve •

.,111 be wuch h1Jb~H' than in rural areas. ~ilndokar and .Jandekar

(19~3. 144) In their su.v~y of Poona dlst~lct found that &.9

per cent o~ ~ha urban couples and 1.~ por cant of tho ru:al

couple. pra:tiooc contrd~eptloo. aven when abstlnancc and

coitu£-lntcrruptus we~e exoluded f"om the methods of c~ntra­

ception pr')~tl~~d, the rural-urban dlff8:cnc'~9 persisted. Th.

perconta]c \'JO:O tnen .educed to 4.~ In urb£lo and 0.7 In rval

areas. In !lorth ~atara district of the Sta t. of Maharathtl"a

(Sovani an'- "'~·Jotar, 19~~) It nal reported that In rural ,real,

0.7 pel" cant oi the msl •• practised oontraco~tlv.s a. ,galnat

3.~ pe. cent 1n the urban areas. M.non (1967. 14) ~.ports •

negative cor~olatlon (-.27) between rural residence and attltude

towards faoily plannin~. He found urban people to be cor.

recaptlve to birtb Gontrol than thoae in ~ural area~.

No~ally census classification of urban area. are

ac cepted to dot,)rmlne urban residents. But 1n !(erala. aany

places tha~ claim tho statua of urban areas according to censuS

definition are not actually 10. To quote NarayaDan (19741 39)

-.any places f/hich clatmed the statue of a town on tho basl.

of population l:1d not have pl"oDlnent urban characteristios

bec~use they are essentially agr1cultural areas.- To qu~te

again from the name •• urce,

the co~'.)oI'atlon, r.lunlclpal towne, cantonment and town­ship ~:o ~ tiC$a urban area.. But the other cansgs t~~n6, ••• , are recogniaed 88 urban only on the basi. of the co .copt of a tONn adopted in tho ce~sus and they arc p~:~~ of rural ar •••••• (pp. 46-47).

Therefore i:l ~~udy residents of corporation and municipal

towns alone Q~O :ecognlzed a. urbanites and all others are

treated a8 rural dwellors.

It 15 =a~03nlze~ thftt In a study of fertilIty and

fertility rclat>Jd factors, it Ie the rural/urban c~al'.:1':tel'l.tlcs

of tho place · .. ;ho.:o both bUlb.ad and \'llto $::H~nt .oat of thell"

•. v is DOra lmpo~tant than the na~uro of the pla~.

:lol13cted

rega~dlng ~othw nut still curren! rusldonco ~as usod because

thero is no~ ::luc!l of a~dlf'3renc. betwile .. tho pla..:.e where the,

ll"Jed long ~a:o:o l'DaJ:'rl_~(l and their cur=ent re~ldenco.

3.2.6 CU£r9Jl~ g ~9 of rJ1f9'

The f30·:'0:9 that are affected by aaa are education, _ge

at aa:r18;o. ~ar~tlon of .arriaga, desired family .lze, us •• f

contracept1on ~nd number of ohlldren ever born. The relationship

of age and thoJQ variables will be exaalned one by one.

It iG a",~lJmed that 1I0at of tbe wOfIen cOliplate thel!'·

for .. l education Dafore gettlnJ married. Tbe ralatlonshlp

bet'/oe" tho:lo 't~"iO v'l'iabl.$ results both from chanllls In tb.

opportunities available for education. In the .o~d. of ~aA1

Sahib of ~angl1. as quoted by doss (1967. 210).

Tbere .a •• tt.e wnen the education of girls had not O81y no supporters but open onemies In India. r~al. education .a. by now gOGe t~ough all the .taJ8s - total apathy and Indifference. rid1cule. critlcllm. and acceptance. It may now be lafely stated that anywhere in India the need for education for Jirll •• muob al for boys is rocegnized a. a cardinal noed of progros. - a I1aa ~ Ria of national progress.

aut aOSI hlaae1f .ta~. tbat girls· oducation baa not

.. calved a. muob i.portanee as boys· yet. Higher education 0' girls 1. a very ~GCGnt innovation and ~o.s found 1n ber analy.1s

of Hindu f.aily in urban areaa, the .others to be l •• a educated

tban tbe daugbters (p. 212). Tbe 1mplication of all these

factors s.e •• to be that tbe .08eo in younger age group are .uch

.ore likely to be more educated than tho.e In tbe older age group ••

A number of studies have establishod the exiatance of a

relatlonshlp between currJnt aJo of woaan and her ale at .arriage.

It ia suspocted that older -o.ea might have got .arried at an

earlier aJo than tbe ,0Uftge~ ODes. Por Instance. Agarwala (1~7.

96-107) found tbat for .la cohorts with aid-points 1696, 1906.

1916. 1926. 1936 and 1946 tbe respective .ean age at •• rrl.~e •

.. re 12.7, 13.0. 13.'. 12.~. 14.9 and 11.3 ,eara. The fall i.

~ ... an ,ears fro. 13.5 ,..rs to 12.' ,.ars during the delade

1916 to 1926 was the r •• ult. according to Agar •• la (1957), of

the pa&.la~ of the Cbild .arr1a~e lestralnt Act 1n 1929.

Aocordlng to tbis bill. tbe .in~um age of .arriaga for gl~l •

• a. 14 ye 3 ra and for boys 18 yeara. The pub11c took advantage

of tbe period between the introduction of the bill in tbe

.. Legislative AIseablV of Ind1a 1n 1921 and ttl passing 1n 1929

,. arrango • number of child .. rr1ag •••

AD .xaalnatlon of the various decinnl.1 cenaue of Poona

by Oandokar and nand.tar (19531 9) lndicated a contlnuoaa

decline (excluding the year 1901) ln the proportion of ev ..

.. rrlod vo.en 1n the age group 1o-1~. Tbe results _ere In •• cb

census year .56, .64, .60, .49 and .33 resp.cttvely. In centra'

Indla, D.:-lver (19631 65) reports tbe lIedlan a~. at .arrlaJ8 10.

tbOi. ab4ve 3~ yeara as 12.9 and for tholo under 3~ year. aa

14.7 years.

A path ... all. ~a.a from a;e to effective duration

of .a&rla~ot beCauaa c~~.nt a~ •••• ~t. It& influence on

obildren ever born through dUration of .arrlage a180. The

relationship oan be expressed .1 •

Iffecttve d~ratlon 0' •• rriaga 2 ourrent ag. - ag8 at .ar~lago - p.riod of IpOUS. '$ absence

Thul with.,. given age at .arr1aga, _.n In the hlgh.r Ige group

will havo a lORger durat10n of .arriage ~ .. pared to thOle wbo

are In the l ... r a~e group ••

Th. rel.tlonahlp bet •• en Ige and desired 'aal1y sl.e II

also .ortb notlng.. Of late a change In the trad1tlonal

.ttltude t~/ardl f •• l1y Ilze .a. noted. The younger gen.~atlOD

a13bt be ao~ •• du~ated aDd .~. receptive to ne. id.... The,

•• V desire .ore independence and a blgher standard of living

Wbicb involvos all kinds of coafortl. recreation and lel.ure.

A largo family alae will be • hindrance to tbl. upward aocl.l

mobility and tbe=ofore It 18 aore than 11kely tbat younger

women wl1l deslre a amall f •• l1y 81 .. tban older wo.en.

the rolatlon.blp bet-oen ... of oontraception aAd ag •

• t ... f~om tbe fact th.t .... n belonging to tbe older generation

wll1 not be In favour of f.al1y planning .ompar.d to the younger

aeo.ratlon. In the words of Sen Gupta (196e1 44),

••• the .other-to-law being of the older scbool. do •• not favour birth control aa '.r way of thinking Is deter.lood largely by tbo tradltional value. ~lle on tbe other band the youDger daughter-in-law often .elcoa. ~e Idea of faally planning •• the utility of the .... ba~ been cODmunlcated to her through v~rloU8 .o~ls.

Ibe number of ch1ldren evor born 1. a function of the

age of woman. Otber thin;. r •• alnlng equal the older a .....

11 tho greater .111 be the number of children she will h3ve.

In Luckn~1 cltv the ... n live birth was 0.1 for thoae aged l~19

y.ars and -.5 for those aged fifty years and above. In betwe.o

tbe.e t.o aJa ~roup. ~e ••• a oontlnuou& lno~ea •• In ....

11ve births.

3.2.7 fJgugdltx - •• Iyalll'ad by ''- "'RARd ... he"glt. feoundlty. tbe phy.lologlcal abl1lty to ~producQ. 1.

a .. Jor factor In deteralnlng fertility. 8ut thl. l~ not a

.artabl. that 1s ••• Y to measure. ~r ~blnJG being 'qual,

f •• and wooeD will have a larger numh9r of ohlldr.ft ~.red to

eGb-fecund women and sterlle .... 0 ~nnot b.v~ any children •

• ecundlty affects birth lntorval, use of contraception

and tho number of blrtha. The number of oontha wltbln whlcb •

54

woaan gets pregnant when exposed to the risk of pregnan~y

depends upon the ease with whi~h she can get pregnant. Thus,

those who cannot get pregnant easlly, that is, those who have

fecundity impairment of one nature or the other, will have a

longer first birth interval than others. Su~h wo.en will not

go in for contraception as they w1ll not be able to have

~hildren as easlly a. others. At the sa •• ti.e, fecund women

will be practising ~ontr~ceptlon wlth a vlew to prevent

Improvident pregnanci~s.

Th. relatlonship between fecundity and children ever born

ls also very obvloua. the fecundabillty (monthly probability

of con~eption) of fe~und wo.en being high, the chances of their

having more child~en compared to sub-fecund women allo will be

high.

1l!~ variable Is the result of a direct question put to

the respondents, viz., whether according to their personal

.xperience they consider it difficult for them to get pregnant.

It seems to be a reasonable assumption that the wcaen concerned

is in a better position to deter.ine this matter - leaving aslde

the clinical aspect - and hence thla question. If the anawer

i. 'no' she is conSidered as fecund. If, on the contrary, the

answer Is 'yes', then she was asked to explain the circua.tance.

that led her to reach that conclusion, and she is considered a.

SUb-fecund.

Usually this factor 1. derived rather than asking

.. II

directly. Tho lnd.x u&ually used to m.asu~e focundlty 13 the

fl1'st bl:th lnto:val (which will be dealt with lat(u"). aut

tbos~ who h~.·_ oxporl.nc~d at leaat one prognancy and could not

have any 00:0, have been fecund at the b~Jl~nlng of their

roprojucti~l 11.e. Thus, 1f first birth interval a10no 1.

considered this w111 conceal the .ffect of sub-feoundity, If any,

If it happonod o~ly after the first live birth. But the

concerned wooan will be in a pOSition to evalua~e har own

fecundity a~~ius. Therefore, this stUdy 1s taking the risk of

Introducin J this ROW variable and hope tha~ this wl11 not result

In co.mlttlnJ any .erious mistakee Thl~ focundity variab1.

18 clasalflou in~o two, via •• (I) sub-fecund and

(11) fecund.

3.2.8 ~2r5 inuo ••

Qon .... ly an Inverse rela~lon8hlp botween duration of

wlfe's work oxpori~nc~ and fertility are found. -Present

partiCipation oi work i8 very daclsively related to a patter.

of 10w.r f':lrti:lty" (Kupln.ky, 1971. 3!J6). In hls study 01

A.orlean fanilics, Kup1naky (1971. 356) found that when a

woman spcnJs a larger proportion of her mar:lad 11f. In the

labour forc~ bor oxpeoted and actual fertility were lower. This

wa. true in ~ll the different aje groups. This, it Is attributed,

11 mainly .uo to the lnvolve~9nt In the non-familial activitl~3.

To asaGne t~~ do]roo of involv~ment In tho ~ork, bedovlsed.an

index which :~..: CJ l12d the "\,lork Index.- This index is computed

al the-nUDbo~ of years worked during aarrlaJo as a per cant of

the :unber of Y0<1r8 aarrl.d- (Kuplnlky, 1')711 3!>6).

66

Kuplnaky', (1971a 3~6) .o~t lnde. I, adopted for the

present analysls. The expectation i. that the largor the

value of the Index ,caller .111 be the nuaber of cbildren.

3.2.9 19Q=pscYRltloQll lniall'

Ron-occupational lnoaa. 1. a part of f.al1y lncoma and

It al.o .ffects the •• In realon for woaen'. partioipatlon In

the labou~' forco. Ron-occupational In ... refer' to any

income accruing to tbe l8art'lod couple fl"OII aourc~~ otber thaa

their occupatlon. When t~ occup.tlo~.l income of the husband

Is small or nil, Income from other sources w111 be very helpful.

But if tbis lnco.Q al&o ia auall or nil the l&ally will bg

hard-pr ••• cd for aoney. Tbi$ will force woaan of the faally

also to participate In wort to earn somo extra money to meat

tho need& of the f.ally. ThuI, wi tit a _all OCCUPil tlonal

lncoae. the smaller tbu non-occ~patlonal ~lcome of the family

greater will be the ch~nces of the ....... partlclpQtlon 1ft

wo.k due to flna.no1al nQt:da.

1.2.10 r~:'12~ of am.... IbM PM'

This pertod ~CfurG to the porlod of ~b$~ncc o! ol~.~

hUGband oX' w:'fCt. in ~th'!:;:, ;,·:~r~r. thG pGriod du.-lnJ which t.he

husband aDd wlfa .... n~t 1.1 v ln~ toge thor. Bl.'oadly 3~akl.g

tbl~ can be the result .1 vit~~r death or 8cpar~tlon of one or

the othGr .pOU$o. But the pr~~ent aaapl. population ~on.l.t.

only of cu~:cntly married W~~.ft and thereioru absonce du. to

death Is ruled out. raking aepardtlon a. a factor it can be

either peraanent or teaporary. Again tbe • .-ple •• elud ••

caae. of peraanent or s.eparat~lJ. Thus 1n the p .. esent study

only t .. porar, a.paratlon la iaportant. This can be due to

a~veral ca.... If the husband u tbe wlf. Is enpged In a

Job tbat Is transferable, a t~an.f.r of Oft. will be the cau.e

ef separation unless and until a0.8 arrangoment II .. dQ for

~ to live together. Another situation which results 1 •

• ep.ratlon Is wben tbe husband Is eaployed In an entirely

different place. as ts ofte .. tbe Cas. of allitary personnel.

sAd the wi'. Is In the beBe town. ret .notber situation .. atly

.. ong Hlndu& •• , be due to the practloe of going to the pa=entsl

~oae for eonfln .. ent. This will increaa. ~e poat-partua

.eparatlon period. How the period of epo .. e·s ab.~neo aff ....

offectlve duration of marria~ 16 e~sy to understand with tbe

bl1p of the following equation.

affective duratlOft of .. rrl.~e (~DM)

rnM •

Therefore

•

tid period of • To. uration _ .pouse's 01 .urlag. (roM) "'senGG (PIA)

CUI'rent age (~ )

- 8JQ at aar:lage (AU)

Thus with a o}lvGft age and a '.liven ~ge .1at Illrr~a~e ,long&.~ the

period of .po .... 's absence, .. '1o~tar will be tJ\e .ffectlve

duration of m .. ~la~ ••

3.2.11 "!I·'APD.f 'A'" Tbe level of education bas a .. anlngful effect on •

.... n's a~titude In general. on ber occupation and on her cbl1d

.. beax-lng and rearing activltle.. In the wOl'da of Schulta

education may affect the par .. '.' ••• 'ere.oe fo. children. It assuredly affecta the earnlngs 0' woaen who onter the labour force. It evidentl, .ffects the productivity of mother in the work they perfo~ in the hJusehold including tho ~arlng of thelr children • ••• It undoubtedly afiecta the ability of parents to oontro1 the auaber of births (19131 ~S-59).

The number of months a .... n worked before .arrlage

depends upon the number of yearl of achoollng ahe haa had.

That la, for .o.oa .lt~ a give. 898 at .. rrlage, the higher

the level of education the ama1ler will be the number of .ontha

workod. In the oase of fara workers, construction workers aad

tbe 11ke It is observation and practice that .attor .ore rather

than education as such. Thus one will find the. l.aving Ichool

.uoh earller than the others. The observation made by Patnalk

(1951) regarding drop outs from aChoola may be recalled In thia

context. He found the low caste, low inoomo children dropping

out of Ichoo1 val', of tan •• 1nly bocause they have work at hoae

and because tbelr pacent8 would like to apprentice them f«r

tbelr ca.te occupatlona. So these people will start .o~kln~

very early In liie compared to tbe ao-called wbite ~ollar.

workers, who neud longer year& of aohooliR9 to ~et tbel~

oecupatlona. Here. it 1s bypothesiaed that, given tbe age at

.arria~e. the earlier one joins tho labour foreo the longe~

wll1 be tho perlod worked before .. arriage .•

&duoatlon 1a another factor that aff.cta the age of

•• rrlage. Schooling of .08en afteR .ar~l.ga la rare in tr~dl­

tional aoeleti •• and Indl. 'a fto exception to this general

• ..... rvatlon. In tlae ujorlty of ... s education ls __ b'

by wo.en b,cau&e of the •• te~I.1 .dv .. tage. it provide. ~

with, and thoso wbo de. Ire • p.~tlcul.r level of .duc.tlon,

.... l.v .. the goal be'H. gettl"g .. nled. This .apll'atlOft

will d.pond upon the cbildhood baokground of the wo..n (11k.

parent's lnoome, thell' .ducatlon etc. which ar. not considered

•• re). Yet .notbel' argUDent. Is that lact of lultab1. a.tch ••

t •• p the wo.." ln school to avoid idleness .t b ....

In Pataa (O •• ograpbic R •••• ~Ob Centre, 'atnat n.d.) the

.... t .arrtage was 12.98 for illiterate .o.en and It Incroased

t. 19.30 for wo..n with eduoatlon beyond •• tl'loulatlon. In

Lucknow, Satlona (19731 34) r.ported a pro~esslv ••• ductlon

In the percentaJ8 of tbos~ who ~ot aarrled before "aching t.he

a~. of '~.nty .s tba level of education lnoreas.d ,~ nil to

post-graduate lavel. The perc.nta~G was 93.6 fo~ Illiterates

and 17.9 f~ post-gruduates.

Ja lagpur district where wo.en .. re clasalfled by .ge

at .. ~rlag. aDd educ.tlona1 level attalned It was 'ound that

the •• dlsn ag. at •• rrlage lnol' •••• d from 13.4 to 1,.n and 18.4

al the level of oducatlon Incre.aed from .ero to pl'lmary to

above pl'l •• ry level.

1ft r.lvaneZ'UD Cit, (De.ographio Research Centre. 1961)

a gradual Increa •• in tbe age at •• -'ri.CjJe •• ob8arved with .n

lncrea •• In the .ducational st.andard. That la, tIM age at,

.a~~l.~. was 18 ,eara for tboae up to tbe p~IQ.ry achool level

aad 22 years I •• tboa. with. de,. •• or dlploaa. In rural

lerala (Na,ar, 1914) tbe •• an ag. at •• rrlage for thoae with

• duration of .arriage of 1-4 yeara rose from 18.1 ,ears for

the llliterat •• to 24.~ ,.ars f~ \be graduates and above. The

corresponding f1gar.s for the urban Karala wa. 18.3 ,.ars aad

2~.O ,earo ~Gpectlv.ly. -ben the duration of aarrlage .a.

10-14 years, tbe .ate rOle In r~al Kerala '.om 11.1 ,ears I ..

11litorates to 20.4 'or b1gh school graduates. Similarly In

urban ~rala tb •• ate was 16.8 ,ears for illitorates and 2~.1

for graduate. aDd above. tb ... It oaQ •• f.l, ... bypoth.slaed

that the larger the pa.lod of scboollng hlgber will be the age

at •• rr1ag ••

Tho Aevel of education detera1no, the occupation 1ft •• a'

of the cases. Thus tho people _0 ar ....... d In unskilled

.. Dual work aeed little or no edUcation compared to those wbo

.ork in factories or in ot"r profe.alons. Hence it ta assuaed

tbat for .. l schooling precede. work otber tban purely aanual

and that .choollng deter.ines occupation. Driver (19621 29)

disGus.lng the .ffect of oa.te on occupation .tat •• tbat -tbe

differeaces .. oag the castes 1n tbe~ oGcupatlonal distribution

may be attributed in part to dlfl.renGes aaoRg th •• in educational

attainmonts.- It is generally observed that higher education.l

ranks aro .ssoclated with occupation. of blgbe~ .tatua. D~lye~

(1"2. 30) further reports that .xcludln~ cultivators, -the

per Goat of persofta having Bore than p~1Dary school education

deol1Des rather unlforaly as ODe moves fro. the h1gbest

occupational category to the l ... at on •• -

A.ong the r.aSon. fo~ .0~tlnJ glvem by wo~tlng wa.e.

one Gould flnd the •• nt10n of ' •• klng uae of education' ••

one. POl' this reason level of education can be trQ~ted .s

one of tha dete~lnanta of tbo va~lable 'reason for worting'.

'erlona wltb blg~r education ~lv. tho reason for .0~t1n~ ••

to •• t. u~~ of euucation than economic DG00561',.

the .elatlonahlp be .... n education and deai~ed f.mll,

siae seu.' to be operating mainly throu~b tho percoption of

.lt~rnatlve lulfl~ents avallable. According to , .......

(quoted in Heor, 1969. 1906),

with &n~ ••• ed education and lltoracv tbe population beooaes Involved witb the ide.s and inatitutlons of • largor aod'lrn oulture. If the lncUvljual la, or b.l1ev'. he 11, part of a larC}or non-faMilial syat .. , be begins to find rewards In 8001.1 relatlonablp fo~ _lch la1'901" rnlmb;)r' 0' Oh1ld::-en become Irrelevant.

Alao, Heer (1969.1.09) oplnus tbat a .iso 1n the

level of edUcational aspirations for Cbl1d~en .111 lead to •

rlae 1n tbe ooat of Ghl1dren. tbis ml~bt .. ke them doclde to

reduce the number of Ob1ldren.

M'~r education, thus, It .e~.a cao be as.ocl~ted with

lowe~ QUDber of de.1red f •• l1y slzo.

Edu~tloQ and p~.ctlce of contraception al-. are related.

AccordlnJ to A.lan Populat1on Study 3erles r''''''r 16 (~Itod

lations, 1914) 1n India, a.GDJ the 1111tQrato urban people tb.

percentaJo of thoao who practiaod family pl.nolng ••• 19.5 and

62

this had ~is.n to 62.~ a. the level of edvcatlon ~83Cb.d

seoondar, and uulvorslty level. 1ft rural aroas 7.6 per cont

of the llJ.ltoratos practl •• d family planning while the

corresponding percentage for those with 1-6 yO':ll:'~ of schooling

.a. 13.9. Thus, In order to find whether education actually

helps to oxplaln differ.ncal In the use of contrlceptlon a

patb .as drawn from education to USc nf contr.aceptton.

Work experlonce before .. rrlage directly affects malnly

iho aJe at ma ~rlage. In a study conducted in Ke .. ala In 1914-"m

(wbe.'fJ the respoQdeD:'. were po.~-grdlduatos) rCr~.rdlng

a6rrlageabl1ity and b19b~r education of woaen It was found tbat

pa-",eDts .. t tle tl1elr ull4HDployed daughters a. early as possible. Tbe •• played women generally walt for confi.~tlon in service bof~:e getting ~arrl&d •••••• . \ t tlaos a personal choJlco Is lIad. by an em?loyed .ooan with r'.!gard t:» .ar1'la)e partnol.'. If thls doe. "ot moot witb pa:"ontal approval there is further delay (MA .tudonts. C.M.S. Collage, 19~).

Tbus, work experience before marriage could l,ad to bigbar age

at urrlaJe.

~or the p~rpoao of thtl analysis, the actual ~umbGr of

aontba tlarklJd be fo::e II. ~-:la'Jo wsa COiaputed aDd used.

A~e at mar:l.J~ as.u. •• l.portaGee In a atudy of ferti­

Ilty In Indla partly b~c.u.e tbe aJo at m&rria)e la very low

and becaus. lt haa baOD aUJ1ested th~t an lncc0a~Q 1n ago at

aa~.laga will help ~o red.G. tba higb 'e~tl11ty lovel.

62

this bad risen to 62.~ a. the level of education ~.a~ed

.eoondary and wllvorslty level. In rural area. 7.6 per cont

of the illitorate. practl •• d 'aally planning while the

correspondlng percentage for those with 1-6 yo)r~ of schoollng

wa. 13.9. Thus, In order to find whether aducdtlon actually

help' to explaln dlffor.ftc~, In the uae of contr:lceptlon a

path ... drawn frOID education to usc ~f contr.aception •

• o~k experienco before .. rrla~. directly affect, .. lnly

~bo a98 at •• crlage. In a study conducted io Ke~ala 1n 1974-~

(wbe~o tbe re.pondents were pOlt-gr4duat.a) r09ardlftg

"rrlageabllitv and hlgber education of women It .as found t", pa~eftto sectle their unemployod daughters .1 earl, .a po~slble. Tbe •• ;>loyod women generally walt fo. c.onf i~~ma tion in .ervlce DO f ure get t,lnJ uarrlad •••••• • \ t tiaes a personal cholco Is made by an em:)loyed _.ao w1th l"f.!gard t:» aurla Je partno~·. If this doe. not moot wltb parental approval there Is further delay (MA .tudonts, C.M.S. College, 19~).

Tbus, work experience before marriage could lead to h1gher a~e

at urrlage.

10r tho purpoao of thla analys18, tho actual numbor 0' .onth; tlork"d bGfo::e ilia ,-:10l0 \1S1 computed aDd used.

Age at mar:l.J_ aSlu. •• laportance in a Itudy of ferti­

lity 1n India partly because tbe aJo at mar~ia)e 1s very low

and becaus, It haa b-len '''JJested th&1t a4 lnc.r,)a~(J In ago at

.. ~.lage w111 help to rd •• ce tbe nl~h fo~tll1ty level.

Age at .. reiag. affeots fertlllty ln Bore than one .ay.

Plrat, It worts through tbe .~chanl.m of duration of marriage.

Holding oonstant the current 8J8 01 .... n. one can ,ay that

the older.a .oman la when she got ... r~led, tho shorter will

bo ber duration of .arrla~e.

Socondly, age at .arria.;. refl.Gt. the lev.l 0' .. turl',

a woaan has reacbed .bile •• terlag Into .. trlaony. A girl .ho

get. aarrled in .a~ly tecnG .il1 be In need of Qore protection

and will bo oore 01 • depeadent compared to one wno g8ts .arrled

lat~l'. It Is likely tbat ~bl. depen...:ence Ita'tUS wl11 beooee a

part of ber natuce end sbe .1~bt pretor to listen and obey rather

than dlae.1 and adviso. A girl who gets raa ':led ,ft:.r utuit,

will be mora able to ass.*t and protect b.rs~lf ~hl1e h.r young

counterpart ·pas9 •• throu~h tensions all alone and attempts ,.

adjuat borself to the situation, relying, as every Hindu woman

does. on the mercy ot Jod and laeklng her consolation in tbe

pbllolophy of K,r,,-(Kapadla. 1956. 155) •• o~.oyer late

.. ~~lage w111 help to br~.k t.t trldlt10nal a;tltud. b9twe.n

huoband a~ wlfe and a new system of equal autho ... ·lty and 11101'.

companlonablp will devel~p. This ch~nged .1~uatlon -111 l.ad

to changes in the tUllly behavloUl" a ••• 11. Under this .1tuatlon

the~Q wIll be .Ore uad.r.t&ndln~ bet.eea husband aad wlf.. Tbe

ehlnCQI of thoir dlscu5$lRa t •• ll, .. tte~., e.p~cl.1ly ~Gl.tlng

~o pa.aonal aattcrs l1ke number of children tney Ibould bave,

al.o -111 be bi~b. A~aln bee.UI. of tbe autual undGrJt.ndlng

that exist' bot.von them tbe p.obabl11tl of ~belr a~o.lnJ to •

Age at .. r:lage altects fertillty In aore than one way.

'lrat, It worts through tb •• ochanl,. of duration of .. rrlage.

Holding oonstant the current aJe 01 WODen, one can eay that

the older,a woaan is when sbe gote .arrled, tbe aborter will

be bor duration 01 .arrla~e.

Socondly, age .t saarrla,~e reflect. the level 01 uturlty

a wo.an bas reached wblle entering lnto •• trlaony. A girl wbo

geta .. rrlod 1n early teoaa will be 1n neod of more protection

and wl11 be more of a a.peedeat OODpl$ed to one who gets .arrled

latar. It 1s llkely tha t. tb18 d.p.n.'~nee s ~atus w111 bocOile a

part of bar natu~e and ,be ml~ht pref~r to listen And obay ratbar

than alacuat ana advlso. A g1rl wbo gets •• :~led aft~r D&turlt,

will be .ore able to aas.it and protect bers~lf whl1e ber young

counterpart ·passes t~oulh te~.ionl all alone and atteepts , •

• djuet bo~~elf to the situation, relying, as every Hindu wo..a

does, on tho mercy of Jod and s,.ting ber oonsolatlon 1n tbe

pbl1oaophyof Ka~ma·(Kapadia. 1~6a 155). ~o:eovar late

.arriage will belp to br~.t tbM trldltlonal a~titude b9twoen

huobaAd and \'fife 8nd a new ayate. 01 equal &utho.~·lty and more

oompanlonship w111 devel~p. Thi. changed .1~uatlon w111 lea.

to cbanges ln the faal1y behavlov aa •• 11. Under tbis .1tuatlon

the~e will be .Ore UDderetaodloi betwueft husband and wlf.. Tbe

cbancQI of tbolr dlscusslna ta.llr .. tteza, •• p~Glally .olatlng

to p0460nal .atters 11ke n~.r of chl1dre8 the, ehould nave,

also w111 be higb. Aial~ bee.u •• of tbe autual und.~~t.nd1ng

tbat .x16~& bat.v.n th.~ the p~obabl11t1 of ~bel~ a~oQlnJ to a

Age at .. rrlage affeota fertl1lty 1n .ore than one .ay.

o lrst, it worts through the a~cb.ni_m of durat10n of marriage.

Hold1ng oonstant the CUl'rent _.Ie of wom.n, one can say that

the older ,a .... n 1. when sbe gata married, the ahorter w1ll

bo hor dur~t1on of .arrla~e.

Socondly, ag. at .arria ...18 ref leat. tbe lovel 01 .at,",l ty

a woman bas reacbed .bile enterln9 into matrlaony. A girl .ho

gots marrlod In early teona w111 be 1n need of ~Ore protection

and will bo oore of a dep-.de.t eomp.zed to one wno gets .arried

lat~r. It 18 l1kely that tbi& depeacence status wl11 bocoae a

part 01 bel' natu~e and ,~ ~l~bt praIaI' to 11sten And obey ratber

than dlsc._ and adv1lo. A 91.1 wbo get •••. ~.~·led aft:.r DOt,",lt,

will be moro able to asaett and protect b.rs&lf ~hlle her youag

countcrpsrt "pas ••• throulh tenslons all alone and attempt' ,.

adjYlt hO:~01f to the sltu4tlon. relying, as every KindY woma.

does, on tho .er_, of God and ' •• k1n~ her Gon.olat1on In tbe

phllosophy of ~.rll·(Kapadla. 19561 1~~). .o:eovar lat.

marriage w111 b.lp to br~Hlt tao trldlt10nal 41<;tltude b!Jtwoen

husband 8Bd wife and a new syata. of equal authorlty and 1101'.

companlorlshl;-) wl11 devel~p. This cbaaged sl~u.tlon wl11 lead

to changes In the f.al1y behav1oUl' a ••• 11. Under this altuation

tbe:o will be mOre uaderst&DdlAi ~twe.ft busband and wlf.. Tbe

cbanc(ta of thoir d1scu"lAg fa.1l1 utt8Z'a, ~stl..;ci.l1V I"Glatlng

to p04Gonal .etters l1te n~.r of children they Ihould have,

allO wl11 be higb. Ai-1n bec.~.e of the autual undGr~tandlng

that exl&~s bQtw~on them the pI"obabll1ty of ~hell" a~o.ln~ \0 •

,-

,articular nunbor of ohlldren 1s allo bigh.

Another v-::rlable affected by aJe at lIarr1aJo 1& the

first birth interval (3akaeaa, 1913a 42). If a woaan gots

.l!'rlad duri:lg bel' early teen a Je there iG a possibility that

th.-operatlo~ of adolesc~nt Iterility w111 ~o~k tow~rds

lengthenin] tho Intorval (~hidaabar~z, 1967). Chi~ambaram

and ~odGgok3r (1969) analysing- the rolatlonship bet":can a'J-

at marrla;o ~nd lt~ lmpact on tbG first bl:th inte:val in

India foun~ a Gte~dy ~&ollnQ on tha first birth interval ••

aqe at ma:ri~:o increased. Compared to the othor stutCQ In

India the .;:'..1.": )~ :ocline was high 1n Mtrola. rbo :asan age at

affective ma:~id~o and the mean l.n~tb oi i~r~t bl~th interval

in rur .. l .«l-'..;.1.1 \'lore giveR by tiles a. belOtli ::nan til., !naan aye

at of .<ictlvc oa_'ria;)o Was ll.S;j V.4L'S, til~ Olean i i~~t aii.'th

interval wa$ 4.92 yeQrs. ~n.n the mean aJe at ma:~laJ.

increased to 16.71, 17.7~, 17.~8t 1'.~4, la.OS, and 19.2~. the

•• an interval doc~ea&ed to 3.30, 2.68. 2.5a, 2.09, 2.16 and

1.~9 rc~p~ctlvoly. Pakraal (1971) found 1n ~alcutta city al.~

a Iteady d~cl~no in the av.ra~e length of f1rst blrtb interval

with inc:easioJ age at .ar~l.g. 1n all social classas. Anothe~

study con;-'u~t·~d by Pak~a.l a4d Phl.tar (19731 103-110) allo

substant1ato this r.lult. Tbe analysis wac c.rried out for

three social class groupe 1n Calcutta. S0venty eight POl' cent

of class II, ilnd sixty foul' pel' cent of class II! had thoir

f 1rs t pre~nancy ta rill ina t10ll within thirty mOlltns from the t-1l1e

of .'factlvo 03r:1a-)8. Conlilderlng each a)'.: at lIar!"la')1l group

,~rtlcular nuubor of childre,. 1. also bl~h.

Aft~ther variable affected by aJe at marria;e 1& tb.

firs t birth i ~ .... '.ra 1 (Salese"., 1913. 42). If a WOIIan geta

.:s:-rled duri;)'J b~r 8;)rly teen a je there 1s a possibility that

theop.ratlo~ of adolescant sterility w111 ~o~k to~ards

lengthenin. ~~o interval '~blda.bar&e, 1961). Chi~ambara.

and lodegok:..= (1969) ~n81'r'Gin9' the I"olatlo!'lshlp betwQ3n ail-

at marrlaJc 30d Its i.pact on tbe first birth lnte:v.l In

Jndia foun: .:. ::.'i;oi..luy uEtcllnti on til", iir.t birth interval a •

• ge at IDa: riu JQ in~rea.ed. COCIpared to the otber stu teo in

India th: ": ::'If deoline was high 1n Karala. tho ",san Jge at

ef:ectlve mQ:~idgo and the mean len~tb oi i~r3t bl~th interval

In rurdl ,(0:.::1.1 weee given by the. a. belotu .:han til., !Allan aJe

at of.active oa_'ria~e was ll.6j ,eaL's, the mean iirst i1.l.'th

latarval waG 4.92 year,. .nen the G.an a~e at ma:rl.~e

lacreased to 16.11, 11.15, 17.~8. 11.~4, IS.OS, and 19.2$, the

•• an inter .'.::1 ,:ccrea.8d t.o 3.30, 2. 6S, 2.~at 2.09, 2.16 and

1.59 ro~pectlvoly. Pakr6al (1911) found 1n ~alcutta c1ty alao

a It.ady d~c1~no in the avera~e length of first birth interval

with lnc~ea5inJ ag8 at aarr1age 1n all social claaaes. Aftothar

study con;,'uct,~d by Pak~c.&l .4d 'Ill latar (l9131 103-110) a180

aubst.antlato t.his r •• ult. TbQ aaaly&is wa.G ~~rrled out for

three social class groupe 1n Calcutta. S0venty e1ght per cent

of class II, and s1xty four per cent of :lasc II! bad thoir

f 11'$ t pre~ns ncy te I'm ina tloll wi thin thirty mOllths from the tl ••

• f effect1ve oar:1a).. COIl$1der1n~ each aJ~ at marl"la',Ji) group

6~

a Itead, deoline in the averaJe later.al ••• notic.d with

every lncrea •• ln tho .~ •• t a.rr1ale In .11 .oclal cla •••••

• ~.lat1on.blp betw •• n a;o at ma~rlag. aad the confll0'

b.twoen tbo motb~r-worter role 0' a _oaan can al.o be lald te

be exiatlng. AI atated ear1ler, with lncraa.e 1n age,

•• turity also inerGa.... This .111 fortlfy W0.8n who marry

lata to organi.e thlngs properl, and to handle their r •• pon­

.lbllit1 •• wlth efficlency and care. T~ •• abil1tl •• w111

help them to reduce the rolo oonf110t. rurtbaraore, the, wll1

be able to think practlcally and will be able to oonslde.

tbe1r huabaQds a. oompanlons and partner. tn ltf.. they .ill,

tbu., be 1n a bettor pos1tion to w1n cooperatlon and belp f.om

their busbands to porlo .. even boulebold work .hieb traditlonall,

1. outslde the husband.- role 1t.it. On the oontrary aoat often

.... n who antar lnto .arital l1fe earl, wl11 b. reluctant to

g.t the husband to share ber b~deQ at homo even if she feel.

1t ls too much for her to b.ar alone. This ln lts turn .111

give r19c to oonfllct. Thus one wl11 expect tbe lnten,lty of

mother-worker role confllet to be high when the .o..n aarry .arl}

DlffereDt age ~~oup, wl11 ha1e differing f.oundabl11ty •

•• Ju.dar (1960, 161) found 6.9 childr)n for thoao who marr,

up to tho ale of 15, and 6.0 for thos~ who .erry .fter th •• g.

of 19 in Kanp~. Urlver (1963a &3) reports tbat in central

ladla tho .v~raJ •• .-ber of children .¥Q~ born for those wbo

aarrled b,) fore the a']. of 13 .a. ~.3, for thOle wbo aarr'"

66

between 13-17 y.ar. of ag8 .as 4.1, and for those wbo got

.. ~rled at a90 18 or above wa. 3.~. Thl. trend beld good .ven

.ben presont ale .f wlf •• a. controlled. In Yyaore population

stud, (U.~I. 1961. 119) It •• s found 'that the rural femalos who

got .arrled between tbe .~s 14 and 17 bad an av·.:rage of 5.9

oblldren whil. tbat of those wbo got married betwe.n 18 and 21

wa. only 4.7 childron.

In Bangalore city tbe av~raJe number of child:en born

to couple~ witb unbroken marrlaJo$ of 30 years and ovor .er.

6.3, ~.9, ~.o aDd 3.' for .')GS at .. :or1ag. uDder 14. 14-17, 18-21

and 22+ ,ears. In ~agpur district a strong ••• oclation betw •• a

ago at aarrlaJe and fertility, controlling for ajO of .othor,

.a. reported by Dr1.er (19631 84). ~ele (1962. 270-272)

obsorved tbat wo.en who .. rry early bay. a gro3t.r total fertility

rate than w.en .ho .arry at a lator 8;1e.

Ate at •• rrlage Is defined In tbe ' .... nt analysi8 as the

coopleted age of tbe wlf. at tbe beginning of ber first

effectlvo urrla}e.

3.2.14 iducatlog of hgsbanda

adUlAtion 1. tbe .aJor criterion that deteralnos occQPatlon.

The lovol of education a'f.cta occupation In th. sense tbat fo~

_oat of tbe job., educational qualification. are prG.c~lbed •

. 'aeily l1vlnl aZ' .. a"gelleftts are also found to dlfter .

accordlA; to ~hG l~vel of husband's education. According to

0 ••• 1 (1964. lU4). education

'7

could wGr& agalaat tbe joint , .. 11y· 1n two waya. It put bofore the people the concept of the type of fa.l1y contrary to tho pravall1n~ concept of Joint faol1y by eapbaalalftg the Individual. The othor way In which education 1s bellevad to have affected tho faml1I 1s by preparing tho oducands for occupations wbloh cou d not be found In thoir natlve places \'Ibo:o the prosont ho.e­.old lived. The .~arcb for occupatlons .altod to thel. educatlonal equipmeDt .. de thea llve 1n ••• ~ban area • • ad til ... eparate thea fw. tbe anceatr.l f •• l1y. The, lose contact with tho f •• l1, In courG, of t~ and imbibe ae •• a,. of liv1ng .nd thlnkln~ 'wom tba urban araa. such developaeats were auppOlod to be inimical to the jo1nt faai1, .eattaeat aad oonduclve to nucl.ar family.

A ftegatlve association betweon jo1nt family living and

busband'. l~vol of educatlon waa ~a~ted by Dr1ver (19638 II)

ln NagpYr diatrict. A.ong 111ltecate. 36.3 per coat were llvlng

1ft joint fa.l11es and aaon1 tboac wltb coll0go educatlon only

9.2 per ceot .ere under sucb living arrangements •

• t again,t tb. above, lt .ay be araued tbat the f •• l1,

11vln-) arrange_at .'fects education. But this Is only l' oa.

1, con.lderlft~ the ,tructure .f tbe feaily In .hlch a pers ..

1. broulbt UP. Tbi, argument i, immaterial as fa~ a. tbe p~s •• 1

study 18 concerned "c3uae tbe f •• l1y structure oonalder~d hera

1. tbat wblch .xlsts .fter aarrla.Je and not the one In wbleb

they .ere brougbt up. And since the fa.l1y formation 1,

comparatively recent oomparvd to oducation It .a. decided t.

extend tbe path fro. education to faailr .t~ucture rather than

tbe other way round.

HUGoaod t • education 1 •• aid to be deteraln1nJ practice

of oontra;eptlvos. 10 urban India tbe percentage wbo practised

family planning lncrea.ed from 11.S to ~8.0 when tho leval of

68

buaband" education incraa.ed f~o. illiteracy to fourtoen year.

or more of education. In .ural India tho corresponding

percentages •• re 1.1 and 32.4 ~e8PGctlv.ly (United natlons, 1974,

118).

the ra1atlonahlp b.t~een busband', education and fertillty

il such tha~ a. education Incre •• ea the level of fertility ooa ••

down. Th1s Q~1 be explalned in tar •• of chan Jed va1uos and

attitude. of people roga~ding fa.l1y building activ1tles whleb

accompany education. But some of the flndlngs that are reported

~egardlng tbe rolationsblp bet •• en these two variab1o •• ~e not

strlctly linear. Po~ e ... ple, Drlve~ (1963. 99-101) reports

tbat the weighted •• an number of ohlldren by education of bead,

control11nJ a~e, to be 4.7, 4.~, 4.3, 3.9, 4.3, and 4.0. But

Driver did not control for duration of .arr!_}, o~ any otbe~

loclo-economic va~lablel.

Education of busband 'e defined ae in the caso of wlf.'.

edUcation by tbe Duaber of 'cbool yeare ... p1ated.

3.2.15 Qccypatlan of hUlbaoda

Occupation of buaband e.erts its lnfluonce on fart111ty

througb income and role confllct. Aa the relatlon.hlp bet.eeft

incoae aDd occupation ia very .lear no att •• pt 1& .. de to

elaborate tbe point.

It aoe .. tbat bl~r occupation usually c.~rlc5 along witb

it higher reapon.ibllitiea. Tbe ~ol. expectations wl11 be more

at

a. Oft. ol1mbs the l.ddor of oooupatlone. Tbe •• a being the

bread winner of the faal1y oannot afford to do his wo~k any

le.a tban wbat Ie e.peoted of bim. fbi. rea.oning Is beside

tbe force .f atatus and prestige involved In it. Suoh peo~'e

ea, not bo In a position to give a helping band, even If they

.aat to, at baae to ea.e the .o~k of their wiveGe It baa a',.

been obeorved that even after ."lc8 hours .oet 0' tbe hlgb

officiall will flad tbelr tl .. b.ing taken up by engaJement

after office boue.. In .uch ..... their woaen will be finding

tho work of 'bth hous~ and office tO~9th.r a little tiring and

Gonfll,t of ~ •• two roles are 11kel, to arls ••

ao path 1& extended directly fr .. husband', oocupation

to children ever born becaUSe the relatlonsbip betweon husband',

.duoatlon and f.rtillty ••••• to be more strong than tbat

between buabaDd's OCCUpation and fertility. Alao as a path I,

e.tended froe busband's .duca~lon to fertility it doe. Dot a ...

neoes.ary to include one froo bi. occupa~lon alao as both education

and ocoUpatlon a:o olosely related. Sa.ea. roporta (196&. 144-

14') that occupation groupe (agrlo~lture. bus1aeaa aad artisan.

8ervlce. and labour) bad • slgnlflc8Dt .ffect on fertl1ity. BU'

when oaste waa controlled. tbat 1s con.iderlng only tho intor­

.edlate .. ate group, the occ~p.t1on.1 differencos cban~ed. Hance

he romarks.

These rata. ,how that wlthin tbe s •• e caet. the 01 ••• OOBpoaltlon of fertility 1s totally changed. Such. pattern of f~rt111ty clearly contrad1ct3 the 'Up~o51tlon that occupatlon, l'ke c •• to, 18 an lmportaAt d.t.~lnant of fertility ••••

· YO

Oc~upatloB doel not •••• to a' feet \be , .. 11,-bul1d1ftg pattern of the people. pos.ibl, because 1t la 1 ••• a.,oelated than 11 ... te witb tbe oulturBl patt.~fta .f~".ct.1D9 fertl1lty IUob a6 dlffeL'entlal ab,tlnanee perlodl and dlffereat d.~ ••• of taboo. on sexual bebavlour.

The occupation that II OOD.lder<~d In th1s .tueS, 1. that

which he ... following at tbe ".. 0' lntervle.. If be haa two

o. aore occupatloftS then that OCCUpation which brings hlm the

large,t lnc~ 18 taken lnto consideration. Tbo general .od. 01 classification i. ~b.t provided by Driver (1963. Appendix 2).4

In thls oontext the probl ... involvod In claG~l'ylng a

non-polnt varlable in the patb .naI1~1. wblch ••• discoased 1n

detall In Chapter II .. , be recalled. Tbe occupational cla,.1-

fl~atlon used 1n this analy.ls .long wltb the soo~. a"igned ar.

give" below_

9. li1~b.r pcofes.ions a"d admln"u.1 t,lon

8. Middl. ad.lnl$u,~tlOB

Y. Middle profes.lon

o. $kl1led indu.trial workers

4. un,tllled lndu.trlal worter.

3. Plantation worke.s

2. Otber unstilled .anual worker.

1. Para worters

o. Ufteaployed

----------------------------------------------------4 Driver" classltlcatlon ltself i •• 'light aodlfloatlon of tbe c1a~s:flc.)tlon adopted by the Gothal. Institute of Polit"lcs aDd acono~lcGt Poona, and ~lv.n In Sov&al'. Sogle1 survey o~ JCo1hapur CIty (vol. III) 1952. III the 'IJord"j of $ovanll~2. ~4)1 -In tho dete~lnatlo" of tbe grade botb locia1 and econoalc

ft

~.tlr.d p.rsons and pen.lon.rs .ere groupod .ccordlng

to tbel~ prevlou. occupatlon.l grade.

3.2.16 ",,-,pd" iDgom" Husband'. 1noa.. ~.f.rs to bil .onthly occup.tlonal lncoae.

s.t.ena (1973. ,~) ~epo~t.d a c1e.r lndireot relation.bip betw •• n

dlff.rent lncoae laval. and fert1llty. .ben tbe bus band receiYed

an inca.e of 1 •• s tban a •• 1~ the general .. rltal fertl1lty ~ato

••• 240 and It ca •• down to 80 wh.n this lnoo •• in ...... d te

~&.7~O. aut no patb ia dra.n froa husband' •• onthly 1nco •• to

f.rtlllt, ln tbls analy.l1 becaule It .ee •• tbat annu,l fa.l1,

lncoae la , bett.~ predlotor of fertl11ty tban husband'. lnco ••

alone. so It Is f.lt that husband'. lnoome .xert. Its Influence

on fertll1ty .,1nly t~ougb fa.l1y 1ncoae.

A large numb.r of .tudl ••• how that at a given tlme a

aarrlad woatn Is less likely to partlclpate In gainful •• ployment

lf h.r husband' •• arn1ngs are hl~b. In other •• rda, aarrled

wom.n'. -supply curve- of labour Is back.ard b.ndlng (a.try,

1968. 23). A few .xa.plas wl11 be clt.d fro. countrle. other

tban India where a l,rg. numb.r of studl.1 are conducted ln tbl1

partlcular area of r.searoh. Le.er (19$8) u.ln~ u.s. oensu.

data for the year 1940 found tbat a lower number of .08en work.d

for gain 1n tb. hiJber lnco •• group. Oatry (1968) ,110 found

4 (ioptd) factors .ere tat.n Into oon.ld.ratlon.... It 1. neeeasar, '0 note tbat In Indla no classlflcatlon could .ery. equally •• 11 the need for deacrlb.lnJ:..he loclal a. well as .oODalc atratl­flcatlon as 1t would ln, •• y, E~opean Gountr1esl because 1n this oountry tb. two •• t. of vllu •• do Dot ,et correspond to the •••• degree. At presGDt a g •• eral trend towards the b~lngln9 about of such correspondence 1. nottceable,-

11

R.tlr.d perlons and pen.lon.~s were groupod according

to tbel~ previoul occupational grade.

3.2.16 11I"ld·. lp'ge'. HUlband'l In.a.e ~efec. to hla aonth1y occupational lnco ...

iaklena (19731 7~) reported a clear indlre.t relatlonahlp b.tw •• n

dlff.~ent lncoee lQvel. and fertility. ~h.n tbe husband reoalv"

aD In.aa. of 1 ••• than a •• 1~ th. g.n.~a1 marital fertility ~at •

• a. 240 and It Caa. down to 80 wb.n thl. lncom. in •••••• d to

a •• 7~O. aut no path 1. drawn from husband'. aontbly lnco •• t.

f.rtility In this ana1Yll. becauae It aeo •• that .nnua1 fa.l1y

lno ... 1 •• bett •• predlotor of fertility than husband's In.o ••

alone_ so It Is f.1t that husband'. 1nooa ••• erts Its 1nfluenc.

on fertility .alnly t~ough f •• lly lncoae.

A large numb.r of studl.s sbow that at a glv.n tlae •

aarrlad .oaan 'I less llk.ly to partlolpate In g.lnful •• ployment

If bel' husbaad's •• ralngs are high. In other word., aarrl.d

.... n·s -supply Curve- of labour Is back.ard bendln~ (a.try.

1968, 23). At·} ... x •• ple •• 111 be cited frOil countrl()s other

than India wh.re a larg. numb.r of studl.s .r. conducted In thl.

particular area of resoarch. Leser (1~8) u.ln~ U.S. censua

data '0r th. year 1940 found tbat • lower number of .0800 work.d

for gain In the hlgb.r In .... group. Oatry (1968) al.o found

4 (sopid)

factors .ere take. Into .onsld.ration.... It i. necessary to note that In Indl. no cla~slflcatlon oould .erY. equally w.ll the naad for descl'lb.ln~~h. loelal a ••• 11 II econoale atratl­flcatlon a& It would In, a.v, a~opean oountrlasl because In this .ountry \be two •• t. of vllu.s do not ,et corrospond to the sa.e degre.. At presont a gen.ral trend towards the bl'lnglng .bout of sucb corr.apondence 1. notlceable,-

12

• fte~atlve association betw.en the variables under oonslderotlon

In ;anada. Jho found a highly ela,tle aupply curve of labour

a.ong aldjle and bi1ber Inoo.e group.. Tbat 1., tbe per cant

decline In ~8rticlpatlon for a given per cont lneroase In Inoo. •

•• , h1gb .mon] the olddle and high Inooa. groups (p. 25). thus

~y taking a CUe from these ,tudle. a path was drawn from hu.band'.

IncOile to the wife -. realon' for work participation. ,',8 the

••• ple population are .11 working w0ll8n the que.tlon of ~hether

they partlelpa~e or not do not arl,e. But the path Is drawn with

tbe expect1tlon that wbere the busband', Income 1. low, the

.... n·. participation will be mOltly due to pure aconomlc realona.

3.2.17 .tlle -9 rgasoQ for WQlklUI

vBe or tho way. throu~h whicb work partiolpation affect,

fertility i& tho reasons which pl'oapted the woman to partlolpate

In work. ...ccordlng to Tlen (1961) fertility Is affected by the

extent of Involveoent of women In t~ worker role. The extent of

Involvement aay be related to differential o .. ~ltments which In

turn 1. ba&~d on I'e~sons for wo.klng. It waa argued that ·w .. en

who are 001:1.11 ttod to their non-of i lclal role as a oal'eol' teod to

have .nd desl:o fewer children· (Kuplnaky, 1971. 3~7). Slml1.~

finding was notod In the wort of Wbelpton, Ca.pbell and Patterlon

(1966. 107-112). They found aaoog A.erleans the proportion wltb

'"pletely planned fertility to be hl~har among thoao who .o~k

because they li;:9 to work than t.hose who wos-Ie bec.luso they bavo to.

Tbis .e.a. to be sugae.tlve of tho fact tbat tho.e wbo wo~k

because of rc~sons other than financial w111 be using efflclent

contraceptl-..:o dovlco. effactlvely and conal.tontly so that the

fa.lly slzo ,,111 not. exceed aore tnan wbat they want It to be.

."

Stal.d otherwl ••• tho d •• Ire t. work en.oura;e tbe oonsclous

control of births. 51nce It app.ar. tbat tbe~. 1. a ~.l.tlon

.. tween the re •••• s fo~ .~'1.~ aad us. of contra;eptlvo., tha,

relatlon,hlp al.o 1s included In tbe analyala.

'o~k particlpation .. , be .... tt.e. due '0 the de.lre

'0 .ate a bettor utl11zatlon of tbe lelaure tl •• avallable and

,. get rld of tbe aonotony of the bou.ebold .bo~ea. A woaan

wlth amall dependent children will be fully engaged In looklng

after the.. But a, the obl1d b •• oa •• le •• dependent on her .b,

will Ilad tl.e banging over bar, and migbt feel dl.aatlafled

wltb ber lifo at boa.. under tbls clrou.stance e.ploy~nt belp,

to .att.,y the n~.d for peraonal fulllt.ent. Tbl. ~a.on .ay be

1.portant aostly In countries wltb • bigbly .oapl •• and dlver­

alfled .. ploy ... t .tructure whlch can provld. all .orts 01

.. ployaent op~ortUAltle. for Its .a.en. In Indla tho avallabllity

of part tla' job ls .tl11 aot v.ry oo.ao~ •• blcb lf ava11ebl.

would have helped tbe •• rrled .oaen to enga). In work 11k. ln

tb. oase ., .e.tern .ountrles a. and wben tl.e and opportunltle,

pe~.lt'.d. But t .. -two-pea.ed partloipation prollle- aa

d.s~1bed by OIt~y (1910) la not posaible In an ..,loya.nt

.tructure .a 1s available In India. But ttlll thi. GOuld be 0.. of tbe r83S0ns for Indian woaen to partiolpate. • .........

lere.e.lng this problem algbt tat. up a job when opportunitl ••

open up and go through the diffloult task of maintaining a

hous.hold, taking care of obl1dren and perfoZ'llln.j the duties

.. tslde bome 81.ultaDeou.l,. Under such cl~.ua.ta.ce. It a.lt

b. re..-be~ed ~t t~ wll.~otber-.orte~ .olas alJht conf11ct.

14

Other ~eason. oan be to lncrea.e social contact and

tbereby ~educe .oclal laolatlon •• ake use of education eto.

Mfrdal and Klein (1968) alao polntad out that

•••• any cases of .arltal f~lotlon and anbapplnesa .. uld be reaoved lf outside contact and ... tal atlaull, a. w~11 a' tbe whole lncoa. earning po.er. ..r. not partioularly tbe aonopolle, of one apouae, and If a ao.;,'e even balance could be struok bet"-/IHtn husband and wife In tbel~ lntereat. both In.lde and outside tbel~ jOint boa. (p. 190).

!n Indi. wbere the f ,~lIal. participatlon Is not auch

appreciated (evon tbough there ls & cnange In tbe yeneral

attitude of late) the •• jor re.son GOuld be to au~ent tbe

f •• lly income. In otber wordS. wif.-. inoo-e Is ae.n only a.

a supple.entary source of incaa.. Tbe finding' of a .. achand~aa In a ..... y (~ian&d. and aa.acoaAdran, 1970) Indicated & .t •• g

negative a .,&oelatlon between ineoao and labour fore. parti­

olpatlon. Eigbt, pe~ cent of those who •• re In tb. lower lncome

g~oup .ere In the labour fo:oe wbere.s tbe corr.spondlng f19u~e.

of partiOlpatlon for .1ddl. lao .... nd hlgh inc~. groups .ere

,~ and 2" ... peotlv.ly. But a. Proaila Kapur (1972) said •

.... n take up Joba not only becauae of economic nece.slty but

ala. out of v.~lou, othor aoclo-psycho-situational ~.soas.

tbe H :,s.n. live" by the sa.ple population ot th. pr ••• at

.tudy ate .alnly. strlctly financial (.hlob means out of abeer

economic "aces.lt,). flDARClal (whlcb ..... t. I_prove the

standard of llvlng). to get away from tb. boredo. at home. , •

• ake use of education, and to ha'''9 ,oclal contac:t, economiC

lad.poDdenoe, personal aatl.factlon .nd fulfilment etc.

,O~ purposes of path anal,.le tbe ~.aSona .~e dloboto.l.ed

lnto (1) financial and (2) otbera. In the foraer oategory onl,

\b ... who raport~d the r':'son .re st.rictly 'lnanolal are included.

All tbe nat a:e grouped into ODO aad put under • other • CCl tago..,

becauso it 1s aseu.ed that these people are wo~t1n~ becauae they

&"51 .. ~ac.ber than tblt, biKe t.q.

3.2.18 QA9IRliion of ,If ••

a.cently tbe ~.latlonab1p betwaeD tbe nature of oco.,.tlon

., wlf. and lertl11ty attracted oonslderable .ttentlon. No In­

depth study of this n.ture baa be.n conducted 1n India .0 far.

Therefo:e, In this case ... ea~cbes done eleewhere .111 be cited

for understanding tho sltuatlon. ~eJ.rdlng tbe relationship

betwoen fertility and iuaala wo~k partiCipation Concepclon (1974.

503)wrote, w.aplrlcal reaoarch baa teaded to d .. onatrate that

labour force partlolpatlon 2!£ Ii •• , not be '.portant aa the

type of .. ploymont th~t ls engaged 1~ by the wo~klng wo.en.- la

thls connectlon svveral Itudles have stre.aad tbe 1aport~nc. of

partloipatlon In non-tradltlonal actlvltieG (~o11ver aDd

Langlols, 1962. Jaffa and AZual, 1960, St.YGoa and .. eller, 1967).

Using ~urvey data In Turke" styooa aad •• ll.~ (1967) fowtd DO

dl'ferenoe between wo~kln9 and non-worklng .... n wlth ~e.pect ,.

fertlllty. The aU~J.st.d eaplanatlon In the 0. •• of Turke, ,.

that the rolvs of .other and worker ara ..... t.blo and only when

the fea.le role ap~roachQs lnoompatability with tbe ~tbar ~a.

do~. tho nogatlve ~el.tlon.hlp between fertlilty .nd .. ploya.nt

eaerQe.

76

1ft Puorto .l1co (Jat fe and A •• i, 1960) tbe 'e~tillt,

et workers In cottaJo 1ndustr1es .ere Dot much ditia~0nt f~om

that of non-\Oiorking -.en. But those .ho are •• ployed outside "

the bome 1n oodarn 1ndustr1es bad a smaller 'aally size. Tb.

e.planatlon thoy gave for the l •• er fertility aaong those who

Ire e.ploy;;d oU'tGlde boae aMPared to tboso who are _ployed

1n cotta)o lnJustries il quite explicit and I •• " very l011cal.

To quote Jaf:o and Azuai (19601 ~3)1

lagar-ding the cottage Industries f~om the view point of tho family and the birth rate the ~utstandlng charact~rlstlc. 1n particular w1th roioren~e to wo.en workc~z, 15 the ld8~tity ot home and workshop. ThuI, tho nooan can continue to work while pregnant, sbe can lnt0rsperlo hal" work fo~ payor ?roflt t090tber with ho= family oboros, including takin) caro of little ohildren, she can keep whatever hours loem to h,r ~ost convenient, she can work at ubateve~ pace she d'clres. In sbort, under these conditions her famll1 chores and work activitias tend not to 1ntor­fere tilth eacb oth.r.

On the other hand, If the WOllan has to o£eave the batne all day, and In particular If ahe works a& an empljYoc. then the wo~k activities and faally choraa Int0:Z~rc with each other. If Ihe bJcom~s pr~gnantJ thell Gr:l;)loyer .. y order her to leave, if ahe baa a.all chiIJ=a~ someone b.a to take care of them wbl1e ahe 1, away all day, sbe hal to koep regular bours, whlch .omeono olso has aet. In ahort, 1f ~h8 does ~1ant to work 3~ay from home, and esp~clally in an .. ploy •• capacity, then she bad best alnlmiae her family activiti ~ or the, .111 confllct w1th her work activities.

Collvo= ~nd Lan~lola (1962) a110 polnt out the physioal

and social iaconvsnience involved in leaving the boa. and amall

chlldren to go to work 1n a place away from boae. The general

conclua1on th3t could be drawn f~ •• those Itudles a9 •• to be

tbat type of ,~'.a·k, rather than "ork partioipation itself, 1'-

1mportant in fertility deter.inat1on. Thul 1n thls study, a

path was dr,,"m fron occupation to childron ever born.

11

It need. little .xplanation tha occupatlon determine.

Income. Higher the occupation, higher wl11 b. the lncom ••

ae.lde. inco.e, ~ole conflict la anothe~ major facto~

lnfluenc.d by occupation. The respon.ibilitlea outalde ho..

might conflict with the ~.pon.ibllltlel at home. If type of

wo~t can be u •• d .1 • proxy for rOlponllbl11tl •• outside home

one would expect role conflict to be hlghe~ in hlgher occupa­

tlonal group. compared to the lower on.l.

Th. meabe~a of particular occupational cla •••• aay

de.lre more or fewer chlldren even wh.n othe. factorl .uch a.

education and incom. ar. controlled. Seve~al explanations can

be glven fo~ thll. ror .xampl., people In d1fferent occu­

pational 9~OUP' will have. te.ldency t. compare th.m •• lve. witla .

other fellow worke~. In .ll'!" •• ~ct •• nd fel't.111t.y I. no

oxceptlon. Pal'eek and !(othandlp.nl (19691 46) found that

•••• both eduGatlon and ... bel'lhlp ln a wort or~.nlaation are

lmpol'tant 1n In'lu.ncln~ 'aml1y alae norms and attltude. toward

birth contl'ol.- Generally a negat.lve relation.hlp waa found

between occupational status and fertl11ty. Thu. to prevent

them.elve. from belng the victim. of .oclal ridicule a coupl.

will try to k.ep their fe~tl11ty level within t.h •• lze generally

found among hl./her own .oclal cl.... Purth.Z', It "1 be •• ld

that there m.y be • relatlon.hip bet.e.n occup.tlon and health

of .n Individual re.ultlng In differential fecundity. Al.o

the availabl11ty of lelaure time for hu.band and wif ... ,

78

_f'.ot tb. frequency of Int.rcour.e which wl11 a'fect fertl11ty.

A1.0 chl1dron oay be differenti.lly v.lued by .embe~. of

different occupational groups. D.vl. (19~6) in h1. study of

tb. In.tltutlonal patterns favouring bigb f.~tl11ty 1n und.~

d.veloped ar.a., states with ~ef.r.nc. to agrlcultur.l occup.tlon

tbat -lntr.dltlonal agrloulture the .. In Inatru .. nt of

pr~uotlon, apart frem land, Is huaan labour. To learn any

.tlll Involved doea not require formal education but merely

ob.ervatlon and pr.ctlc.. Chl1dr.n o.n thus start producing

.t an early ag.- (p. 37-36). tba. It Is Implied that suoh

people will desire to have a larger fam1ly 8iz ••

The classification and scoring aystem. of the occu­

pation. 0' wiv., are the .alD' a. t.ha' 01 husbands' occupation ••

3.2.19 11f," loi!mll

111.'s income re'.ra to her occupational 1ncome. Thl1

I, one of the d.t·U'1I1nanta 0' 'amily Inc .. a. can be ••• n fro.

the equation giv.n below.

famlly Inoome • husband's Inoa.. + wlf.', income + non-occupational Inco.e.

It Is .xpect.d that wife's income will affect the .gr •••• nt

betw.en wlf. and hu.band on the number of Chl1dr.n th.y .hould

have In the family. No particular study wa. mad. regarding

this relationship in India but so.e studl.s w.re undertak.n In

other countr1 •• and th.y report the .xl,t.no. of • relationsblp

betw.en occupation and husband __ lf, oommunication and cons.quent

d.ctalons re9ardln~ matter. relatln~ to laally II... •• Ineo ..

79

Increaa •• tbe role relatlon.bip between busb.nd .nd wlf •• 1.0

,e'a ohanged. A. w •• st.ted ear lie. In .nother context, tbe

preaonce of an •• rnlng wife will ~educe the autho~lty of

hu.band .t home (.lohe1. 1970). You •• ff (1972) reports tbat

-the t~ldltlonal oonception In Latin Amerlca bas be.n tbat wben

•• rrled wom.n •• ~n money the role of .an •• protector .nd bo ••

In the bousehold 18 weakened.- Tbla eventually will l.ad to •

• ore equalltari.n autbority .t bome. This In Ita turn will

create an atmospbere wblch Is conducive to discue. mattera, even

of lnttaat. nature. Botb partners, thUI, will be In • pOlltlon

to convince .ach oth.r the .dvantage •• nd dl •• dvanta~e. of

bavlng •• peolflc number of children .nd to come to .n agr.ement

on the metter. A' the supplem.ntary income earned by wive.

beoom .... 11 the enanc •• of their not pa~tlclpatlng In .ny

decisions will be higher. .ell.r (1966) points out th.t p.~tl­

clpatlon In the labour force Is •• aoclated with Incr •••• d

Influence by tbe wife In 'amlly d.cl.lon .... klng partlcula~ly

with regard to decisions about baving additional children. Thl.

increased Influence .ay be oonslde~ed •• positively related to

the mon.y income e.rned by her. The expocted ".oelatltn 1.

negative.

3.2.20 Ilf.qtlv! dUEa\lon qf ,.rillg,.

Duration 0' marriage i. an Important v.rlable In the

det.rmlnation of fertility. It •• fe •• to the numb •• of ye •• s

of aarrled 11f. the woaan baa had. ~.n.r.11y the fe.tl1e pe.lod

of a bu..n f ••• 1. Is con.id.red to be 30 (1~44) to 3~ (1~49)

,

,.a~l. But becau •• of tb. pr.val.nc. of the institution of

.arrlage all femal.l will not get the ••• any y.ars of r.productloft.

avidence of the relationship bet.een duration of .arriage and

fertility 11 provid.d by ~yeor. Population Study (United

Nations, 1961. 111), aele (19631 188) and oth.rs wher. the

lindings Ihow a po'ltive relationehlp. That I" other thlngl

.... lnlng equal, lon~~ th. period of .ffective ma.rlage, large.

will be the number of chlldr.n. Collver's (1963. 69) finding,

from th. aanara. data .at. the relationship very clear. u •

• la,.11i.d th. effectlv. duration of .arrlage Into .ev.n group.

of flv. year. eaoh, I.e., 0-4, ~9, 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 2$-29,

30 and over. The co.~ •• pondlng nuaber of bl.ths .eported by

bi. a.e. O.3~1 1.61. 3.1~, 4.80. ~.18, 6.63, and 1.12 ••• pectlvely.

The prelent Itudy tate, Into conlideration .ffectlve

du.atlon of .arrlage In.t.ad of total d~atlon. Effective

duration Is obtain.d by subtracting f.Gm the total duratlon tbe

pe.lod. of non-exposure to the .ilk of pregnancy due to temporary

,.paration 1f any. That ii,

I DM • CA - AM - PSA

3.2.21 'lI'Iy 'OSOI!I

'aml1y Income 1. a b.tte~ indicator of the st.ndard of

living th ••• 1s huaband II or wl'e la lncOlae alone (Cho, 1966, 201,

Kuplnlky, 1)111 3$~). It hal a dete •• lnlng .ff •• t on a numbe~

of de"ndent variable,.

Tha relationship be~ .. n family lncoa. Ind fa.l1y

"ruct~e are not dlffiou1t to unde.,'and. One of tne advantagel

81

of living In a j01nt or an extended faal1y Is aha~ln9 tho

fa.lly income. In such l1vln] arrange .. nts low Inoom. people

a. well IS no in~ome people .111 be taten care of. dh11e

dlscusslnl tho realons for remainlng In on9 a1ngle hou •• bold,

a ••• (1967. 41) writes tbat •••• econolDlc insecurity may fore.

sons to rooaln under the parental roof evon when they are

aarrl3d and desirous of setting up .eparate bO.~$ 01 thel. own.­

In another con'~c>:t (p. 4') he wrlt9s that, - ••• the soclo-economlc

differential 1s important In deter.laln~ rOGid.n~e and ~l~e of

family.- Tnu~ one would expect a larger number of childree

of low 1ncooo Jroup to live In Joint famillos. Alao ambition

and tbe deal:o to live an independent life, the accompanl •• nt.

ef hl~ber oduc,1tlon, will b. lacking .. ong the lower IncOtae

g&-oups. "oo~lo having a blgher Income would J.li!O to live

Independent o~ the jOint family because of aeveral reaSonl.

Por exaaple, so~ting up of a ft •• simple flDily will help th ..

,. have a h13her standard of liv1ng, mora comforts and le.s

st~lln. on f1nancial ground.. a ••• (19671 42) desoribes thls

.ltuatlon with an exampl •• If in a j~lnt faally ORe brother bas

a bigber .onc·~J"y income than tIM other. aAd • largo. lelt

ever .oney for the use of hi. own fa.ll1 after paying hla abare

.f tho co~,on ~ur~e. th.n -lnvldioua oomparlsons betw~en 00-

wlv.s and CO.J5;;'llS, and strained relationship lDay ensue.- Tbil

and almllar Git~3tlonG could be avolded by I.paratlng thomselves

from the joint fom!ly. Alao the IntQr-famlly Influ3ncas .ver

,~. day to d~1 affairs of th. dilf.rent fa.l1y g~oups alia wl11

be l •••• nod. ;~ll the lam., It mUlt be r ... mb.rod that advl •••

.111 be .ought and glven f~om .lde~s ev.n after •• paration fro.

tb ••• 1n fa.l1y in moat of the ...... Also flnancial help wl11

be avallab1e to the faml1Y -trunk- f.oa tbe •• -branche.- a. and

when nece.altle. a.1se. -Even son. wbo leave the jolnt faml1y

for other cities cu.tom.r1ly send money hom., elthar regula.1y

for tbe geno.al faml1y expens.s or for speclal occaslon. suGh

a. marr1age.- (aoss, 1967, 41-42). aut, •• lmplled .a.lier,

th •• etting up of a nucl.a. family wlll be dlfflcult unl ••• one

ba. sufflclent money incame. vne would, thus, expect an lncr ••••

1n the llkellhood of living ln nucl.a~ famill •• wlth ove.y

lnc~.'I. 1n family incom ••

The deslred faml1y .1 •• 1a influenced among other thinga

by loclal and economlc con81d.~atlonl of whlch family lncome

piaYI an impo~t.nt role. Du. to health and nutr1tlonal problem.

the low.~ lncoae groupe mlght .xperlence higher infant mortallty.

Thus tbe number of Children required to tnlurt the aurv1val of

the dellred nuaber of children to adult age. mlght be h1gh.

The.efore, the low income group .ight de.lre a larger numbe~ of

children compared to the hlgber lncoae groups. It should also

be .entioned that high •• income groups may de. ire to have bette.

-quallty- ch1ldr.n whlle .uch a.bitlons .. y not be there a.ong

low 1noo .. groups.

In dlscue.lng the relationshlp bet •• en Inco .. and fertl­

llty soae of the argumenta b~ou~ht out in relat10n to d •• lr.d

fa.lly .1ae are applicable. Tbat la, a.ong dlff8~ont lncome

g~oupa the mortallty rate. vary. ~ecu~dlty allo Dl~ht diff.~

acoo •• lng to .oonomlc cha~acte.l.tlcs of the couple •• it

affect. nut~ltion and 9.ne~al health and oons.quently the

feoundlty. To quote Doubleday (quotet 1n Tho.lin.on, 196', 64)

.be~eve~ a .pecles ,~ genus 1s endang ••• d. a co~~ •• pondlng .ffo~t 1. 1nva~lably made by nature fo. lts pr ••• ~v.t10n .nd oontlnuance, by an lnc~ea.e of '.oundity, and that this .speclally take. place when­••• 1" .uch d.n~.r arl ••• f~om a a d.mlnutlon of p~ope. nour11hment o~ food. But the pres.nt demographic thoory, how.ver. 1nd1cat •• that feound1ty va~l.a dlrectly wlth health.

Datt. (1961) found that ln W •• t a.ngal the blgb lnc ...

groups 1n rural a~ea. had an averaJe of 3.62 chl1d~en when

Itandardl.ed for all age group. whl1e the corre.pondlng flgu~.

fo~ the low lncoa. g.oup ••• 3.13. In urban a~.a. the dlff.renoe

.a. not that hlgh but atl11 the t~end .a. 1n the lam. d1rection.

The ~.te. for the h1gh lncoae and low lncoa. g~oupi .er. 3.02

and 2.96 ~.speotlvely.

The pre.ent study deflned faml1y lnco ..... the annual

1noOli. ln rupee. of t be oouple - .alary income of hus be nd and

.11e and any other type of income they m1ght be r.gularly

~ecelvlng (for .xa~pl., income from agriculture, rent fro.

house. etc.). It should be noted that the definition of family

lnco.e excludes the income of the other members of the family

which are usually included in the computat10n of ·family income-.

What i8 dono here ,. baaed on the reasonlng that .ny klnd of

pl.nning relating to f.ml1y growth cannot be based In the income

of tbe othe~ membe.. of tbe family.

3.2.22 •• ,11Y 'tlyctYltl

' •• lly atructure indicatea the nature of the lnte~-

•• latlonahlpa between the different ... bers of the family.

This i. likely to affect the manner of perfor.ance of the

varlou. actlvltle. connected with child bearln~ and rearing.

Purthe~ore, the relatlonahlp between fertility and other

different Independent .ariables are likely to be .ffected by

family structure.

la.l11e. are ~nera11y cla •• lfled Into nuc1ea~ and joint,

e.en tb.u~b tbere are a nuaber of different fa~11y type. b •• ed

on eember. present 1n the family. Nuclear family, othorwls.

known a. Simple fa.11y, conslats of father. mother and unmarried

ohl1dren (Davis, 19~~. 34, foot note No.2, Slddh, 1914. 90).

Joint fa.11y 1. defined in .arlous ways by various scholara.

Por example, Driver (19631 3~) considered Joint family •• exi.ting

-whene.er a couple and itl married .0nC.) or the married

brother{l) or parents of the .al •• eMber permanently realde

together In tbe .a .. houaehold.-

To ~rve (19~3. 10),

A Joint family la a group of people who generally live under one roof, who e.t food cooked at one b.arth, who bold property 1n comaot, and who partiCipate In common family worahip and are rolated to .ach other a. one particular type of kindred.

The re1atlon.hlp bet-.en family .tructure and de. ired

fa.l1y .lze are .uch that In .lmple faml11 •• people will de.ir.

a ... 11 faally a. the burden of Child care falla, among other

tblng., entirely on the couple., e.peclally the Wife. It.

relatlonahlp will beco ... o~e clear In the argument. whlcb

follOW. regarding the a.sociatlon between family .tructure and

• tb. num~er of ch11dren ever born.

In old f •• hloned joln\ fa.l1l.a the wo~k pa~tlclpatlon

of .arrled women are not really •• lcom.. aut, If out of economic

nece •• lty or any other re.eon for that mattor, her work partl­

cipatlon la accepted a. a couz •• of her life, it ..... to imply

that she .. y have a bett.r voice ln the hou •• hold ••• he alao

1. one of the contributors to the faml1y purs •• Under euoh

circumstanc •• her work load at hoae c.n •••• on.bly be expected

to be 1 ••• than what It would have be.n If .h ••• re a complete

dependent. One •• Jor advantage in 11ving in the joint f.mily

1, the aharln~ of relpon.lbllitle. and the dlvl.lon of ho ••• hold

work. The efforte .nd inconvenlence of chlld care allo .111 be

Ihared among the different m.mbers of the faml1y. Thus the

.0~kln9 wife wlll be able to finlah her part of the hou.ehold

work without lnterference from her chlldren. The worker role

In her, therefore, .ay not be a taxing pnenomenon wlth the re.ult

that the lnten.lty of the •• ther-worker role conflict wl11 be

.uoh Ie •• 1n a jo1nt f.mlly compared to a nuclear family.

Another factor lnfluenc.d by faallYKructure 1. the

u.e of con~.ceptlon. Tho opportunities to ... birth control

device. are dlfferent ln both type. of family living arrangement ••

In a Joint famlly becau.e of the complete .eparatlon of .ale and

f •• ale role.,

••• communication bet.een husband and ~if. 1s reduced to a mlntau. - particularly with referonce to sexual topica, for the wo.an i. luppos.d to have no knowledge or intttatlve in .uch .attera. Curiously, hUiband and

H

wlf. 1n .any ca ••• aay never disCUIS tbe one thing that prelumably reprelentl their Ipecial bond, a •• and rep~oduction (Oavll, 19~~1 37).

AI far as the wife 11 concerned the p~oduction of children 1a

be~ main function in the family (aoss, 19671 1~3). the hUlband-

51fe relationship 11 not usually tied with the romantic type of

love one often hearl In the Neltern countries. 'Aost often than

not thOle who experience auch a love are forced by circumstanoea

to relt~aln it aa it la not in tune with the joint faml1y 11vln~

arrangements. Aa (arve (19531 130) pOinted out, the mother-ln­

la. Is always watchful of the movementa of her daughter-in-law

even -if abe goel to her own husband at nlght.-

ae9ardi~9 the relationlhip between •• lly structure and

fertility there are t.o ach~ols of thought. According to one

aohool, "The lnltitution of jolnt f •• 11y II considered to b.

one of the main cu1t~al factors f.vouring high fertility In

India- (Nag, 19651 131). The realona at~lbuted by Davl1 (19~~.

34-36, itallcs In original deleted) for thia are the follo.ing.

1. The economic coat of roaring Children doel not impinge directly on the parenti to the lame extent that it does where tho nuclear family 11 a more Independent un1t •••

2. the inconvenience and effort of child care do not fall ao heavily on the parents alone •••

3. The age at .arrlage can De quite young, bacaula, under jolnt houaehold conditiona, there II no neceaaary imp11oation that tne nuaband .uat be -able to suppo~t a wlfe and 'amil~- before he geta .. ~rled •••

4. 11th an e.ph •• 'a on kin aol1da~lty the oompulaioa to marry ia often quite atrong •••

5. The young wife ia motivated to have off-spring aa ea~ly a8 pos$l~le and ln considerable numo~r. Given

81

the jolnt f •• lly and the pr.vaI11n~ rule of pat~1.rchal rellde~ce, the bride 1& a stranger among her husband'. relatlves. aecause of be~ newnell and becaul. of her youth, sae 18 often •• Ilgned a low pOlltion ln thQ restricted hierarchy of Wo.en. ihe hal little ahe can call her own untl1 a child i. born •••

6.the man 11 Itrongly motlvated to demand off-apr Lng •••• Inlofar al the faml1y "_lnl a viable economlc and 90clal unltt lt ~alna economic and polltlcal Itrength by having an abundance of youthful .. mberl.

tbe I.cond Ichool of th~u~ht bellev.1 that the

oharacterlstl~s 01 the jo1nt family works towards bringing

down the fertillty level. that 18, becau •• or tbe p~l.noe of

.any people 'and the hlera~chlcaJ. n.~ur. of the z-elatlonlhlpt

1n the hOUlst privacy, s~ace and Ind~pendence are limited for

the couple. to nave f~e4uent coltion' (~rivQrt 1963. 39). Uore­

.ye~, in joint laID11y I tructure the tradltlonal tabool a~e naore

.. t~ictly enforced to -bz-lng about t.he tz-adltlonally pz-ope~

birth Ipaclngd (Mandelbaum, 1974. 51).

In lndla, •• veral Itudle. 1ndlcated a negatlve relation­

.hip betw.en J013t fam11y and ferti11ty. that 11, compared to

nuclea~ famille., the .o~.n living 1n Joint family arranJ.~.ntl

have f ••• r children born allve. In 'e.t Sengal. Datta (l~ll

80) found that the oh1ldren ever born per couple standardized

fo~ all .':le. 1n limple family 1. 3.34, In Oile ;,eneretlonal joint

f •• l1y 11 2.21 and ln mult1-generational joint family 1s 3.27.

In a study of Luctnow c1ty, HUla1n (19701 41) allo .... to tbe

, In a Itudy of the family type anJ fertility ~f ~u~al Sengall .omen, Monl Nag (1~651 13~) found the frequency of coitul pe~ week to be hl~bez- amon~ lingle fa.lly housebold compared to joint family 11v1nJ a~ra~gementl. This .a. true for all age groupi and for all dlffe.ent com~unltlea.

-

• •••• conclu.lon. Tb. g.ne~a1 ferti11ty ~.te 0' the woaeft

l1v1ng 1n nuclear '.mllle. w •• 181 .nd that of tho •• wbo l1v.

1n vertically .nd l.torally .xtended 'aml1y ••• 163. two 0' tb. other .tudl •• In Indl., the flnd1ng. of whlch run more or

Ie ••• 10ng the .... lin ••• re th.t of a~ch and aend.1l (1971)

.nd, Pak~ •• 1 .nd ... a1ear (1967).

In a study of tha fa.lly growth conducted In r~al

Trlyand~u~ by the Depart •• nt of StatistiCS, Unlvera1ty 0' Kara1. (1965), it .a. lound that lor women .1th ... rrlage

duration of 1 ••• than ten y.ars and 11v1ng in nucl.ar family

living arrangement. the aver.ge l1ve blrth .a. 2.6 and 'a. tho.e who live In j01nt f.ml1y 11vlnJ arrangement. It wa. 2.2

Siallarly, the average 11ve blrth .a. 4.~ .nd 3.8 reapectlv.ly

lo~ nuclear and jolnt lalll11e. 'o~ tbose .ith a •• rr1age

duration of 1I0re than 10 year ••

'am11y structure coneidered 1n the pre.ent .tudy 1.

the laml1y liv1ng arrangement of the respondent .'te~ marrlage.

Thl. v.riable 1. dlchotoml.ed Into nuol.ar and ·otbar.' The

'o~er Is defined a. a .lmple hou.ehold where pa~ent. and un­

.arried Children alone form the member.. I' there 1 •• ny other

relative 1n the household a. a permanent .. mber that hou.ehold

.111 be included 1n the latter"category.

Disregard1ng the controver.y over the relationShip

between 'a.lly .tructure and 'ertillty, the re.ults of the

•• plrlc.l stud 1 ••• 111 form the guldel1ne for the pr ••• nt p~po.e

89

In fo~mulatln9 the dl,.otlon of the relationahlp. This meanl

blgbe~ fertility wlll be a •• umed fo~ th •• e in the nuclear

faml1101 compared to other g~oupl. Con.equently one would

expect a pOlitlve path f~om faal1y atructure to fertility.

3.2.23 R •• lred fa~11y all"

People fo~mulate p~.f.r.ncea for completed family al ••

and tbe.e preference. develop •• 11 In advance of r.aohlng the

de. Ired family sl.e. aut th.'. preferences on.e formed .. , no'

~e .. ln unchanged throughout the period of faml1y ~rowth. Soae

people do chan~e their preferenc •• over tlme. However. lt 1.

a falr predictor of later fertl11ty pe~formance. $.al1e~ the

d •• ired family .1&e amal1er wl11 be the numbe~ of children ev.r

bo~n. as people wl11 be ~ying to attaln the de.lred family .1 •••

In .. ny locletles, women do not us. contraceptlve. until tbey have aChieved thel~ de. ired family al.e. Con.equently, wo.en who experlence a comblnatlon of olrcumstancea favou~able to attaining their deal~ed family 81.e are more 11kely to adopt contraceptive practice. and to use them effectively (aldley 11 11, (1969. 24).

The dea1red fa.lly al.e In tht •• tudy refer. only to the

d •• ired 'amily al •• of the wif. and not of the oouple, beaaul.

l' per cent of the total wo.en wo~k.r. of the ru •• l are.a and

11 per cent of the total workers ln urban areaa d1.agr.ed with

their spouse .. ga.dlng the numbe~ of chl1dren de.lred. Another

20 per cent of tb. women workers 1n bo'h rural a~d urban a~el.

had not d1scus •• d 1t with thelr plrtners at all.

the number of d •• ired ch11dren u •• d ln the analysla 11

the reply received from tne ~.Ipondent. to • d1rect queatlon.

3.2.24 Aqr .... n' on th' number of chlldr.n.

If both th. husband and wlf. ag~ •• to bav. th. number

of children th.y ahould have, th. chancel of having a planned

f •• lly 18 high. But If th.re 11 dl.ag~.e .. nt or If th.y had

not dllcus.td the .. tter th. ohanc.1 ar. to bav. a family that

II not planned. A plann.d fa.l1y Invol .. , tn. UI. of contra­

ception to I •• that the family 81ze will b •• 1thln the d.,ir.d

On tn. ba.ls of thia the re'pOOden\l wert clal,111.d

Into two cat.gori.l. (1) both huaband and wlf. agr •• on the

numb.r, and (11) others.

3.2.2~ Pl,st blE~b lntGExa!.

In the Indian .ocla1 .y.t •• the birth of the firlt child

II alwaYI encourag.d.

Encouragem.nt do •• not r.fer merely to moral encouragement, but to the pr.lcrlb.d patt.rn of behaviour whlob 1 •• 1th.r directly or Indirectly 11nk.d with the actual performanc •• In India, the birth of the firlt child la an Important .v.nt not only In the .arrl.d llf. of the couple, but allo for the famill •• conc.rn.d. Heno. the birth of the first child a •• ar1y a8 pO.lib1. II oft.n .ncouraged (ael., 1962. 213).

Und.r luoh clrcualtancel It Is only natural that people

will try to g.t th. flrlt babt aa early a. posalble. Tho. the

lnt.~val b.tw .. n .aE.lag. and flEat liv. birth will help to

.eaaur. the .aa. wltb whloh a woman can get pr.gnant. Lon~e.

the av.rag. waiting tlm., lower wl11 b. the f.rtl1ity and vii'

v.r,.. Thla lnterval II oa.aonly ua.d ••• n lnd.x of f.Gund­

ability (Chldambaram, 1961).

.1

DI.cu •• ing th. ~latlve fecundabi1lty of ular. and

non-ua.a-. of contraception, Ja1n (1969. 39) obl.SOY •• the~,

·u •• r. will have a higher fecundability a~ marriage than non-

u •• r.- and that women wi~b higher lnltlal fQcundabl11ty will

accept faml1y planning programme mora readily and promptly

than other.. other thing. remaining .qual, •• horter fl~.t

birth Interval indlc.t ••• higher fecundabl1lty and hence wo •• n

with .horter flrat birth lnterv.l are expected to be con~a­

ceptlv. u.ers comp.red to thol •• Ith • longer flr.t birth

lnt.rval.

But .... ur ••• nt of thl. lnterval Is not without It.

dlfflcultl •• becau.e it II aff.cted by .evera1 factora such a.

pr.gnancy ••• tage, production of low -quality· ovum, te.porary

I.paratlon, infrequent COition, aterl1ity on the part of either

of the .pouse and uae of contraception (Pitt.nger, 1973. 113).

Thua the f.ilure to produc. a child or a long lnterv'l betw.en

.arrlage .nd f1rlt child birth n.ed.n~t nec.ssarlly point towardl

aub-fecundity or at.rl1ity - •• the ctl. ma'lr - on the part of

the woman. It 11 the net eff.ct of so .. n~·ctorat .0.. of

which are stated e.r11er, .nd data regardiniJ all of tbem.r •

•• ther diff1cult to obtain. But thls interval, in a non­

contraceptor population .nd among a population where the

'e.porery separation of hUlband and wlf. Imm.diate1y .ftar

•• rr1ag8 .re negligible, c.n give an ap?roxlmate lde. of fecundity

.f the 'emal.a atUdl.d. In the pre •• nt study it waa found th.,·

none of the I" .'pondents u •• d contraception during the per10d

• between marriage and first llve blrth. Slnce lnterval com ••

before llve birth a path 1. extended to .how thl. relationshlp,

from interval betw.en marrlage .nd first live birth to number

.f children ever bo~n.

3.2.26 Role confllgt.

Trdltlonally the aajor ro1. a •• lgn.d to a • ..an ••• that

of wlf. and motherwhe.e he. fo ..... t duty .a. to run the hou •• ,

•• te. to the needs of the husband .nd be.r and reer ohlldren.

In the hoae front ah. Is .n important figure but al.ay •• ubordlnat.

end .ubmi.slve to the husband. aecently more and more women

.ta.ted taki~g part In non-nou •• hold actlvltle.. But all the

.... most woa.n con.lder th.lr fe81ly responslbliltle. a. thelr

prlaary concern - somethlng not to be .acrlflced .t any co.t.

Thus the working aoth.r 1 ••••• ntlally trylng to perform a 'dual­

role' that of a housewlfe and that of an •• rnlng .-.bar. The

.ucce •• or failure of thl. attempt depend. upon the compatabillty

of the.e roles. Thus, role confllct in th1a study 1s deflned ••

the Incompatabillty between mother-worker role of • woman.

AI stycos and Weller (1967. 217) put It •••• only •• the

female working role approach •• lncompatabl11ty wlth the wlf •• nd

.other ro18 doe, the relatlonshlp bet ••• n fertl11ty and .mployment

••• rg •• - Apart froe It. dlr4ct effect on fertillty role conflict

.ffect use of contraception a. w.ll. To .educe the role In­

GOmpatabillty they reduce the number of chlldren through u •• of

contraception. Hlghe. the lnten.ity of tbe conflict Qr •• te~ wl11

be the use of bl.tb control devlcea.

93

Ro18 confllot m.y arise due to several dlfferent factDra •

• or example. when -rola performance of the husband does not

agree wlth the role expectatlons of the husband- or vice versa.

role conflict wl1l arlse (Dyer. 1962. 313). An earnlnJ motbec,

her pOSition 1n the family raised f~om a dependent housewlfe to

an earning momber, may expect some change In the role porformane.

of other members of the family, eapeclally that of her husband.

If he. In his turn, refuses to rise up to the occaslon and c11ngs

to the traditional role assigned to him (the bread winner and

bosa of the fa.l1y) and expects his wlfe to perform her tradi­

tional role without fall disre9ardln~ her obllgationa and duties

toward the new role of a worker, problems will arise leading~

.ole conflict. That la, conflict may arise In situations wher.

husband's and wlfe's role concepts are not equally 'modern' ar

equally 'traditional' (~pur, 1972. 373).

All women In this study reported the exlstence of soa.

confllct between the role of mother and woreer. But, of course.

the intenSity of conflict differed from person to person

depending upon their faoily situation and their o.n adaptive

capaclty. Baaed on thIs, the variable role confllct ls classi­

fied 1nto low intenSity and hlgh intenSity of conflict.

3.2.27 Ut! of contlageRtion'

Most of the studies (lele and Patantar, 1969. 6,

Agarwal., 19611 110-120, Driver. 1960. 16, stycos. 1971, 31~)

report that contraceptora bave higher fertility than non­

contraceptors. This could be because of the differences 1n Ute

-. I

fecundity betweon the.e two types of women. In a longitudinal

survey conducted in the Talchung city of Tal.an, A.~. Jaln

(19691 39-4J) found the users bavlng a h19be~ fecundabl11ty

than the non-u.ers. Preed.an and Takeshita (19691 261) also

came to the sao. concluslon in thei~ study of Taiwan. If th~

can be universally accepted then it Can a180 be .aid tbat higbly

fecund wooen will resort to birth control methods core often

tban the le.a fecund women to avert the unwanted pregnancies

from belng occurlng. Pertility can b. avertod either by

contracoption or by abortlon. The former 8S def1ned by Kayflta

(19711 109) ·prevents the new llfe before it starts- and the

latter, according to Hauser (1~691 50) prevent. births even lf

conception has occurred. Jr.ater the rational usage of contra­

cept1ve methods fewer wl11 be the namber of children born.

A larg. body of avallable literature lndicate that

persons who conalstently use .fficlent birth control metbod.

wl11 have fewer children tban those who do not (for example,

Tletze ln Kiser, 1969. J6-:J. Preed.an. 1965. 420-421). Thus the

higher fertility noticed in studle. Cited earller may be becaus.

the methods were ineftective or tho users were inconsistent and

careless 1n using tl~ methods or genuine interest 1n family

plann4n~ bas developed only after achieYln~ a b13ber fertillty.

Differencel of opinions are posaible .s to the caus.­

.ffect relationship of contraception and fertility. It could

be argued that when the desired :lumber of children are aChieved

or exceoded a woman wl11 usa contraOeptlon to prevent further

pl"egnanclea. In tbl. case the chl1dnn ever born can be viewed

a. the Oau •• l agent. aut thl. view ie .eak before the al"guaent

that if they had not u.ed cont~aceptlon, there would have b .. n

aore births and tho level of fertility would have b .. n different.

Ihether contracoption 1a used for postponing or preventing

births, If used efficiently, a certain nu~ber of births wll1 be

averted. It oay be because of thls that birth control pract1ce

ha. always been suggested a. a meana to control fertility. In

the words of Petterson (19701 102),

Fertillty is often perceived a. the resultant of fecund1t, and birth control. biolo~y .et. a maxi •• number of possible birthS, and san contrive. by one .eans or another to .duce it. aut such positive action on the pal"t of the pal"ent., or, in an attempt to work through parents of church.s or govern~entG, 1. only one subcla •• of • broader category, {.~tAl1ty de erminantl, which include any of the ,ocIety's po cos, Iiws, lnstitutions, Ityl •• of living, and ao on t:la t Inf luellCM tne average family 11a&. whethe. or not this is tbelr conscious purpose 01" i8nGrally known effect.

Davil and Blake (19561 211-23~) also included contraception a.

one of the) fol.tl' lIajor categorles of the determl!)an!~ of fertlllty.

ThC)mpson and 1. .. 11 (1910, 329) alao consider this a. a factor

,ffec!!ua fertility. Tbul guided by theory and re'lonlng the

pre.ent study extended a path from contraceptive practice to

nuaber af children ever born.

Based on the practice of contraception respondonts cC)uld

get cla.alfied a. (1) never use~. and (ii) ever usera. -ithin

the latter category, however, there could be furthor classi­

fications.

(l) Adopted permanent conception control methods _ sterilized.

96

(2) Currently p~acti.lng non-perllanent method. f. p~evention of f~thar blrth ••

(3) C~rently u.lng contraception for .paclng,

(4) U.ed so.e .. thod for preventlo~ fo~ .o.e tlme satlsfaoto~11y and now d1.cont1nued becau.e of one ~ea.on for the other, and

(~) Practl.ed contraception for a very .hort pe~i.d and had dl.contlnued after.ard. beoauae of one rea.on or the other.

To e.plaln the varlatl0 •• in children ever bern the

.ample population ha. beon cla •• lfied lnto two groups. (1)

U.ers and (11) Others. U.er. con.lsts of the 'over u.er'

cate Jory excludln·~ sub-category (~). 'others' consiats of

'never users' and th .. e of the ever u.erS excluded f~om the

Sub-category (~) of the ever users were excluded on the

ba.le of the following reasoning. The succe •• of any contra.

ceptive method depend. upon (1) the length of the perlod to be

protected and (2) the monthly rl.k of contraceptlve failure

(potter, 19591 254). The latter 1n turn 1. a function of

fecundability and oontraceptive efficlency both of which vary

f.oa .onth to month and from pa~lty to par1ty. Contraceptive

efflclency mean. the extent to which the woman'. fecundabl1ity

i8 reduced to aero. (None of th •• e factors can be estimated

.itb any precision and a~. usually treated a. conatanta for

purpos •• of analy.l •• ) Thue it may be cle.r f.oa wbat has been

described 80 far that it i. not enou~h Simply to have used

contraception at one time or another of one's lifo t10e. It

must be used p~po.ively and efficiently .0 that fecundabl1ity

oan be reduced to .ero. Sub-category (~) are caaual u.ers

who are not actual interested In .p.cln~ or l1mltlng the faml1'

sl •••

the technlques adopted by the sample population varied

'.om beh.vlo~al or naturll Cabstinance, coitus-interruptus,

.hythm), to mechanical (condom, dlap~.ga. lntra-uterlne

device.), to chemical (tablets, Jell1.s, to oral, to surgical

(tubectory and vas.ctomy). ~urgical methods are permanent

oonception control methods. The succe •• of other aethod8 dependl

upon the efficiency and con8istency with whlch It la practised.

There may be differences of opinion as to the inclusion of the

natural methods amon9 others. But given sufficient motivation

theae methods also •• y prove effectlve. Of the thr •• methGds

.. ntioned under the behavioural catellory above, the efflciency

.1 abstlnance needs llttle elaboratlon. Aa for coltus-interruptul

(or commonly known as 'withdrawal') that a stron)ly motivated

.an will be able to execute It promptly aad ~roPGrly arG shown

In the .ritln~1 of aany scholars (stYCOI, 1971, dardin, 1911.

Lle.ellyn-Jonos, 1974).

But the efficlency of the rhythm method can be questioned

.1 It depends not only on external .. ttars but also on the

phYll010g1cal conetltutlon of the wo .. n. Tho pre.ent .tudy took

Into consideration only tho.e who were s'tl.fled with the

efficIency of this method.

3.2.28 Nymb!r of children ,v,r bo£q.

" .an be reduced to aero. Sub-category (~) ar. casual ut •••

who are not actual interested in 8pacin~ or limiting the fa.l1y

alae.

The techniqu •• adopted by the .amp1e populatlon varied

fwom behavlo~al or natural (abatinance, coitua-interruptu8,

~hythm), to mechanical (condom, diapnragm. intra-uterine

device.), to chemlcal (tablets, jellies, to oral, to surgical

(tub.ctory and vaaectomy). ~urgical methods are permanent

oonception control methods. The succ.e. of other methode depend.

Upon the efficiency and con.lstenc~' wlth whlch It Ie practised.

Thera .ay be differenc.a of opinion as to the inclusion of the

natural .. thode a.ong others. But given sufficient motivation

these .. thoda alao may prove effective. of the three methode

.. ntloned under the behav10ural cate~ory above, the .fficienoy

of abatinanca needa little elaboration. Aa for coitus-interruptus

(or cODmonly known a. '.ithdrawal') that a atrongly •• tlyated

.an 8111 be able to execute lt promptly and properly are shown

1n the writlngs of .any acholars (Stycoa. 1971, da~ln. 1971,

Lle •• llyn-Jonea, 1974).

aut the efficlency of the rhythm •• thod can be queationed

a. It depends not only on external matters but alao on the

phy.iological constitution 0' the w~men. The pre.ent .tudy toot

Into consideratlon only those who were a*tlsfied with the

e'flclency of this method.

.lth the prevlous variable, a dlscusslon of all the

va~iablel conlldeJ:ed a. cauI.I agenta In t hil study are coapleted.

the number of live birth. a woman had, whlch ia referred

to he~. a. the number of ch1ldren Iver born. 1s the varlabl,

that i. to be explaioed ultimat,l,. This include. child~en

that are born allve tad died lubaequently (If any).

3.3 ,t "IY of thl ,.latitO!hlRI'

The Table 3.1 given below pre.ents tbe summary 01 the

J:elatlonsh1ps dllc:ul.,d in the pn.ent Chapter. It 1a fOllowed

by Table 3.2 .hlGh ~lY •• all hypoth •• laed paths 1n matrlx form.

tAlUi 3.1 CAUSAL AJE:~rs AND THaLt DEpgttD8:~T VAaIAaLES ItITIi SXPECTED DI.tECTION

C1I Iii I.A T l()~~SH IP

Ca u.a1 .ge nt. Dependent­ya~l.bl,a

Direction of

relatlon­.hip - -- - - ~ ~ - - ~ -- ~ -- - - - - ---- ~ ~ ---- - ~ - - ~ -

(1 ) (2)

I. Cast.

a - ...

(3)

•• P •• A. HI RO. IF. ilO o D'S CiG

uc: caa

(4)

-+ -----+ • + +

• Por expan.ion of abbrevlatl~ns refer Table 2.1, pp. 7-9.

..

99

-- • -(1 ) (2) (3) (4)

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4 ae.ldentlal bacKground 01 hUlband

• eerent a~

7 Fecundlty - a. evaluated by the ~e.pond8nt her.elf

• lork lnde. , Non-occupatlonal income

10 Period of spoue's absence

11 Wif.'s oducatlon

12 Wlf.'s pra-marrlage wort experience

13 Ilfe's a ge at marriage

q AM OPS ANC lie caB H& ANC

tit IV 'S IJC .. .". .' tIC CS8

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4.1 'nt£odHgtlop'

This Cbapt.~ doal. with tbe estimation of tbe relation­

abips hypothesized 1o tbe previous Cbapter for tbe working

.o •• n.

4.1 Trimming of 'be 1Ad.1. The lower part of tho product eoaent co~re1atlon

c •• fflclent .at~i. for tbt '.en'y eight vsrlab1·1s applicable

.. tbe WO~klQg woaen is p~.3eftted In Table 4.1. on page 103.

ta. .eans and atandard devlatlon of the •• varlable~ ere .1ao

entered In tbe le.t two coluan of tbl' rable.

Tho path coefficients for .11 the hypothellaed path.

(full path model) numberlnJ .ev.n" .1~bt are give. In rab1e

4.2. on page 104. In th1s Tabla the Golumn variab1. i. a

causal a .i!Hlt and the 1'011 variable 1. the depend."t variable.

(Tbis proc~J~_o w111 be followed ln all 1~11ar rablel.)

" .. , be ~acalled that lt Wal .tated 'Cba~tel' 2. p. 22)

that a path coefflclent w111 be considerod signlfican'. 11 $0

foUftd~at the love 1 of 10 pel' cent or better. Suoh patb

coeffioients are undorllned in rab1e 4.2. It may be observed that

48 coefficients out of a total of •• yen', elgbt ~ypothoalzed pathl

are .1gnlfic~nt. Of tbese. wbl1e three coefficient, (Pl~,l.

P16.1, P20,26> are ,1gnlflcant at 10 per cent level, the

r~matnln:J a~o slgnll1c.)nt at ~ per cent or even blJhor lovels.

102

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9 10 11

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01' 061 -057 oce -020 018

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• DIe.lIla! ;ieiata hSN be. eattt.d. All .aules aboull ... lyl"" 1t7 1000 Note: Fer expansion or abbreviations refer Table 2.1 pp. 7-9 -

103

M.. St .. ~art l.y1 ... t1e.

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1." 0.48 1.'0 0.4(;

1.45 0.50

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•• 110

••

-104

dY 19

• •

• •

20

• •

.m. .. • • • •

• • • •

~ • •

• • ••

•• ••

• • • •

•• m

21

• •

m 047

••

••

• •

• •

121

'3 22

D~9

" '.!~ 24

:n ~~

..-. ----------"R(':

~ 'lC 27

C1DJ ~8

---------,-_ .. - ----

•• 106 -• •

• •

049 _nc;c:

w.

•• •• ••

• •

.!Ql

26,

• •

• • ••

•• • • • •

III -.' 8 -012 ••

• • -1':"("' 22.l '- . - O~4 ••

105

U.1ng onl, tbe Ilgnillc.at patb. a , •• ond patb

analYlls (restricted codel) .as don.' (lee Chapter 2, p. 22)

and the results are pre90nted In Tabl. 4.3, on page 106.

The results 'lIven In rable 4.3 are tb. baala of our

discussion 0.' the results. 8elo .. '8 proceeding further, It .a, ~e .entlonod that not much of a dlffe~.nc. Ie obae~ved bet ••• n

tbo path coe;flclents presented In rables 4.2 and 4.3. It .. ,

a1ao be pointed out that tAe~. wal no ohaOJe In the patbe drawn

to the 101lowloJ variables a education of wlf., echloatlon of

bu~band, occupation of husband, lnec.e of husband, occupation

.f wlf8, ineo .. of wlf., effective d~atlon of .a&~ia~e and

faal1y lnoODe. A. regarda the remalftln~ ten dopendent varlabl ••

one or .ore patba l.adlng to the •• or. deletod. An exaalnatlon 2

of the adjulted coefficient of multiple deter.lnatlon ~r ) of

tbe rogre9s1on equations for each of tbe dependent yarl.~le.

'O~ all tbe b,potbe,laed patba and for only tbe slgnlflcaat

patbs given In Table 4.4, and the lack of con.lderable difference

"' •• en the patb coefficients In Table 4.2 and 4.3 roveal tbat

explanatory power ha. not"sulfered ••• result of the ~evll1on

of the patb .odol.

All tb. la •• t tbe .aJor chang •• tbat have tateft plaoe hm

1n the path aod,1 a. a r'sult 01 the delotl06 of~.ignlfl~nt

---,------------------------------------------------------------I> It I. recognlaed tbat by adoptlnJ this prooed~e ~~O types 01 errors .1Jht creap In. Type I error 1. rej~ctln'J a null bypotbesl. whon 1t 18 true and type II error Is f.l1uro to reject a null bypothosl1 when It Is falae. There la, ho~eyeJ:. no "ay of aacertaining If tbl. baa hap,J,"ed.

Ut .. t C 1

3 j

ItS 4

CR 5

c.'; 6

'4~T.,! 4.' s: T ~A!fI ~Aft COIP:rICI2I!S· ('~1) - WORlI1II V ..

-- - ....-.--_. , 7

BOY , PSi 10-

W6 11

~.«iw.i 12

All

" HE 14

Cau ••

H~ 15

RY 16

lOe 18

VI 19

-----------------------------------D\;

2f1 n 21

1'8 ~2

Dra ~

Ale 24

FBI 25

RC 26

CIB 28

----------------------------------.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------11

1)

14

15

16

1 '-;

18

19

20

21

22

,-4

25

27

28

-457 182

•. - ~.f52

-4j1 • •

-065 ••

•• •• -074 •• -135 • •

•• ••

•• • •

•• ••

•• • •

• •

•• • •

•• •• •• -1}5

•• • •

• • • •

•• ••

13B • •

• • • •

•• 096

• • • •

•• • •

• • 1.4

• • · . • • ••

· . • •

• • • •

• • ••

•• • •

• • • •

• • • •

-121 ••

•• ••

• • • •

• • ••

•• •• · .. •• • •

• • • •

e65 . -. • • • •

• • · . ·~J5 ••

•• • •

•• -4(;9

-415 -185

212 011

• • • •

• • • •

• • ••

•• ... •• ••

• • • •

• • ••

· . • •

• • -21(~

,,6 • •

• • ••

•• • •

• • • •

• • ••

• • • •

•• ••

-.. ------ _._-------_._--------------

·!~6 ", • •

.. . •• •• ••

•• • • •• 747

•• • • •• • • ~08 •• •• • •

:::'18 •• • • ••

· . •• • • • •

• • • • -514 • •

•• •• • • • •

• • • • • • -24'

-'216 •• •• ••

•• •• -274 • •

• • •• • • • •

• • •• •• ••

• • • • -156 • •

eDMlaa1 ,oillt. nave aeen .. itt... All eDtr! ...... "ld 'be dl.l ... ~.Y 1000

• •

'"' • •

• • 218

•• • • •• • • •• 573 • •

•• • • · . •• • •

• • 480 •• 4Q, • • ••

•• • • • • •• • • 188

•• • • • • • • • • ••

•• •• •• 1:,o • • ••

•• • • • • •• • • ••

•• • • • • •• • • ••

•• • • -147 • • :501 069

I!1!I 1. ior exapnalaa.r b'~evl ,ti." ... !~. 2.1 pp. 7-9 2. It: th."·' ,>o.e.t wi-iDe tb ..... 1 • tn • .rla.l_ «et •• leted. But tbe er1&IJlal aerial -t..r 1. tept

to f:l' :e e_parl .. a bet-•• !' •• l •••

10C

••

11,

••

• •

• •

062

... ••

• •

082

276

••

•• • • 117 •• • •

•• -118 055 ••

107

TABLE 4.4

ADJUSTED CCE.~rlCle~rr Of' MULtIPLE DETEilMINATIOtf FClt PUL1. AND CleST.lICTllD .ooe~ - ;ICBiCINJ ,HIIEN

i>ependent variable-

Adjaetcd coefficient of aultlple determination ((2) _____ ______ .. _______ -.....~ ____ .. ____ •. A. ___ _

Pull lIodel a •• trlctod model ~---- ••• ___ ~ _____ .... ___ ... ________ _ ___ I II .. _____________ •• aM __ _

-

11

12

13

14

1~

16

11

16

19

20

21

22

23

24

a 16

17

28

. -

PUwE

All

Hti

HOo

BY

R'I

\'jQc

~y

iDM

FY

PS

DPS

ANC

FBI

ac

eES

0.26

0.00

0.61

0.74

0.79

0.38

0.27

o.ot-0.16

0.00

0.10

•

-0.61

0.29

0.61

0.74

0.~2

0.79

0.38

0.91

1.00

0.02

0.27

0.06

0.17

-0.19

0.70

• for expansion of abbt'ov!:ltlons, r.fe~ Table 2.1, pp. 7-9.

101

pat.hs MV be disc.s.ed. The major cmaDges are tbat foUl'

variables, via., religion, .o~k Index, ~aa.on lo~ ~~kln9 .nd

.. e of contraception ceased to be cauaal age.ts and tbat two

Yarlablee, pre~arrla~e work e.pe~l.nce and role conflict •

• e.eed to be dependent variables.

Ott," lour va£'labMs whlcb have ceasad to be cau,al

.'lehts, religion a nd \'#o~t lnde. aake the l~ 8xl t f~OII tbe syst ...

The otber two yariab1 •• , ~ •• on for wo~kln~ and usa of contra­

.eption 10sa their laportance in .xpl.1ftln~ fertlllty

differentials aaong worklng -oa.n. These, however, are retalned

In the analysl. for roasons which ahould be c1ea~ In the cours •

• f the dlscusslon.

Tbe va~iabl. rellg10n disappears from tbe syst •• ftot

"rely b~caU5e lt ••• orlg1na1ly treat.ed a8 an lnput of the

s,.t •• but bacause oi tb. fact that t.he coeiiicleDts of tbe t ••

paths drawn froa It were Dot lignlflcant. A~cordln~ to the

~Vpotbelil pr •••• t.d In Cbapte~ 3 re11g10n d.te~ioea fertl11ty

directly and t!u-o,;gh ..... 0' ooauac.eptlon lndirectly. Tbe 11gna

.f the coo1ilclenta .. re In the expected direction thougb Dot

signiiicant. rhe result tbereby indicate. t.bat religion is not

a .. Jor deter.lnant of fertl11ty dlffe~.Dcel aaon9 wo~klDg

WOllen •

• o~k lnde •• a. wal at.ted .arller. 1. the total Duaher

., aontha worked since aarrls1. expres.ed as percenta)e .1 the

total number of .onths •• r:lod. Its Don-significant relatlonshl,

with ch1ldren eyer born could be becauae of tbe small varlatlon

109

In the Index - .o.t 01 tbe .... n 1ft the ••• ple had Itart"

wo~ting t.medlately alter •• rrl.ge or •• re wo_kin] for tbe .hole

duration of .. ~rlage. Since .o~t 1nde ••• , originally treate •

•• an lnput vari.ble .nd .1nco the only Pltb drawn f~om It

gets ~.l.ted. thl1 variable allo gets .1'-lnated I~OD t~ .,at ...

A' far .... e 01 oon~.o.p.lon .nd reason for .o~kID9

are ooncernod, tbough they do not continue to be oaus.l alQnta

they continue to be dependent .art.bles. The bJpotba •• ,

concernlnJ the woaan '. naaoft for wo_klng wa. tba t. those lib.

wort out of choice than .erlous flnancial ft~.d will want onl,

1 .. 11 f.al1y •. ld, tberefora, .. , b. aOre prone to aCG8pt f .. l1y

plannln~ mothOds to control blrths. thus tbe relation •• sw.e4

betw.8n reaSon for wo~tlng and Quaber of cblld~.n ever born .. ,

an indlrect one througb ... of contra~eptlon. The rasult

Indicates that the relattonahip ...... d JOGS not hold true.

Slallerly use of oontracoptlon does not explatn the variance tn

fertilIty porforaance of .ortln~ women •• proved by the non­

a19nlflcance of tbe path coefficient fro. it to fertility.

Thus the two variables Ibould have b.en deleted from the s,st ..

because of their failu:. to oontribute anyth1ng towards tb.

e.planatlon of fertility differential.. However, they have been

.etaln:d with the bope tbat the flndln~8 of ~18 study regarding

the deteralnanta of t"ae two yarlabl~8 oan be profitably uaed

by .ubaoquent atudloa on the lubjaot.

4,3 R\!eU$plon if 'be 1~8¥l'1'

Having dlsc •• led the oban~ea between the full aad

111

~B.trlctad p.th .odele, a dlscu~llon ba8~d on tbe latter 1.

'a k.n up now.

'lgGr. 4.1 1. th. patb dlagram ehowlng onl, tbe

.lgnlflcant pa~b.. (v.tiabl.1 rel19loul bellefs and .o~t

Index - nucbered 2 and 8 - ar. not In tbe dlagraa as tbey have

oeaeed to .xllt In tbo a,at ••• ) In thl. dlagraa o~.elatiOft.

~~ong lnd.pondent variables and •• ong realdual •• rlabl •• ar.

not Ibown to les •• n tbe ooaplexlty of th. diagram. The dlagr ••

will help to trace tbe Gau.al rolationlblp betwoen varl.ble.

and also to reid the correlation b.tween any two variables ae

tbe sua of the products of all p4th. connectlnJ tho variables.

Tbe rule to flnd tbe corr.latlon b.tw.en any two varlabl:!s f~_

a patb dlagra. il as followa. Tr~c. froD varlabl. Xl to vari.bl.

lJ -In tbe dlagram wltbout going back after golng forward .long

.n arrow and wlthout passing through any varlable twice ln tb •

•••• patb- (~.lghtt 1912. 10').

tbe numu.lcal valu~~ ~lien by the ~ld. of the patbs are

tbe path coefficionts. tbe val~s of tna patb oo.fflclentl

f~ .. the ~sldual variables .ce ~lv •• In the block bealde. tbe

d.penjent va~labl.s. Independent varlablu8 n.-.red 1, 3 to 7,

9, 10, 12 and 26 do not bave r.siduals to them. Tbe variable

fa.lly incOM doel not have r:~sidu.l to it .inca It 1. coaplet.l,

dot.rmlft~d by husband's occupational income, -If.'. occupational

1ft .... and the couDlo's non-occupational lncorne. Effectiv.

duration of l'Iarrla}9 should not ha'''o ha.:J l'.<sldual patb

... "lctent because It Is a~aln a oa •• of ooapl.te deterainatlon.

1'1.

113

r'at a ~ealdu.l path haa nevorth.lesl .. ergod Is d •• to tb.

fact tbat wblle the .ffectlve duration of aarrlage "I arrived

at by takln9 the •• act age at •• rrlaie and current aJe (in

,ears and months) and the .onthl 0' .pouse·. ablence, both

the YJrlabl.!s, current ago and • Je at .arrla 10 •• ere I'ounded

.ff to the oODpleted ,.ara for to. .Itl .. tlon of tbe equations.

Table 4.~ on plje 114 provides the dlffeceace bet.e.n

~.ervQd correlation and path coeificlents. ~orrelat'on

,,,"lclent bet.oen any two variables can be deooapeaEtd lftto

direct ef18~t.IY.n by Pjll indirect effect, and co.relatlon

d .. to comaon or correlated oauis. ~ .ffeota shared wltb otb ••

• xogenous variable. (Duncan, l~12. 137-138). thus the entrle.

In t'-l. 4.~ give. tbe aum of the indlrect effo~ts and .ffecta

d .. to 10mQon cau.ea/.ffecta lbared with other •• 0g8Oo ••

• al"lable ••

'hat 'oll0wI il • discu5110n of h~~ tho dependent

•• ~1.ble9 In the .,ste. are deter-lned. 'ertillty, measured

al the numbar of obl1dren .vel" born, being the ultlaate variable

In which Into:est I, centred. tbe disc ... lon of the findln ..

will start w1th tbat yarlable.

4.3.1 "umP" pt sbildS'p .x.' here' i1xt •• n Ya~labl.s .er. bypotbellatd •• detoralnlng

directly ~ Dumbe~ of children ,vor born. Of them t.n had a

at.tlatlcally aignlflcuftt effect. Thes •• ~" 1n deoreallnQ order

.f iaportanc. of ''''9t .ffect. effeotive dUration of .a~r1.~e

~A3L~ 4.5

DE D~r'" '!Ul;CB adl_ O.~YID C.ILAfloa '" PA~H CODYICIEN!S- (rj1 - 'jl) - '.~OUI" W<IIB

-------------.,----

--11

1,

'4 15

16

, i

1~

13

20

21

22

2' 24

2' 27

28

C 1

-016

•• -~?')

-,e -~

•• 2~3:-l -.,'" .,.:

-~87

••

••

••

••

••

••

••

• •

••

j :- .:3 "5 if.

;1 • •

175 ••

• • 104

· . · . • • ••

• • ••

· . • •

· . ••

· . · . • • • •

.. • •

•• • •

•• • • ., -...,

-" s • •

•• • •

~ .. - ..

CR ~

••

••

••

· . 1"8

• •

124

• •

• •

· . • •

• •

• •

• •

••

~:,

(

071

• •

• •

••

•• • •

• •

•• ..()40

• •

• •

·':37

• •

• •

P 7

•• •• ••

••

••

•• ••

••

••

• •

. . •• ••

000

,065 039

j16 022

NOT ,.,

•• • •

••

••

••

••

• •

••

•• 245

• •

• •

• •

••

••

• •

PS.f. 1'"

•• •• •• ••

••

••

• •

• •

140

••

••

••

••

••

••

••

VE 11

• •

-027

••

• •

•• 198

064

• •

••

••

• •

-028

••

• •

• •

• •

P*~ 12

-020

• •

• •

• •

•• ••

••

• •

••

••

••

••

•• ••

• •

.& -, A"

13

• •

• •

••

• •

• •

••

• •

041

• •

• •

• •

062

• •

••

-3o,

HB 1.

••

03'

••

• •

• •

••

• •

• •

139

••

••

••

• •

••

• D .. l.at p.tat., "! '"!'fIt> ~~en "Itt.,.,. .n l eDtrlea abeal,. \ •• 1 n ... \.1 1000

lot,: 1. For 2. !7 ~ ~-~ .., tJ

'~;;;:-J, .ltioaoa ... Table 2.1 pr:;.7-9 .. ;._ 4.3

114

Ra. 15

•• 023

••

••

•• ••

• •

••

•• ••

••

••

••

fiT 16

• •

41'

• •

••

• •

,M

••

• •

• •

• •

••

• •

'00 18

••

07G

••

••

•

• •

• •

· ,. ••

-229

VT 19

• •

• •

'" • •

••

-129

• •

••

• •

~1rt 20

••

••

• •

••

• •

• •

py 21

•• -180

••

••

. . • • ••

457 -301

FS 22

• •

092

• •

• •

• •

2~4

D~3

~

••

••

• •

'~f4

3';7

AID 24

••

• •

-n5 rl

••

nI 25

• •

••

049

RC 26

• •

-018

CD 28

••

115

d •• lred f •• l1y slz., curront 8g-, 8J- at .arrl.~ •• occupation

.f wife. first birth interval, fecundlty, f •• lly Income,

f •• l1y structuce and rol_ oonflict. for .a.y reforence •

•• ga_.t of flg~. 4.1 Ie reproduced bere (figure 4.2) with .11

tbe factor •• ffectlng children ever bo~n.

r 7

FY .1.1

-

fi7l L-!.U

Aaong tbe paths to fertlllt" tbe one wlth the largest

coefficlont 1. from effectlve duration of .ar~la9. (P2S.20 •

• 301). Since tb. exposure to the rl.k of pregnancy lftcrea •• 4

with duration of •• rrlaJe, tht. rnsult 1. In a~r.e .. nt with the

i ' L_

116

.... on observation. P~o. table 4.5 It can be loan that.

peateI' portion of tbo COl'r.latlon ooefficlent betvNen .".ctlv.

d~atlon of marriage and oblld:en evel' bOl'n Is lelt unexplained

b, tbe path coeffiCient, P28.20. An explanation for this cannot

ba provldod sinee the Indll'act ~outes t~ou9h which ,"eotlv.

duration of marriage _'fects ohl1dren ever born Is not sp.ol­

'lcally hypothesized.

Closely following the patb f~om .I'ectlve dUration of

.. rrlage to lertll1ty are the paths i~om d.sll'ed , .. lly sl ••

aad curent age (P28.23 - .216 and P28,6 :a .272). tbl. lIay .. aD

tbat tb~J9b It Is true tbat tbe Bucber of child=en ever born

laoHa.es with an lnore ••• In the .ffectlve cluatlon 0' .arrlaJ"

tb. number of children doslred a' wall as ourrent age of wo..n

al,o a.suae almost equal '-portanee.

In thelr fertillt, performance. woa.n In the p~esont

.a.pla Goem to go by the nueber of ohlldren they desire to have

la thelr fa.l1y. rbl. indloates tbat apart f~oa the slaple

.echanism by wb1ch .ffective duration of marrl ... deteralne.

tbe number of ohildren ever born, tbe attitude. and proforeno ••

of the .oth:)rs also assum"s lmportan;e In detoralning the

ohildren born to • ma.'r lad oouple. AI far as current a jO of

w'fa 1. concaraed It would appear tbat It bas a aore or 1, ••

equal illportance as duration of .arrlage and desired fa.ily

.1a' in d'torainln~ chi.ld .en ever bOZ'n. It bell, Ia.ever. to

be r ... mbered tbat thl. Yarlabl. aots lndiroctly also on cbildren

.ver born. Tb~ indlroct effect of current ag8 can be calculated

by .ultlplylng the path ooefflcients of all direct paths 1ft

each tract separately and adding the productS. It i, eviden'

fro. Figure 4.2 that ourrent .Je of .... n ba. tbe large.t

number of oompound paths leading to fertility. The nine Indirect

patb. oonnectlng the.e tlofO val"iabl81i - cUl"l"ent a~o and fertility

- are gl'''8n below.

CA~ DPi~caa CR~ WE ~IlM~~EB CA ~ Wi -'> D'S ~ca.

CA ~ I. -? 100 ~ I' --4 p, ~ caa CA~ ,,~.OO --,>IY -4 Py-+,a ~cal

CA~'I-7'OD ~., ~P' ~'i -7 D'S ~CI.

The total of these coapound path coefflcionts (total

Indirect .ffect) worked out to .390 tow.rds which the large.t

oont1"lbutlon (.260) .a ... de by the GOIlpound path CA-~ED.4C1a.

It .. y be noticed that the tot.l indirect .ffect 1 •• uOh greate.

than the direct effect of .272. It 1. a1ao greater than .316,

the figure given in Table 4.~. This .eaftS that tbe effect .hloh

tbls variable share. with other exogenous varl.bl •• tn deter­

.Inlng tho cor~elatlon betwoen current age .nd fertillty I,

.egative. The direct .ffect and indirect .ficct of c~rent age

en fertility add up to .662.

Tbe fourtb variable dlrGctly d.te~lning fertility I. age

at .. rrlage of the wa.en. Tbe direct .ffect of thls variable

118

on cblldren evor born ••• ealUred by path coefficient II

-.156. This e.t.bllsboa the general trend for .a.en who .arr,

at a later age to b.ve fewer obl1dren. Tbe Indirect .ffect .,

age at aarrlage on fertility i8 througb Its lnfluon~ on

.ffectlve duration of •• rri.... Tbe effect Is almost equal to

the direct .flec~ (-.11&). Tbul higher .Je at .arriage, be. Ide.

reduoing the period of expOlure to tbe r1sk of prognancy, brings

down tbe number of obildren ever born .a • rosult of tbe .a.y

advantages accomp.ny1ng late a}e .t aarrlage .entioned 1ft

Cbapter 3.

Occupation of wlf. I, tbe fifth varlabl •• ffectlng

fertility. The type of occupation Is havln; a negative path to

fertility (P2~,18 • -.141) and 1. In Justification of tbe hypotheals

put forward. This meana tbat blgber l~atU. Jobs whlcb .110

Involve. high responsibility Is aSSOCiated with low fertl11t,.

There are three oompound patbs leading from wlf.'s occupation to

oblldren evor born. All the three op.rat •• via wife'. lno ...

and fa.l1y lnc08e. Tbe paths ar ••

loe~ IY~'Y---+ca •

• 00 -+IY ---} py -- PS ~CI •

• 00"----7 WY ~ PY --'! llS ~ Of'S -~ cas

The IU. of tbe productl of tbe.a patb coef'lol.ata It

.024. Th. Indirect .ffact brings down, though negligibly, tb.

negative effect of wlf.'s eocupatlon on nuab.~ of children ever

born. Tbis can be .tt~lbuted to the positive effect wife ••

occupation bal on faall' In.o.e wbloh 1n tu~n h •• positive

."

119

.ffect on ohl1dren ever born through lta dlr •• t and lndlreot

.flecta.

The .lxth and .ev.nth variabl •• directly affecting

fe~tl1lty are first bl:tb lnterval and fe.undlty r.spectively.

The •• variablos are mea$urea of I.oundlty. Tbo path coeificlent

.f first blrtb lnterval 1. -.118 and tbat 0' feoundlty 1 •• 091.

Tbese ~esults a:e In the oxpected direotlon. Path coefficient

0' -.llS aho,,:s that as the first birth Interval lno"a.e. tho

auaber of ohildren evey boyn will be le~.. Tbis 'I a.

expected bacause an lncrease In first blrth lnterval ,In t!a.

ablence of use 0' birth oontrol .ealure, can b •• ttrlbut.d ,.

Iub-fecundity of one nature or the other. Slmllarly, woeen who

do not conslder it dlffioult for tn.. to get pregnant are 11kel,

to bave a blgher fertility than thoae wbo consider lt al not

.a.y. Thls lattor variablo exerts its lnflu:nce on 'erttl!t,

through first birth lntorval allo, the compound path coefflolent

belng .046.

Tbe GOefficlent of the direct path f~oa faally lncoae to

obI1dren ever born I, .069. The positive diract effect 0' faally lncome on obl1dren eVer born 1. not expected. It wal

concluded f~om a revlow of earllor studi •• tbat •• the faal1y

lno.e lncraases there wl11 be a tendenoy to ha ,'e lesser n_ber

.f cbildren as the parents •• , want to Improve the ·quallty· 01

thelr ohll-lren. On thl. b •• l., a neg,Itlv. dlrect e'fect 0' f •• lly Income on children over born wae hypothe.l&ed. But tbe

p •• ltlvo patb coefficient .bow. tbat the cbances of having a

larger ftuaber of children lacrea.e, along wltb aft Increase 1ft

, •• 11y income. Tbe Indirect effect Obtaln.d from tbe two

,o.pound ,aths leading f.oa fa.lly Inoo.e to fertility (.018)

."ly enhances thl. effect. lIowever, tt.ls Is more than off.et

by tbe efieet of Common antec~d.nt vartables, whlcb In thl •

.... 1. -.318. b.lnglng a negatlYe total association between jofl

'aal1y tncome and ohild.en ever born. whloh 1.~llne with tbe

oonclualon of previous studl •• on tbe .abject.

F .. lly .tructure baa a positlv. influence on fartl11t,

('28,22 • .062). Tbl •• eana tbat tbe "uclear , .. lly houlebold.

are likely to have , h19ber fertility than the other typel 0' living ,.r,ngementa. It la ala. Interesting to note tbe positive

effect tbe faally .truot~. ba. on de. Ired f.ally size. Th.se

.elatlonahlps taken a. a .mole ahows tbat nucl.ar faally

.tructure Is conducive to larger number of ohl1dcen which 1.

In oontradlctlon to the popularly bald belief tbat a Joint

',.lly Is more conduolve to bavlng • larger ... ber of oblldren.

The lalt &aong the variables directly afrectlng fertillty

In tbe presont model Is role oonfllct. Th. dlrect relatlonlblp

.,"e.n role oonfllct and fertillty ..... to be lnterostlng.

It was bypothell.ed tbat peopl. wltb blgh Intenllty of ~ole

conflict wlll be having a ,.aller numb.r of children than tbo ••

wltb lewer lntenllty of ~ole conflict. aut tbe ~.ault obtained

('28,26 a .0"> sbowed the opposite. This oould be beeau.e tbe

cla.alfication of ~olc confl1ct In tera. of lntanllty .a. no'

adequa" ••

-'

~21

Tbe deooapolition of the total as.oelat1on betwe.n

'h ••• o~enou$ variables on chl1d~en ever born are .uclar1aed

in Tabl. 4.6 given b.low fo~ eal, rofereDce.

•

Oepe­adent Vel'l­abl.

TABUi 4.6

DECeJAP.)SITIO:. O~ THIl TOTA.L A.;iS();l;\rlO~' BEh ••• THE V;\ll IABLE CHILD.~EU EVE:l BeRN AND IT;;,; DLtECT

DE TE R.I rtA NTI

Indepe­ndent Var"~ . able ..

-Total as.oo1-.ltlon ~)

D1rect. efleot (Pj1)

Total 1Dd1-1'80t effect

Total .ffect col. (4)+ col. (~)

C_on .ff •• , col. (3)-001. (6) _~ __ .. ___ _ ____ a •• ___ ••• __ I __ 1 •• _ ••• ________ •••• _. _____ _

(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) a_a.1I I _au d ______________ •••••• ___ ••••• _. _________ •

I i I i

1011

Dli

CI.

•• 10-

'II

• " ,. ac

• 7:.1

.631

.:'88

-.4:'9

-.316

.112

.301

.216

• 212

•• 1~6

-.141

·.118

.091

.069

.062

4.3.2 Us' of oontracept1qQ'

-•

.381

-.048

.011

.031

-

.301

.a76

•• 123

·.118

.139

.066

.093

(7)

-- .----.

•• 00

·.33

+.049

•• 021

-.318

A. 1nd1cated earl1er, the path connect1ng oontraception

122

to the nu.ber 01 Gblldr.n do •• Aot have el;DlflcaDt

... fflolent. rbl •• ay bave beeD due partly to non-dl.olos~ •

• , uae of contraceptive. by eoae of the reaponJent.. In any

.a •••• tbe effective uae of blrth control method. are

'aportlnt In oontrollln; fertility. the factors d.teralD1Di

.. e of contra;aptlon are discussed below.

Plv. yarlables are f.und to be determlnlng the use of

birth control measure. out of the tblrt~.n bypoth •• la.d

yarla ble.. Tbo caulal • Jonts In tb<! order of deere :lS Ing

i.portanee are current age of wife, f.cun~ity .e evaluated by

tbe .e~ponJ.nt bar.ulf, wlf.·, residential background, agree­

.'At on n~3b.r of cb1ldren and desl~ed number of obildren (se.

Pig .... 4.3).

121

It is intereatin", to know that t.he current a;Je of

wl'. bahavod in tbe opposite dl~.ctlon than ••• expected. Tbe

genQ~al expectation .a. that younger women are mo~e likely to

pl"acti.e contraception than olde~ women becau.e of thei," hlgbo"

level of education and ao:e adaptlvo •• ntallty to the changing

conditions of life. ae.ldea the.e, the fact tbat the birth

control lDotbods bec •• e popular at a t1_ when tbe older WO.8n

al~ht bave croased tbe mOlt effective ohild bearing period can

b8 cited as a .upport to tbe above a"gu.ent. aut the negatlve

path coefficient, P27,6 • •• 411, .peat. differently and .h~1'

tbat .o;e of the 01d81" women are u.lng birth cont,"ol .ea'~ ••

a. compared to younger women. A possible e.plan~tlon of tbl.

oould be tbat old.r woaln .l~bt have achi~v~d and perhaps even

o,"o'.ed the level of fel"tillty they d •• ired and, therefore, go

ln for b1rth preventive •••• ul"e&. wbile tbe younger wGaen .ay

.til1 be delaylng the u.e of contracoption al they may not bave

felt the need yet. The indirect effeot of current ago on ule of

contraception 1, .023 and Is ln tune with the exp.ctatlon.

The negatlv. path fl"o. wife" I'esldontlal background to

u.o of contraception, '27,3 • -.13'. indic.te, that .oaen who

had .pent most of their 11le tl .. before .acriage tn a "ural

.et up are les. 11k.1y to u •• b1rth control .ethods compared to

women with an urban backJround.

"'.Gelation be1:.we •• l l.tc\lftJlty and p=actlsG of oontraceptlon

(P27,7 = -.165) .upport tbe bypothesi. ~bat wo.an .. ~ find it

... y to ~at pregnant us. birth control aethoda .ore than tho ••

wbo doubt their feoundity.

Tbe path coefficient of .Oa2 from dosired f •• lly .1&.

to birth control practice can be interpreted a8 those wbo

desire a small faally will be car~ful not to exceed the

d •• lred DUDber by usln~ some birth oontrol •• a.ure. to prevent

or postpono births.

dhen both husband and wife agree on tho numb.r of

ohildren they should h.ve 10 their faally, the=e will be a joint

effort on their part to se. that tbe numb.r 1s oot exoe.ded and

'0 a.e contraception to ~lve effect to their decision. This i •

.bet the path coefficient of .117 from agree •• nt on ouaber 01

"lldren to uso of contrac~ptlon Indicate ••

4.3.3 ~l:st birth interval.

Fecuodlty of the r98pond9nt al evaluated by herself

..... to be .. anlngful. Thia variable det3raine. the first

birth lnterval. The path co.fflclent of -.409 lndlcate, that

the longer first blrtb lnt.rval Is found aaonJ tho •• who

oonalder that gettln~ pr~~ftaDt 1, not easy for th... Tbi.

show, that the s.lf-evaluatlon of feoundlty bas a baa. In

~.aI1ty.

4.3.4 6gr .... " eo nHmb" of eh41dE'pl

F1gUre 4.4 pro~eQt. tbt dlreot deter.lnaots of a~.e.ent

on nueber of ohildreo.

The obs~rved negative relatlon.hlp bet ••• n age at

.. rrlaj9 and ag~e~aent can be lntorpreted thus. alreemeftt

.aong spou.es regardlng the number of ohildren tbey .hould

havo In their fl .. l1y lnereasas with an Incrc.Jse In tbe age at

aarrlaJe. Thls I, a:oordlng to the 9xpectatlon. The path

c •• fficient of .130 from wi"" lnco.e to .9r0~ent .h~'. tbat

•• tho 1ncOilo increa, •• , the spouses etther -:leagreo with "egard

to the number of Children they Ihould have In the famlly or

they will not discuss this .att.r at all. Thls, of cour.e,

i. not the hypotheai •• d relationship.

4.3.' Joslrad f!ally s\I1'

Tbe direct deter.lnant::. of d •• lred .'amlty s1z8 az-e thr ..

In number .s ca. be ••• n fro~ fl~ure 4,~.

In order of d.cr.a.ln~ Importance ~b.8C variables are

J

126

wlf.', .ducatlon, current 8J8 of wlfe •• nd faal1y atructur ••

tbe negative coefficient of dlrect path I~o. wlfe" educatlon

,. daslred fa.l1y sla. indioat., ~bat a, educational lov.l

lncreasos the d~&lced f •• l1y slze will be lallin~. Education

.. , help women to unde~stand tho dlfficulties 1nvolved 1n

b~1nglng up a large famlly or conversely tho advantsJe. of

bav1nJ a small famlly. The compound path coefflclent f~oa

.ducation ~o de.lr.d l.ml1y alae 1s very negligible (.OO~) •

.... n belonglnJ to an older ~eneratlon will be ln favour of

a lar~e desired fa.lly size comp.red to their younger oounter­

parts (P23.6 - .295). The path coefficlont of .113 fr .. ' •• 11,

Itructure Ind1cat •• tbat p.ople living 1n nucloar ' •• 111.,

l~

desire more children. This r 1 latlonahlp ~oas agalnst tbe

.egatlvo path bypotbollzed on the bel!el that the burden of

ohlld ca~o from having a large numbor of children would .ake

nucl~ar famllie. desire a small family size. That this

~,pothesl. wal not aubatantlated Gould be due to any 01 •

varied lat of reasons. ~or e ••• p18, oouples mlJht deal:.

1.rgo.~· numbor of childre" with the expectdtlon tha .. they could

obtain 110:0 help 1n tholr old .-Jaa. AlteJ:'natlvall thol. Itaylng

1n joint families might be bavlnJ a hlgbe: financial burden

According to P19ur~ 4.6 l&al1y at:ucture i, deteralned

by husband's education and fa.lly Income.

F',ACtP.f ~.J R..r 2),_., .... 01 1M J)clt"""_,, ... o! F".",,~ £iW'U£~ j

~----------------------------------_____________ -1

lL2S

The nega tl ve GOof f iolent for the path bet'·/llen husband-.

educatlon and '.al1y .truoture (P22,14 ~ -.243) was not expeoted.

The ne9Gtlve slgn of tbe path coeiflclent means that hlgbew

educat10n of husband Is assoclated with • f.Dlly .t.ucture

other than nucloar. For thia, tho only plau.lble explanation

•• ea. to bo that, liven the .... Incoae, hlgbor education will

p~omota In men a f~elln9 of obligation towa~d. tb.l~ relati.e.

~ho could happen to be poor (a general .1tuatlon in the low

1ncoma ec~unlt!.(9). Tt-us they MY b. taJdn"; at least t.helr

pertftts t~ stay with them.

Tho path coefficient of .186 f~o~ family Inoome to

family structu:e 11 In expected direction. As tbe iaally Incom.

lncra.les It 18 mo;e thaA l1k.ly ~at the COU~18 w111 be in

'.vour of nuclear f •• l1los.

4.3.1 Ftm11x Incoill

Th~ path dl.y~.m of tho determinants of '.al1y Incoae

••• liven In ~lgur. 4.7.

fFYl" G!!J

Fla... ,."1 7»-.11: ])i.."...... •• lite ~ .... ..n t fe.cal-...e

129

'aal1, lnooae a. defined In this Itudy, I, oQaPletel,

deteralned by the occupational Income of husband and that of

wlfe and the nOR-occupatlonal income of tbe husband and wlf ••

It I, • case of ooaplete d.te~.lnatlon.

4.3.8 Effectlve.s.uratloh 2f M££ilg"

affeotlve duration of •• rrlaJ' is oompletely date~in.d

b, tb~ae facto:& Via., current a~e. ag8 at •• rrlage and period

.f spouse's ab9~nce (refer Pigure 4.6). The presence of the

PSA 10

CA

" WE 1 2

I .

~e.idual path bas already been clarified earlier (p.113). The

path ooefflcient of .86~ from cur~ent age to ef:ectlve

duration In~lc~te. that when tbo .~. at .arrlage and period

Of spouse" ab,ence are beld constant, tbe bl~bQr the current

age, the larger the duration. Si.ila~ly, with current a~. aDd

perlod of apouae's absance held constant, when tho a~. at

.arriaga ls high amaller will be tbe dUration (P20,13 ~ -.~14).

Tba UDltandardl.ed ~egres'lon co.fficients fo~ the path f~oa age

at .arria~e (a.asured ln y.ar.) to .ffective dUration of aarrlage

(.ea,ured in aonth.) ls -11.7 and that fo~ bet~een cur=ent age

and effectlve dUratlon of aarr1age 11 11.6. Thla aeans that

al.oat one year 1. lost with each Increasing year of age at

.arriage, and that almoat on. year of .arrlage ls gainod with

each lncraaslng ,ear of a .... n·. age. In the preaence of such

a 11.ilatity, the dlft.~.ftCQ' in the path coefficients (P20,13 -

-.~14 and P20,6 a .8~) .ho .• tbat current aJe ba. a .ucb great.~

.ariance than tbe a~e at .arrla~ ••

A. expected, period of .pou •• •• absance al.o bad a

negatlv. path (P20,lO • -.219). that 1., larger the period of

I.paration ... llar w111 b. to. .ffective dUration of .arriaJe.

From now Oft a disturbance in the sequance of explanation

of variablos may be notic.d. It i. don~ with the expectation

that when va~labl)s that are 010 •• 1y relatod are put togeth.~

It .111 be easier to explaln them.

tin fO " edy;at1an. retaqn for wgr,lng. occupatlon .04 __ cOia I

aducatlon, o~cupatlon and income are the th~ee laporta.t

.oolo-oconomic Ita tUB indicators. Noodlesl to say that they are

lnterr~lated. They a~e, therofore, troated togetber f~

explanation. The factor. directly lnflu~ncing the •• variable.

J.31

8~. pro •• nted ln Plgure 4.9. Tb~ee varlab12s that .xe~t

C 1

CR. 5"

'!'Q,I\ Dt~"Q'" ol.. IFic :»eler tNhQnh 0; b6~s Eell4CQli(,;), ) "" '->COI'J<,,,~ I OcVup Q\iOh Q'"II incotWl&

tbelr lnfluonce on wlfe·s educatlon are oaatG, resident18l

baokground and age. The r01atlonablpa are ln the eXpicted

dt.aotlon. The path coefilciont of -.4~7 f~om caate to

educatlon .ho~·/s that ca.te ls a powerful deter.lnln,;} facto~

of oducatlon. The n.g~tlve algn means that low caste .... Q

are less educated. .o.en wltb an urban background are l1kely

to be mo:o educated than thoao with a ~ural background ('11,3 •

• 182). ,-omen of higher &;0 Jroups ha'Je fewer ye~ra .1 achool1ng

to their crodlt compared to those in the youDger age g~oup •.

(p 11 ,6 • -.121).

13~

The .. In ~oas.na affectlnJ tbe ~easons fo~ a .088n'.

wort part1clpatlon are ber caate, her education and her husband's

Income. It .eoa. that hl~b oaate ... en wo~k for ~da.on~ otbe.

than financial (P11,1 • -.014). It can bo noticed tbat f~o.

rable 4.5 that the unexplained part 0' the oorrelatlon betwe.n

ca.te and r:)aSon for wortln~ (-.338) I. lIuch larger ln .. ",I tude

than tho path coefficient, '11,1. The major part of this un­

explained portion 1. accounted for by the ooapound path froll

.a.te to re~.on for wortln~ t~ou9h wife'. education (-.232).

Caate ha., bOlld •• the above, • fe. aor. oompound pathS to

rea,on for nortlnl through hUlband', education, hi •• ccupatlon,

and his lnco.e al can be •• en f~oa 1lJure 4.9.

The positive path froll busband'. Income to roslon for

work1ng ahau. that as the Inc ... loew ••••• the partloipatlon by

•••• n ln oconomlc activit, gets ~.llnkod f.oa flnancla1

necassltl0s. That Is, woaen .a, go ln for work for ~ea.on •

• tbar tban sheer economic necesiity. Conver.ely, the wives of

1 •• lnco •• ear"e.:. wl11 take to w.rk for '<lx-nln;) an addltional

lno .. e to h.lp aeot tho nec8s.1tlo. of 11i ••

Caate and education of Wife mainly deter.lne ber

.ce.patlon. Of tho two, edUcation wlth Its path coefflel."t of

.818 ls tho chl.f deteralnaftt. Hlgber tbe luvel of educatloft

hlgber wlll be the .ccupatlon. The path ooefflclent f~oa oast.

to occupation t. -.135, Indlcatlftg bigh oaste Is aseoclated

.lth hlghor o:cupatlona. a.ferrlng bact lt can be ••• n that

13.3

.a.t. ,S a .aJor det.ralnant of the level of education and tha'

higb caste wo .. n wlll be botter educated .oaparod to otber

.a.t... Tbe lnverse rela tlon.hlp ls what ls expected. It .ay

~e .entioned that these two varlables are able to explain 19

per cent of the variation 1n occupation.

tbe type of occupation explains a •• jor part of tbe

.orrelatlon betwoen wife'. iooo.e and occupation. Whlle the

correlat10n coefficient between thea , •• 643, the path co­

.fflclent 1 •• ~73. The othor determlnln~ factor of wife'.

income Is curcent resldence (P19.& • .144). Aa bypotb •• laed

tile I"eaulta reveal that urban re'ldents wlll baie a large" lnooa.

Ir .. tho sa .. occupation compared to rural residents.

4.3.10 ~y$bapd" edycation. occupation aAd lDiPI ••

The deteralnants of these va.lables are glven 1ft

'lgure 4.10.

f,,;,qu. It .JO Pd lMT"'" _. itr&

CR S·

dtllY ...... -t .... _... C~IlC .. Itn. 0ccAr. ~""" CU\d I.,,~..

L~----------------------------------------~

134

All tho relat10nships .re 1n the expectod d1rect1on.

Two varl.bles .re found to be .1;nlflcantly lnfluonolng husband'.

educat1on. They .re husband'. ~e.1dent1.1 b&ckground and oa.te.

Of the two, oas~e with its path coefficient of •• 491 1s more

important than tbe othor. Thi. aeana that the high oaste people

,et .n educat10n higher tban that of the low caste people. The

'ow .aste people .re _05tly .ooRonicaliy backward. They have

tbeir own trud1t1onal occupatlons to follOW which does n~t

d •• and .ny level of educatlon. This 1s ovldent f~o. the relation­

.blp betwoen caste and ocoupatlon (Pl~,l • •• 06'). That la,

low casto people follow low l!vel of occupations. It .ay be

noted that the 1nd1rect .lfect of ca~te through tha compound

puth vla education (-.367) 1a mucb greater than lts dlrect

ettect on occupation. Tbis obvloully indiCate. that tbe effect

of caste on occupat1on 1a aoee through 1ts efrect on oducat1on.

Thosa resulta are .1 •• 1n oonformity witb the flndings in

r •• pect of -o .. n'. educat1on.

_ben the caste factor is kept oonatant, those with .n

urban background g~t aore education than thoa. wlth • rural

backJround. It •• , be because the oppertunities for educatl ..

are hl~ber 1n urban areaa ... pared to rural .r ••••

Occupation a. well as current residence deteraines hi,

lncoma. H~1QVor. occupatlon is the •• jor dete~lftant, (P16.1~ •

• 033).

1. 4.3.11 ~e.t .~r:lage of wife.

Tbe age at Ul)" th:~ a __ an gets u:rled Is detenlned

by ber rosldentl.l background, ber educational level, .nd be~

pr .... rrl.ge wo~k .xperlJnce. All tha thre. vari.blol .r. posltively ~alated to ale .t •• rrla~. (ref.r Figure 4.11).

®[ AM} .1'· .. 13

WE' 11

r. __ aa 4·n ,. Jliwj - ., .... ~"""-~. , "r ... "ffUW"

Ill.', level of education. with lta p.th ooefflclent

of .736 ia the major deteraln.ftt of .,e .t •• rrlaga. IUgber

tbe level of education, higher wl11 ba the IJe .t •• rrla Je.

Slmllarly, longer the p~riod • woaan has worked before •• rrlag.

bigher will be ber age .t .ar:l&;e (P13,12 • .331). The PIth

o .. ,Elclent of .062 from realdentlal b.ckg~ound to .,0 It

•• rrlaJ9 lndicate. tbat thoa. wlth urban back:Jround tond to

.Irr, later than thol. with rural background.

4.4 Evaluatlon or the mod.l.

The b.,lc fo~mul. of path analyale,

l' j 1 • i P j k I'tl

I

114

helps one to c~lculate the expected co~relatlon betw.en two

.arlables ln tha patb model with the help of the estimated

path coefficient. If this difference betweon the ob.erved

and the .atlaated correlattons are nl1 or negliglble one can

repOSG confl~anc. ln the proposed path .odel. A large difference

could lndlc"lte, a •• _ln~ the causal orderln-J to be cOI":ect,

that some of tho path coefflclen~s that bave been a.suaed , •

.. ael"o a~e not actually ae.o.7 or that there a:e correlation

.. ong residual v41"1ab14s 01' that a ooablnatlon of tbe t •• are

opel'atln~. By tbe su,.~;;e •• lve appllcatlon or the ba.lc 'o.",la

to I'tlt each I'jl oan be expres.ed completely ln tera. of path

••• fflclents and oorrelatton aaong exogeno",s varlables. That

ta to .ay, that each such eatl.ated oorrelatlon .111 ·conslat

., a slngle direct path plus the sum of •• vcral compound path.

representing all the indirect connectlons allowed by the

dlag~~ (Duncan. 1972. 122). To dlstlnguish .uCh esti.ated

correlation i~ .. tbe Ob.erved onos, the formel' will be referred .. to a. l"jl and the latter a. ~$l.

U.ln) the algol"itbm descl"lb,)d by Heise (1969. 70-71)

~;l Is calculated and the r •• ult. are presented In Table 4.7

on paJ8 137. each cell In thl. rable La an expected

cor"latlon bet"1e8n variables I and J. In Cdlcul.ltlng tbe ••

1 A ... pleta recurs1ve patb .ode' could reproduce the observed •• I'relatlon matrix. Discrepancies ·can arls., only when one bas bypotbesiaed a model aore par.l.oneous than a full seal. rocurslvo .odel, that la, when one baa a.auaed .... poselble paths that .1~ht .xist In the recur. Iva .odel do not, In fact, exist- (Hel.e, 1969. 62).

~ABLI 4.1

• • UP,~ED CORRU,AflOW aoDPICIDfS (r ~1) - ,\.)dllIiG iiOfBl

C .,B HI CR Ch , :IOY PSA liE ~'MWJI AK HI 1 :5 4 5 6 1 9 10 11 12 " '.

11 -t61 257 124 156 018 065 041 -016 1000

" ·'21 232 064 0"18 060 020 021 -013 711 ,,6 1000

14 -513 179 218 176 192 059 079 -01, 244 -006 166 1000

15 -448 1(9 1n 145 164 051 068 -011 212 -005 145 180

16 -386 170 194 217 160 051 051 -023 191 -006 128 '67

11 -224 185 117 142 092 052 044 -015 "" -015 4" '07 18 -!)1, 242 124 "5 09B oe 05' 017 an -02' 625 269

19 -324 208 145 221 091 051 032 -011 526 -o1E 369 119

20 -111 122 214 t!OO 854 -108 073 -29' ·'0' -091 -459 084

2'1 -020 169 1a, 21. 154 040 ,60 -010 "4 -023 250 4"

22 121 -012 -019 -002 -018 -007 048 002 009 -005 007 -162

23 095 -<>22 0" 012 267 -055 021 -021 -'56 .0'2 -249 -053

24 1")46 -0,7 001 r{17 1"1('5 001 -002 002 -127 -oee -226 -22' 25 044 -o;'f -018 -(j 34 041 -409 012 -0" -~2' 0" -008 -024

27 -194 -254 -187 -179 -408 -151 -027 C." -119 -017 .107 -093

21 021 042 144 128 513 090 010 -108 -'18 -058 -419 025

-Deel_l po1nts b ... been GlUtted. All eotrieo .r.o .. ld be d1vided b.r 1000 !ISla 1. Ret~ note to ~abl. 4.'

2. Foz eXI>1ID81on ot abbrnl'-1oo8 refer Table 2.1 pp. 7-9

1'7

HOe BY Va. WT .. PI' FS Dil'S 15 16 18 19 20 21 21 2'

1000

847 1000

'25 286

2'4 104 1000

155 091 5'12 1000

070 077 -240 -1og 1000

504 520 '58 541 006 1000

-095 -065 002 059 -019 082 1000

-042 -0'2 -'02 -165 364 -101 104 1000

-020 -02' -072 ~27 -"'14 002 "06 -099

-021 .021 -028 -021 004 -016 00' 022

-10' -104 -119 -085 -321 -102 -019 -026

0'2 079 -341 -150 724 004 084 534

_~NC PSI ~ CD "4 25 ~ 28

1000

000 1000

062 062 -002

022 -122 062 1000

136

expected correlatlons it ls assuaed tha~ the residuals are

aot corr.la~ad and tbat tbe inputs a~e corr&la~~u.

The diiieronce between ~jl and r;i are pra.ented In

rable 4.6 on paSle 139. Confining attention to the fOl'ty elgbt

.~gnlflc·1nt r01atlonahlps, It may be oblet'ved that the entrle.

in Table 4.6 raDJe from .ero to 1.2921. In cleven ca~~s there

.ere no dlf.e~enee. at all. TheV ar. 1'11,1' 1'11,3' I'll."

·13,3' 1'14,1' 1'14,4' ·1~,14' 1'1~tll 1'1&.1' ~16,ll and 1'~.7·

Ie thl'ee of the oa.e. tba diffe2eAo ••• e~. very negligible -

that la, differenc •• appeared only at the third decl •• l. Of the

l'e •• ln1ng, In twenty five ••••• tb. diff.rencea .ere .1gnlfieant

.t the •• oond deoimal. Differenc •• 1n tho flrst de.l .. l .ere

found only •• on1 nlne ca.es •

• Sinc. r j1 tat •• into consideratlon, the ability to

I'eproduce eacb -t1 by path o •• fllel.nt., .ttuatlona ln whloh

Ilj1 - 1';1 is Z81'0 or n:gliglble can be interpreted •• 1ndl­

catlng tbat the path coefficients are oapable of produc1ng

.... rv.d cor:elatlon •

•• • 01'0 and 80:' .f -tl" .I'e inVolved (remember, each I'tl

involved be~e ls an estimated one) the effect of dlfierenoe

• .. tween ~jl and -J1' be.ld.a .oundlng off e~ror •• accumulate,

T"erefore, one sbould be cautioul in lnterpr'Jting t ... <llf f.ll'anc.

* •• t •• en ~jl and ~jl and rem.mb.1' that dlffere.css between 'bese

t •• need not be due to I"R11~t lnadequacy of the ~odel but

.. uld be a r •• ult of tb. inadequaev of • oertain part(.) of the

aodel.

TABLE 4.8

• DIJllBR'EICB BftliEP cmS"SRVED AIm EXf~TED CORRELATION COUnCIEftS (:rji - rji) - WOHING WOMBI'

11

13

14

C 1

WB 3

-012 006

-032 -119

-007 084

15 -005 066

l' -061 117

17 -188 -024

18 -009 -013

19 -014 -007

HB 4

1'4

121

024

042

115

146

108

112

CR 5

CA , 091 -118

095 -034

101 -221

093 -259

077 -178

109 -065

081 -142

046 -113

20 048 -131 -269 -'13' -029

21 -426 090

22 -214 031

109

108

081 -014

25

24

023

103 -097 -166 -049

018 -058 -074 -038

25 -832 -010 -012

181

065

227

124

~ 1

-049

014

NOY 9

261

171

PSA 10

-008

-071

-0'4 183 -050

-007 154 -101

022 266 -094

033 192

-013 249

-002 149

01.

002

023

q PMWE 11 12

••

-002

610

-005

013

572 -014

559 -001

147 -008

001 019

096 -009

AM 13

••

470

HE 14

••

439 000

HOc 15

••

403 087 009

129 373 338

049 549 545

102 414 391

HY 16

••

345

650

484

wOe 18

••

051

WT 19

••

EDJII 20

PI 21

032 -107 222 -105 -038 -014 -421 -435 -321 -077 -072 ••

018 201 -042 401 -004 302 307 246 346 402 279 -216 ••

011 -091 -075 -128 -002 -100 058 023 011 -168 041 212 -074

138 -049

004 076

000 024

044 -048 -138 -157 -327 -298 -244 -018 -054 139 -150

007 -092 009 014 007 -165 -138 -119 -026 312 -056

162 076 -042 -048 049 -011 009 069 038 098 031

'S 22

. . 101

DFS 23

••

095 398

ABC 24

••

036 -034 -033

P1H 25

••

RC 26

21 -096 082 071

01.

022 058 005 -029 -146 057 061 115 038 042 -016 016 002 041 -01 5 -070 008 -055 -061 -029

28 132 -146 -247 -148 015 022 -151 157 -081 -129 -040 -431 -419 -389 -035 039 033 -228 168 097 308 053 -025

*Deolaal pOints have been omitted. All entries should be divided by 1000

Notel Refer note tor able 4.3 - 2. For expansion of aborevi d:ions refer Table 2.1 pp. 7-9

139

CD 28

••

140

low golng ~eyonj ~bo forty elgbt bypotbesiaad relatloa­

.bipa as .uch, one wl11 flnd a s,ate_tlc telldeaoy fo~ l.l'~e

value to o;cuz In rOW8 and ooluan. dealing wlth ~ducation •

• cG~patlon and incoae of wife. rOl' exaaple, the dlffe&8RCe

~tween obsa~ved and expected correlatlona botw~on busband'.

Income and wlfe'l occ~patlon ls .6~O. Thl. Deanl that tbe

observad correlatlon botw~eR busband'. lncoDe and wlf.'1

occupation 1 •• 6~0 larger than the 9xpected value. In the

p"esent study a path was not bypotbesl.ed betw~:.en thes. t ••

varlablal a. a path bas already been .xtended from husband'.

lncoae to wife'l reason for .o~klng. Al.o lt wa. tbought tbat

tbe typo of occupation ln whlch the .1fe II engaged ln, wl11

b. deteralncd .01'0 by tho oducatlonal quallf1;ationa of the

woaan conc:l'nod and tbe demand for their .ervlces. But tbe

flgvre in rab1e 4.8 eaem. to lndlc~te that, such a path, 11

hypothesized, would baye enbanced the explanatory power of tbe

.odel.

Notl~. that the difference betHe.n thu observed and

expected correlatlons betwoen busband's edvcation and wlfe'l

• educatlon a1ao is very high (1'14.11 - 1'14,11 a .610). The

failure to include a path f~o. wlfG'. education to husband'.

educatlo~ may be an error. Thll wal an omlsslon caused by

tbe difficulty of 11ndln~ any thaorotical justificatlon for

.u~h • path. It was felt tbat wlfe'. educatlon could not c,uII

busband's educatlon or the revor.e, a8 they occurred separately_

Howe.er, there II no doubt that education on the part or the

141

wife loaJs to a choice of husband wbo 1s also educated,

wbetber th~ ~a~=laJc 1s an arranJed one or Is by cholco.

Tbe difficulty oi including a patb to indicate this rclJtlon­

sblp is due to tho fact that a slmllar rolationahip also

ex is ts 1n '~;'1: :. of the husband-, choice of wife and

tberefoL'u ca.1:lot uotermlne tba dll'£lctlon 1n which the a:-ro.

should be placed.

"'bl1e it. is not po.slblo to ~1·.'o I.") adeq1ulte

•• plaRatlon for' all ttla dlf{e .. \)n~·..;s bet~ne.! tho obs~rved

a I\d G >cpa Cc.~d co~r81a t i on5, 1 t Gil It bo a a1d tba to on the whole,

Model used htl:; been qulte sat18' .. cto~v 1n :l;(plalnlng the

bulk of tho abG~rvod relatlon~hlps. This ls, how~v~rt not

to 8ug;oat that t~.re 18 no scope for 1mprovement and furtbar

detailed analysis.

CHAPTE£l ,

A CQlPAal~ON O~ THE pa~TILltY DCT~d.lN~Nt~ QP

"QUtlH~ ANU NOt.-d~lI(1H\l w'*in

~.l In\rOductloQI

This chapte. 1& devoted to an examination of tbe

extent to whlcb tho cauaa1 facto~8 Identified for explaining

tbe fertility bohaviour of the working women hold good fo~

analyslnj the fertility of non-workilliJ \1omen. It 1s done by

applyin'J the path .odel developed ea~llert but exc1udlng tbe

wor. related varlablp.., to the data on ~6 non-work1ng women.

Before the analysts 1. taken up It .ay be pointed out

tlaat tbe att •• pt i. only to Identify the 1:'01e of tbe variable.

deteralnlnl the ~en.ral fertility In the case of non-wortlng

woaen. TIaG purpo.e Is not to explaln anp possible difterence.

'n tht) effect the.e variablJ8 wll1 have 1n expla18ing the

fertility of the two ... ple populations conside.ed here. In

ether ~'/ord8, dlfterencel In tho .fieot of the deterllln1ng

facto:s on fertil1ty, lf any, betwuen working and non-worklng

women will be p01ntod out, but wby thet differ Is a .. ttar of

detailed research by Itself, and tberetore, falls outside the

ICOpO of this study.

The aVGra;le numbor of childl"en ever born for the two

••• ol~s a~o as given bel~.

142

•• ~tlng .o •• n I 2.97

"on __ orlclng woa.n I 3.32

The difference, though low In absolute magnitUde .. s

found to be statistically s1gnificant at 2.' p.r cent lov.'

(t valuo -.234). It .ay, tb~refo~., ba ooncluded that working

and fton-~to~kln9 WOllen dlffel" In the 11' fertility behaviour.

~.I fe£tl1ltx de"'tinapts of AQQ-wo;klQa w9l,ol

the relevant paths for the non-workln~ wo..n ~.

pr.sented ill matrix 10m In rable 0.1 on page 144.- this

rable differs fl"om tho oo&respondlng tabla 3.2 only In tha'

the paths to and from work varlabl~s are absent. The sy.t ••

now comprises twenty thr.e varlabl",s - nln. Inpu,.5 and fourte.n

dependent varlable5. POI' the sat. of oonvenionce, the nua.rlcal

subscripts of the variables are r.talned. Th. varlabl., pre.

"1'.r1a Jet work QxpJrlence of wlf.. 1. Included, because •••

non-working .... n had worked for sometlme prior to the~

.. rrla.;l'.

Tbe lo.or part of the corl".latlon coe:ficlont .. trlx

1- given In rable ~.2 on page 14~ and the last two columns of

tb. same rabla glv~s the .ean and standard de91atlona of tbe

variables. The path coe:flcients for the full .od.l (1ncludlni

all patha) 18 pr~a.nt.d 1n Table 5.3 on page 146. The und.1"­

l1ned figure, 1n the Tabla lndle.1t. GO.fileleAt$ whicb are

sl~n1fl·dnt. DG1.'ln~ the .on-significant. paths. the

re't~lcted path .od.l WaS •• t1aat.d and tb. results are

,resonted In ta.bl. 5.4 on pa~e 147. F 19ure ~.1 provide. \h.

fAB': .• : 5.t

n~( . ~T""'" P t~ _ ,."", r...""...?~ q",.""". ll.&.r," .. :(-:;~, 4~V ,~ .r,~oq:",~ _, "..:.

----------- Cause ~ ~-,~

~ff'ect tiS , H3 4

OJ 5

C.l 6

I' 7

:'j (., '{

9 ',,"""

-~--~-~~~~~.~.-.~:--:~-:::--~--------------~======= ;::.-.. /!~ A:Jf

" !!'"-" rro:c

15 RT 16

'::>71 FY i1

FS 2'

!l}'S n

'.1IC 24

·'l3T 25

l,~

?7 ~! :n ~

11

12

" '4

16

20

l'

.... 2' 24

25

27

28

Nob

t. .~.' '.

2 10 11 12 14. 20 ~ ...... ~------.. ~~~ .. ~~~~-... --~ .... ----- .. ~~~ ... ~~~--~.

x •• x

y • • • •

x •• lit

x ••

x ••

•• • •

• • • •

•• ••

•• • • .:-: • •

•• ••

•• • •

•• :<

• •

• •

• •

• •

••

•• . , . ..

• •

x x z

•• •• x

•• •• ••

• II • • x

x •• ••

•• · . . ... • • x ••

• • • • x

•• •• ••

• • x ••

• • • • x

:!t •• • •

• • · . .. . •• x x

•• •• •

• • •• · .. · .. • • •• • • :x •• • • •• •• x x

•• •• • • •• ••

• • •• • • • • ••

•• • • • • • • •• •• •• x • • ••

• • x •• •• •• • • •• • • • • •• • • •• • • JC • •

•• •• • • • • •• x •• •• • • • •

x •• •• x • •

z •• •• •• • •

l1· .. For fton-\"ior~·i.~ v"en, f1ve Yariable. - • 17, 18, 19 · . e aD'! tberefore are reTaoye<3 from the sy:;t ...

'.j ,f' ,·'s to ~~e111t~t. comparison b~t''''e·;n t,~hles.

•• • • •• • • • • • •• •• x • • • •• •• • • • •

•• •• •• s • • • •

•• • •• • • • • x •• • • • • •• • • • • x •• x •• •• •• •• • •• •• ... •• x •• •• •• • • · . •• • • •• ••

•• * •• • • • • • x x • • x x •• • • x x x z •• %

.... ..........-.--..

aad - :!cora1ng te _le1n&1 •• rial .. elll! 1., not But t'"'~ e:-!;-t1'ls.l ser1al Du·t.b::r 1e t~pt tor the otbp.S'

2.For expansion of abbreviations refer Table 2.1 pp. 7-9

144

•• x • •

'lat. 5.2

CCIUlIl"·l!Ia. Oo.nrCI'EN'lS· (r31 >. J113A1fS .» S'lA1IDAIlD UYlA!IOIS _ .O_OBIJIII WOM •

C a VB BB en CJ. ., • OI P3A V-,' p,.... All HE ROe ;:Y IJIt I'Y 1'3 D7I ARC PBI 00 CD .. ~trm«!art , 2 , 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 " 14 15 16 20 ·21 22 2' 24 25 27 28 Devlatlaa

1 1000 1.13 0.80 2 548 1000 1.11 0.'2 , -028 -cxe 1000 1.40 0.49 4 -101 009 359 1000 1.'7 0.41 5 -200 -082 371 316 1000 1.49 0.50 ., .192 -066 034 009 116 1000 ".69 7.94 7 150 068 024 -074 -097 --206 1000 1.90 0.'0

9 -200 -077 094 047 084 121 .1" 1000 1762.'4 ,668.60 10 -019 -as 5 094 028 086 15' 069 ..Q55 1000 6.50 26.0. 11 ~35 -034 10e 022 302 .125 -118 2" -105 1000 8.4' 4.02 12 ()(J:) 011 .065 011 -044 111 .151 -0" 040 -05' 1000 2.05 10.65 13 -08, (;49 -01'1 013 058 184 .0<)4 -098 -092 258 20' 1000 19.20 '.ft 14 -'47 027 129 072 285 018 .150 ", -0'6 749 -069 110 1000 10.70 4.95 15 ·320 -053 1W'l

- J f~')1 329 020 -043 246 -056 587 -096 116 685 1000 '.70 2.67

16 -282 -060 172 042 315 248 .169 197 -018 561 -0'5 "2 615 767 1000 '759.28 5244.~'

20 -142 -076 -00' 01")9 045 871 -215 160 -oga -216 015 -174 -0,' OS6 -018 1000 169.09 96.00

21 -,,8 -os 6 178 056 281 250 -199 '75 .043 547 -04' 047 68, 707 857 218 1000 8521.62 6968.16

22 -067 -0'0 02'.-} 058 054 097 -022 041 .126 090 0'0 056 035 082 107 110 102 1000 1.65 0.48

2' 200 156 -059 -048 -104 364 088 -074 038 -423 042 -110 ·'56 -284 -243 '92 -222 010 1000 2.97 1.24

24 128 054 -073 -006 -036 230 -012 -044 022 -2'7 059 001 -224 -187 -15' 232 -1'8 -009 'M 1000 1.'8 0.49

25 157 002 -nt1 06' 068 113 -23( 099 -028 on 10e 02' 087 044 087 216 118 080 -115 076 1000 18.06 13.55

27 116 187 -181 -067 -109 -087 -204 -091 029 -138 064 057 -198 -22a -210 -106 -206 -Of5 oen 147 05., 1000 1 • .,8 0.49

• 022 -009 -08r; .0'5 -093 520 19' -014 058 454 -026 -207 -'58 -23' -19' 579 -179 069 655 293 -124 -0." 1000 '.:52 1.8.t

• ... 111&1 point. b •• hell oa1tt <:.... All eDtl'l •• ebeuU .. dln ... bT 1000 dI1I.1 1. a.ter note to :abl. 5.1 2. 'or esp_dOD of abbrniatiaa. ~ete:r Table 2.1 pp.7-f'J

( 4-5

'~ABLK 5.3

• ALL PA.tt'1I COEPPICI.-rS ('3i (all) - wo...1fOUm ....

Cause

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------.:teat

11

12

13

14

15

16

20

21

22

23

24

25

27

28

o 1

-~ -006

090

-m. ~

• •

• •

••

• •

152 ••

••

Jl I

•• •• ••

••

· . • •

••

• •

• •

••

••

• •

WB , 102

•• -034

••

••

• •

••

• •

••

017

-OS1

••

•• ,lg -ill -!2§. 051 -062

HI 4

•• ••

••

038

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

02'

• •

••

••

OR 5

• • ••

••

••

• •

~

• •

• •

0'5

••

• •

••

Co7

••

CA 6

-201 -••

-222 -••

• •

••

~

• •

••

l2i ••

p 7

•• ••

••

• •

••

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

••

.. -~ -lJ1 -m. nl 182

BoY '-l

•• ••

-••

••

• •

••

••

~

••

• •

••

•• ••

••

PSA 10

•• ••

VE 11

• • -04'

•. l2!

•• ••

•• ••

• • • •

-284 ••

• • ••

• • • •

• • -li2

• • ••

•• ••

•• 04t

•• • •

PIIII 12

• • 182 -

• •

• •

• •

· . ••

• •

••

• •

• •

• •

••

-Deolaal p.iMS haY. _en em.tt~. All ent~lee ehoul ..... div1c1ed b7 1000

lI""a 1. Fleur •• uDderllDe. iDelcate siCDltloant relatineblpa. 2. Re:ter Dot e to Table 5.1 ,. Fer expansi_ .:t abbreviatloa. refer Table 2.1 pp.7-9

146

All HI

" 14

••

•• ••

• •

-,82

• •

• •

• •

-001

021

••

-ill.

• • ill

• •

•• • •

-072

• •

••

••

-!1l

-!22

HOe 15

• •

.m • •

• •

• •

• •

••

••

• •

••

BY 16

••

. . 1.QI

••

••

••

•• -108

• •

~ -py 20 21

••

••

••

• •

• •

• •

••

146

-ill

• •

• •

•• ••

ZQ2 -076

PS 22

•• 018

••

••

005

042

DPS 2'

••

• •

• •

044

,60

A!JC 24

• •

• •

095

••

FBI 25

••

028

uc 27

••

-ill -049

CD 28

• •

. ~aLl 5.4

• SlOnFIOAHf .fAfB COElFICIP!lS (P31) - .o.-v0II1. v ....

-0 .....

Bt1'eat C R .. ;:3 OR CA , BOT PSA V!~ J.~ lWfB AM PE ROc BY

1 2 , 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 t5 14 15 16 ------

11 -359 • • 109 •• -201 •• •• •• • • 13 •• · . •• •• -1 :39 • • • • 1\ ... 291 193 • •

14 -347 • • •• •• •• •• •• • • • • •• • • • •

15 -094 • • ,. •• •• • • • • • • •• •• • • 654 • • 16 • • • • •• 105 •• •• •• .. . •• •• • • • • 5" ••

20 •• • • •• •• ')85 • • • • -284 •• •• -382 •• •• • •

21 • • • • • • • • •• •• 520 • • •• •• • • • • • • 70'

2' 150 • • •• •• '97 •• •• •• -248 • • •• •• •• •• 25 • • • • •• •• •• -2}6 •• •• • • •• •• •• •• ••

21 •• 169 .138 •• 127 -212 •• •• • • •• •• -221 • • ••

28 -10:5 • • -0!8 •• 258 206 •• • • •• •• -138 -138 •• • •

• Deoiaal p01nts b._ Deea om.ttet. .ill en~~l •• ebould be c!1Y1dN"OOO.

101" 1. Refer Dote to Table 5.1 other dl8Crlpaacl.8 In tlte aerial Duaoer of t~e ... ar1.bIN ue aue to the elll11Dation of ... U'll~ale. In tbe proe ... of trl_1111 the .oc1el.

2. p.~ expan8ion a£ abbl'nlatlOM refer f.-le 2.1 pp. 7-9

147

,_ ... _-F.:IIl n DFS PBt OD 20 21 2' 25 28

• •

•• ••

• • -112 ••

•• • • •• •• • • •• • • ••

261 -075 359 -129 ••

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

,ath dlagram for the 11gnillcant varlebl •••

Comparln] Table ~.3 and ,.4 It can be observed that

the values of tbe path cooiflolaDts did not cbaQje much. Tbe

adjusted coefilcient of multlpl. determination df2) glvea In

lable 5.~ on paJ. 130 ior tne equation. In the full and

.e.trlctcd path .odel. (In un~ •• stand'rdl:ed ~egreG.lon fora)

lndlGate tha~ the restrlctlon of tnG .ode1 to algnlficant

variables did not ~.u~ce it' explanatory power.

Before the discussion of t.h. ~ •• ult.o of Iallla 5.4 II

taken up, tho dlfferencea bet .. en tho full and rastt'lcted

~el1 .. V be polnted out. Thre. varlahles. v1a .... ,ldentla1

baokground of ~usband. faal1v structura and agroemont O~

number of children. got dropped from the .vst... huaband l •

l"esldential back]round be~.3use Its relationships with Its

depeniGnt variab1:5 .ere non-s 19n1-' lcant and the 16 tter two

varlablos because both of th ... did not have significant rela tlon­

Ihlp with either thoir determinants or their depondents. Wlf.'.

pre-aaa:L'ia,]e work experience al.o disappears as a depondent

Yariable but is kept as an independont va=iable determining

ago at aarrlaJG .f wlfe. The variab1a, use of contraception.

'9.S,. to be a causal .;ent but rom.lna a dependent var1able.

bolow.

All tho patb coeffl:lent9, excapt that bet~.en calte

and number of children ever bo:~, are 1n the expected directionl.

lI.·50

ADJUSltiD CQiFi lCl£NT or MU1.TIPLii DiTEilMHfA rl0l~ ~Ql PULL ,\!'fO .tESr.llCraO MOOtlJ.S _ liON .vatKltfJ wHIEN

Dependent variable*

a

AdJuated coefflolont of multiple d.te~ln.tlon (R2) ._---.-1.-----------------________________ .. ________________ . ____ _

Pull model aestrlcted model .. --.-....-..... .......... ----......... - •• a __

a - • I • • . .-.--.

11 WI 0.1' 0.1'

12 p.,s -0.01 -13 ... 0.14 0.14

14 • 0.12 0.12

l~ 100 0.41 0.41

16 flY 0." O.~9

20 1011 0.91 0."

21 Pf 1.00 1.00

22 '1 0.00 -23 OPt 0.29 I ••

2" Arta -.01 -2~ '81 O.O~ O.O~

27 (J; 0.14 0.14

28 CBS 0.66 0.66

- --• For exp.lnslon of .bbrevi~ion8, rAfer table 2.1. pp. 7-9.

Desired faaily 91al i8 the prtaa~y d.te~lnlng faotor

.f fertility In this analYSis witb a poaitlve ooefflcient of

.359. This, no doubt, II • crucial variable in deter.ining

the fertility of any population, but tbls r~sult Is at varlanoe

with the generally observed pattorn in the senae tbat effective

duration of marriage which inVariably co.aa out as tho foreDo.t

variable occupies only the second position he:e. The coefficient

of the path from .ffective duration of aar:lage to ohildren ever

born il .261 - whlch i. conllderab1y lower than the path f~o.

d •• Ired family size to fertility.

The direct influence of current age of wife on fartility

I, a1moat equal to that of effectlvo duration of aarrlage

(P28,6 • .259). Current a;8 bal got the l.r~o.t number of

Indirect paths to ohild~"n ever born (refer 'lgure 5.1). The

total of all indirect effects of current .~e on fertility worka

out to .384. Tho larJest oontrlbution to this II •• d. by the

ooapound path throu~h .frective duration of .a~~ia~e. the

coefficient being .257. Notice that it is almoat equal to It.

direct eflect. The total effect (aua of the direct and indlreot

.ffects) la thua .642.

'eoundlty with its path ooefficiont of .206 for •• tbe

fourth important variable. By addlnJ Its o_pound path co­

efficient the total effect bacomas .236.

Ibe direct oontributlon of age at •• rrlage of wlfe and

'eve1 of Qducatlon of husband are equal (-.138>. but wheD

lndl~ect .ffects al.o a~e taken Into oonsld.ratlon thl, position

cbange.. The:e I, only one lndlrect path from a.e at .arrla~.

to children ever born and tbat 1, t~ou9h effectlve duration

.f marrlaJ8. Tbe compound patb coefflcient ~orted out to -.100.

Thi, raised the total effect to -.238. Husband'. educat10n ba.

two coapoUftd patb, to fertillty, but the total Indirect .ff.ct

i, only •• 025.

Of the re •• lnlng variablea, first blrtb Interval, .ast.,

faally income and wlf.', .oaldentl.1 background oCGupled, 10

order of deorea,lng importance, the 7th, 8tb. 9th and 10th

po,ltlons raspectively.

Of these relationshlps, the one between oaste and

ohildren ever born goes agaln.t the expected direction. That

1 •• the 'lndlngs lndlcate that blgher caste people will bave

larger number of obild.en and the lower caste lower numb.r,

oontroiling for other factors (P28,l ~ -.103). Ho.eyer, all the

alx oompoUftd paths to fertility from caste gives po,ltlve co­

efficlents and the total of these indlrect .ffecta 1, .l~.

Thul the total effect turn, out to be positive wblGh 1, 1ft

conformity with the com~on ob,.rvatlon.

Turning attention from fertl11ty to tbe rust of tbe

~elatlon.blp 1n the patb model, It 0.0 be ob,erved tbat In the

•••• of wlf.', .ducatlon. husband's occupation, husband', inoome,

.ffectlve duration of •• ::1&ge, family lnc080 .nd flrst birth

Interval, the determinants are a. ln the restricted model fo~

worting wo .. n. Th. only noticeable differ.ftce 1n r.s,.ot .f

I

1~3

~ ••• variables 1. that .. ong the d.terainatlon of wl'.' •

• ducatlon the order of iaportance of variables changod. That

I., aaong wQfkln~ women •• 1f.'. weald.ntl.1 backg~ound 0 ....

• econd In Importance whlle .. ong aon-wo~klng fto.en cu~rent age

.f wife takes the .eoond position. In respect of the ~ .. alnlftg

Y.rl.bl •• - u.e of contraception, d •• ired faally sl •• , busband' •

• ducation and age .t aarrla~e - differences .re observed In the

d.teralnants and lucb difference. are Doted btlo ••

u.. of oontraceptlon .. on~ fton-wo~klng .... n II d.te~­

ained by feoundlty. husband's aducatlon. religion. wlf.'.

~esldential background .nd eur~ent age. All tbe •• rolatlon­

.blps are as .xp.cted. The fecundity variable with its path

... fflelent of -.272 is the prlaary factor .ffecting use of

oontraception. Next in laportance co ••• husband's education

(P27,14 = -.221). This Indicate. that husband. with higher

.ducatlon are ever u.er. oomparod to those with les~er education.

This a9re~s wltb the r.latlon.hlp found b.tw')en this vari.bl.

and fe.tl11ty indicating tbe iaportane. of aalea In f •• l1y

d.oislon •• king matt9rs. Anotbor laportant finding In thl •

••• ,eot Is th. relatlon.hip bet ••• n tbo varl.bl. In question lAd

•• 11g10n. It .ay be recalled tbat In tbl. stud, MUllla. aad

Catholic ••• re grouped to~cther for reaSons described In

Chapter 3. Tha resulta lndloat. tbat the fton-wo.klng w ... n

'ollow the r.ligious .trloture regarding US8 of oontraceptlon.

The two vari.bles - de.ired f.al1y 81a8 and .gr .... ~t

Oft number of obl1dc.n - .bleh .r. '~ortaDt for wo~klnJ wOD.n

1n deter.1n1ng use of oontracept1on •• ~. not 1.por~ant w1th

.espect to non-wo.klng .... n. wheroas tbe two variable. -

~11ylon and husbaRd', edu~atlon _ which a.e i.portant for non­

working women aro not 80 for work1ng •••• n.

In tbe dete.mlnatlon of desired f •• l1y allo, cur~en'

age. wire" educatlon, oaste and faal1y lncomo are S1gn1flcant

and their Importance 1n decreasing order 18 a. given abo:e.

, •• rable 4.3 It can b· seen that oasta and fa.lly inc_·? ar.

not i.portant for •• king -oaen's oholc. of deslred f.all, Ilaf.

But family structure _a' a .1gftlflcant .ar1able with them. which

wa. not the cal. for their non-wortinJ counterparts. Also _If.'.

educatlon comes out aa the prlaary detera1aant of des1red fa.lly

.1 •• for working w ... n, while it had only a .)condary ~portance

for non-working women.

The oducatlonal level of the busband. of non-work1ng

wo.en Is determined by caste, wblle that of ~orklDg wo •• n

Included husband'. residential background allo, apart f ... celta.

• • for the pu~po.e of evaluation, both l"jl and .jl - rJl

( •• a p. 13~ lor more details) •• re caloulated and tbe relults are

pres •• ted In rables ~.6 (on page 1~5) and 5.7 (on page 1~)

•• spactlvely. Confining attention to hypothaslaed path. alone,'

It can be Oblorvod that the dlfi8renc8s b.t~o.n ob.erved and

axpected correlation coefIlclnnta varied b]t-c.n aero and 1.2581. • f.

Tbere 1. no difference betwe.n ~14,1 and r 14,l' rl~,l and ~l~~lJ

! I

~A&B ,.,

Df'II:'1' -:1) OOUIL1~W counar.,..-(~;1) - I(JI-W~I.Q VQIUJ

a __ .t .. , e R VB CR CA , !f:Jt PSA ilK PMVI .ur HZ HOe HI mil 1 2 , 5 , 7 9 10 11 12 " 14 15 16 20

11 -'2' -1ag 1" 090 -128 -009 059 -C14 1000

" -058 -026 012 051 -214 -104 0,. -<>5' 314 -055 1000

14 -347 -192 010 ~g 011 -052 069 001 112 011 020 1000

15 -'20 -177 . 9 -oM au -- M4 006 104 ooa ot9 W1 1000

16 -191 -102 0« em 045 -0" 04' 012 065 -001 016 ,. 518 1000

20 .162 -108 002 068 951 -18' 120 -1" -242 119 -175 056 052 ~, 1000

21 -2,e -101 010 108 095 -091 550 -020 076 -018 0'31 287 404 7~5 081

2' -180 123 ... -020 ,If) -046 -0!8 014 -'55 055 -175 -146 -094 -1')7 4~

25 -035 -018 -007 02' 049 -236 0'2 -016 002 0" 025 012 011 ~ 04'

27 135 173 -144 ~ -1" -226 -01, -06, -041 021 051 -1<)9 -14' -082 -102

28 -020 027 -058 -oog 628 1,1 ~1 112 -~ 054 -4" -160 -111 -115 690

• Dtleillal point. be" _. oaltt... A.a.l _t~1e. eboulcl be c!1Yld" '1' 1000

lib 1 1. a.tezt Dote to fable 5.4 2. F_ .qaa.i •• "br.natl~. reter !abl. 2.1 ,p. 7-9

155

•

-~ .... rT Drs FlI CD 21 23 25 28

1000

-129 tGaO

~ 011 1000

-06, -00, 053

-106 590 .151 toao

!aLa 5.1

• • DI'I'.~=-. BIIV_ "DOl dJ) IUIC~ID COUILAfICW CODPICIDfI ("~1 - 1'31) - DrlCltnaa VO~

0 R WI CR OA • • 01 PSA v • JIIIQ 1 2 , , , 1 9 to 11 11

11 -012 114 005 212 em -109 177 -001 •• t, -025 -031 -03' 002 oeg 010 -1" -0'9 -<>56 258

, t4 000 208 118 21' -049 -096 264 -01, '" 080

1, 000 125 180 '55 ..Q42 005 ,. -062 4el -102

" -107 047 128 224 203 -13' 154 -030 496 -0'4

20 020 -oao -005 -<m -oeo -032 oeo 015 -026 -104

21 -OlIO 029 098 173 155 -103 125 -02' 471 -025

23 -020 014 -0" -oBI -025 -1~. -016 -02' Ole -01'

15 .122 018 -054 -091 12' 020 067 -012 075 072

21 041 -020 -0'7 -071 OM 022 e079 092 -og., 04' • 04' -005 -027 -082 ., .. 011 -0" 054 -191 -oeo

• DeeS.l peine baft b .. ..tttel. All _ui •• ..,.)J be divided b,1OOO­,.s •. I.t. net. to tf.l. 5.4 2.For expansion of aobreviations refer Table c.1 pp. 7-9

156

AM D fl. BY "'1M P1' 1, 14 15 " 20 21

----

•• 090 •• "5 -002 •• 116 "7 239 •• 001 -092 -OS, '., •• 016 '96 '03 ,,? 1" ••

-065 -210 -1 go -1'6 -011 -093

-002 075 0" 079 173 095

~ 001 -085 -128 -004 -14'

224 -198 -122 -078 111 -on

nrs I'DI CD

" 25 • .. -

•• -126 •• OM 000

065 017 ••

15')

• and ~25.7 .nd ~2~,1. In flve other cales differences were v • .,

•• gI191ble - only In tbe tblrd deo~al. Of tbe remalning 28

oaaea 19 InJlcated dlfferences In tbe •• oond decl •• l only_ In

a1ne cases dl'fereace. were found ln the flrst d.otaal. Since

tbe •••• log of tbe •• flndlng8 bave already boen atated (p. lS0;

•• 'flce it to ,.y bere that the .odel'. perloraaoce 11 ~o.aonably

good.

~.:. A. CMPVi,oQ of thl f"tlAlty d9tj'llpIQ'ts of \"/grklpq ID~ Q20-~'iOIJr,lQ';] .atA.

Tbo fertillty dotermlnants 01 wo~klng and non-worklng

.... n .ere exa.ined aeparately ln Chapter 4 and ln .. etlon ~.3

of thls Chapter re.pect1vely. The atall,rlty and dl.st.llarlty

of tbe dete~.lnant •• re b~le'l, noted below.

Tbe fertility level ot working women 1. dete~l .. d br ten va~iable& wblch a,e. In tbe order 0' decreaslng laportance.

effect~v. duration of .'r:laJe, dealred lamlly Size, current a~.,

a,e at .ar"lege, wlf.'s occupation, flr~t bl~th Interva1,

'ecundlty, faally 10co.e, 'aal1y .tructure and role confllct.

~o, non-work1ng .o.8n tho correaponding varlablos are d.sired

f~.11y size. e'f"ctlv. duration of .arl'ia;e. our-"ent a:Je. leouradl".

8ge at Ilar:1aJ8, busband's education, first birth lnt-3cval. oast.,

, •• 11y Inoome and wlf.'. ~ •• ld.nti8l b.~k~ound.

i'OID tbe abovo two 111tl of v~rl.bl.s ln theiz order of

taportanct. lt can bt obs.rved that effeotlve duration 0' .. rrlag •

• nd d~slrad 'aal1y size occuples the first ~o plact., though

.. ong tb811sa1vol the order dlffe,a. CUrrent aJ9 ln both case.

ocoupies the third place. Of the remaining Independent

variables, the wo~k related variables applicable to .o~klng

w •• en baa to be 1elt out .f oonsideration. A, la~ a. tbe

~eat are conc~rQed, age at .arri.)e, first birtb intorval,

feoundity, and faal1y lncom. are common to both. Family

,tructu:a is a variable that aata. Its pr •• once in respect

01 wo~klng woman only wbtle three variables - husband'. , .ducltlon, caste and .1f.', resldentl.l background - •• ke their

,~osence felt only 1n respect of fton-working .... n.

AI pOinted out at the outl9t of tbla Chapte~ it Ie

posalbl, in this study only to point out tbese d1ff,rences.

Iby the aa.e variable bebav~. dllf.~ently for tbe two ... pl,.

1n r·spect of tb •• e .ffe.ts I, a I~bje~t matta~ for fartb.~

.tudiea.

•• 'MilY AND CONC1.UDING ilEM.lies

6.1 iy!rnaa I

The present study .a ... lnly an atteapt at explaining

f.rtility behaviour of worklng women. This wa. sought to be

.~hl·:;ved by c xallllnln9 the fertility behaviour of wOl"klng •• e. ln the contQKt of a number of .oolo-eoonomic-de.ograpblo

variables. An att.apt w,. also •• de to ,S$esa tlbether t.he 1'01 •

• f geno:al fertility d.terainants .111 dlfior In the context.

of workln~ women froa that of non-working women.

Var1ation In fertIlity of working .... n was sought to

.. explained with the help of tnenty savon yarlahlo~. ~f these

.lx~ean v3:iablds were hypothosl&od as directly affecting

fertility. A~on9 these, ten proved to be of s19nlflcance. 1ft

th3 o:'der of dec!'t't '!:alng importance, these ten varlablls are.

effective ducatlon of marrla~e. iosired fa.ily size, cur~ent. age,

ale at .arrl~1e, wlte'. occupation, firat birth lnt.orval,

feoundity, family income, family structure and role oonfllo~.

TI1.5$ t.n varlabl·?8 t09,)tber were able to .ccoun ~ for .light.l,

.ore than 70 per cent of the varlance observed In the f8rtlllt,

.f .o~t1ftg .. en (a 2 • .101). The notable fea ture of t.h8se

•• ault, are as fol10 •• a. Apart from effect.lve duration 0'

.arrlage - t.he _at lmportant deter.tnant .. o' the ohildren ev ••

born - factors such as o~rent age and desirod f •• lly a1 ••

proved to be of considerable laportance. Two of the flv. wo.t

160

~elated v.~lable •• ~e nature of occupation and ~ole

confllct - .ere allo t.portant. Faaily ina .. e and the nu.be~

of ebildren evar born had a positlv. relationship. Tbe alx

variable. whlch wer. orlg1nally bypotb •• laed as deteralnlng

fertility but did not show such an .ffect on fertility aaong

.o~kln9 women are caste, relig10n, work 1ndex, husband'i

education and use of contraceptlon.

In tbA analyst. of the fertility deter.lnent. of non­

working .oaan It wal found that effeotlve duration of .arrla1e,

de. ired faally slae and c~:eftt ale are highly laportant for

the. alao. F •• lly Itructure ,hich ••• laportant for working

.... n wal not 10 In the case of non-worklng woaen. rbe

varlablas. hU:lband's aducatlon, ~st(! and ,"Ilfe 'a baclctJround,

had slgnl~lc3Qt affect ln i~~ Ga$o of non-worklna woaon oaly_

Tba varla~lvG, a~o at .arr1aga, first birth Interval, fecundlty,

and faa11y inoome •• era c:om .. )on to both workin; and non-wor!;lng

woman. HO~·lSv.r. tho lnf ll.lence of famlly income wa. in ~bo

n~9atlv. dlrectlon. aellgloo and UGO of cont~ac~ptlon .ere

not important 1n e.pla1nlng fertility d1ffe~ent1.1. aaong nOR­

wo~kl~9 women alsJ.

The ula of oontracept1on •• onl working wo .. n 1. governed

by current a39, fecun~lty. wife'. r •• idential background,

d •• ired fa.lly size and aireeaent o~ nUMber of obi1dren. A.ong

non .. orkln~ woaen the USa of oontracQption la gov~rned by

relig1on, wife's rasldential bact~round, cur~.nt aJ8, feound1t,

and husband's education.

Tho role oonflict among .o~kln9 w08en proved to be

algnlflc~nt 1n ,xplalnlng va~lanoe of fertllity •• ong th •••

First blrth interval a.ong both working and non",o~klng

.... n ... lignificantly in'lu9nced only by 'ecundity.

Among worting wOII.n, .g ..... nt on nur!lber of GIli ld.cen

wa. doter.lned both by age at •• rr1age and wif.'s income. A.

for fton-work1ng woaen this vari.ble oould not be explained.

Desired '.ally Ilae of w01'klng wa.en il d.t.~lfted by

current age, .ducation of wlfe and family Itructur.. In the

.ase of non-wo1'xlng women the .a •• variable 18 influonced by

.a.te, CUlTent a~e, wi'." educat10n and f •• l1y incOlD.. Thu8

••• te .nd fa.ily income are two variable8 found to be 1.p01'taat

for deciding tbe number of children the non __ o~klng wo.en want,

but •• re not important for working .o..n. By the sa .. toten

'amlly structure ••• lmportant 'or w01'ting wo.en but not ••

'01' non-work1ng .... n.

'am1ly .tructu:e .as lnfluenced by husband's education

aAd family 1ncoma for wortln~ wo.en. aut such rolation.hip •

• re not Important in the caGe of non-working woaen.

Current r~!ldenoe and wlf.'. occ~patlon deter.iaed

wife', lncom , while Ca.te and. wlfe '. educatlon in'luenced tbe ~,

detorminatlon of wife', occupation. The rea.on fo~ wife'.

16Q

part1c1pation 1n tn. labour force .a. determined by three

factors, viz., caste, w1fe~ •• ducation and husband's 1ncome.

AI in the case of wife's lnco~e husband'. 1nco~e of

both working and Ron-working "o •• a .. re det~rmln.d by current

~elidence and occ~p.tiQnJ and occupation of husband by oa.te

and b'ubaftd's educa tlon.

The oducation of work1ng wo •• n'. bU5banda ... de'er.lned

by caste and husband,' bactgr ..... wbere.' 1n tb~ case of non­

worting women only ,.ate wa. found 'ilnlt1cant.

The a3a at .a!'~1ag. of .. rlting IIOII.n \sas lnf!uenoed by

their residential background. level of .ducation and pr .... rrlag.

wort .xporlence. A~ong non-working woaen, apart fr .. the la.t

two variable, a.ntioned above, wif,'. current a~e wal found

lapol'tant.

Por both ... plea education of wife was determined by

~a!te. wlfe's back~round and wlfe's a98.

The path model developed 1n this atudJ w •• able to

reproduce tho zero-order corrolatlon. in tho cas. of hypothesl.ed

.elatlonships with rea80nabl, accuracy.

6.2 Copcluding re •• rk ••

6.2.1 f911QX Imp11catlQQ"

s ... of tbe find1ngs of the Itudy .ay be said to be

relevant from the point of viaw of fa.lly planning policy

'oraulation ••

The flndings of the .tudy that wo~kin9 wo.en are havlng

lower fertility than non-wortlng women are a. ,xpected. Even

a.ong wo~klng woaen the negative path coefflclent (-.147) f~oa

.1fe'. occupatlon to fertllity lndlcates tbat lowe~ c1 •••

woreers have more oblldren oOllparJd to higher class worker ••

Thla Day be because oi aeveral rsaaona. ~or exa.ple, tbe

... catlona1 loval attained by the l .. e~ class workers ar.

,enerally low (r18,11 • .882) oompared to hi~her cla36 worker ••

Thu. the af :.o't of educatl~n coul.,ed with the af iect 01

occupation (.o~k pa~tlotpa~loR) might have r.sulted 1n favou~in9

and a~~lavlng a low~r n~mber of abl1dren aaong high cia ••

workers. The ooablned effect of work partiolpation and

educatton on fertl11ty ••• not.d by M'nkler (1970). Minkler

found that 1n old Oelb1 areQtbe uneducated working wo •• n bad

a1moit an equal nua~er of obild~8n as their un .. ployed counter­

parti. -The 'act of their ••• klng oon.equently, did not •••• to

e.ert tbe Jealred n.gative .ffect found .. on~ ~ducatdd -oaen

... g~nel'al1y enjoy tbo1r wo~k. apart t~ .. tbe econnmic benefit.

derived" (1970, 41). the latt.~ p.~tlon of thl. quotation •• e ••

t. Imply that fertility i. affected by tIM attitude of wife

towaru& he~ work, that 1, wbether abe enJoya her work or doel

lt oecaua. sha haa to. If tbl1 1. 10, It is 1n tune wlth tbe

linding' of dhalpton, Ca.,bell and ~.tter.on (19661 107, 112)

DuDe, Bardhan and Garg (n.d.) .110 came to .ialla~

164

Oonolu&10ns. Their Itudy allo .a. oonducted 1n Delhi. The

lower income ",,01'&1ng _en •• I'e h.vln~ a higher fertility tha ..

the higher inco •• worklnl wo.en. Th. lower lnco.e 3roupa .111

be occupyln3 lo.er class occupat10ns and the possibility of the~

having a low level of education comparod to others II a110 there.

Given this, the finding of the present study corroborates .1-. that of ~ube, Bardhan and ~.r9.

Education besides placing people at higher occupational

level, help to reduce fertility by rai,lng the age at .arriage,

and by I'aduclng the number of children desired. Thi8 conclu8ion

.f the present study can be said to be v~lld in a wider context.

If so, it has t.portant con.equences for population polley. It

is pos.ibl'~ a. Dav' •• (1967. 737) argues that when WOllen receive

.ora and mOt:'e opportW1i.t1..::s for b1~har education tn.y will

develop Inta: •• ts tbat .. , ... pet. with fa.il1.~ i~,eres~. Aa

• ~esult they mlgbt tata up Jobs and become 80re Independent

economically. More and Dore .oae~ aay avoid marriage altogetber

O~ postpone until they ar. in thei~ a1d-tw.n'tle. or evell ald­

thirties (Blake, 196~, Davl., 1961, 'ell.r, 1968). Suoh change.

could bring about reduction in national fertility rates. Thu.

the promotion of female education to a hlgher level at a f •• te~

~at. can be augge.t*d •• a .ay of reduoing birth rate.

The rol. of type of .. ployaent In t~ det.~ln.tlon of

ferti11 ty as found In the pr.'Sent stud, 10e8 only to ."l),ta ntla t.

the findings of Concepclon (1974) ~1ven earlier (p. 7~) tbat the

type of .. ployaent tbat 1 ••• gaged In by tbe wo~klng .o •• n 4re

al.o iaport<1nt. b~

It .. ,,(~ea.aber'jd (p. ~) that the

laportaACG 0: ")a~;;.iolpatlon In noo-uadltlonal actlvitl"s la

.educing fertility bave al.o been atre.sad by s.veral otbe~

.utbo~s (Jaffo and A&ual, 1960, Coll~.r and 1A.~lo18, 1962,

It,o •• aAd ,,~~_or, 1967).

Tile f;i".1d ings of tbe present study Day !)'i inJlc;t tail ~4u1 t

att .. pt should be .ade to IIOtlvate IIGft aad mOJ:'8 IfOt.en to

,.~tlclpa~Q 1~ labour force, to increase f~mal. edUcation, and

to Increase o~~ortunltle6 tor work In D~n-trudl'lOQaI .~tlvltlQs.

Oeslrod faa!1, size .... out a •• very laportant variable

In detemlninJ lertl11ty of bftll wo.-king and non-worklng __ •

tbls ~s tho nocesslty of aotlvatlog the couples to have ... 11

l .. l11es. In iJ:t. r;cently ~ob.rt ..... ara. President of

... iforJ,(~ J.ln!: (1977) has called for steps (1) of the sort

""geed to ,:acoura'je couples to desl"Q _al1er faal1iusJ aacl

(2) of the ~ort d •• lgaed to provide couplG5 with tbe .. ana to

l.pl ... ot tho deslre. The atep. 01 tbe first t1Dd at.

'ateaded to alter the aocial aAd .conOl:lI~ envuontlla"t t.ba~

teeds to p~ote bigh fertility aad by alteriD3 1t, to create

.... 9 pa • ...; .lw_ '" nOl1 and 5t_l1_ nona of famlly SI&8. The

•• pectatlon 1s ~ba~ this would o~aa~e a deoand for birth

conttol. Th0 !i~ilp. of tbe .eoond aott 1. meant 'to supply

the requl&i ~~ DO.ln5 tba t w111 make tbe Defl ... attainable.

It ... 'ou~cl 1n the course of tbe pre •• nt lnvestlg3tlon tbat

education 1s ~ dotemlnant of the desired f~1:l11y sizo. dbetbe~

166

tbe la ... ff.ct c.n be produced by Informal education Is .o~th

p~oblng. Tho uae of a.sl .~dl. like radio, telovillon ...

• 1 .... do not depend .uch on llte~acy for coaprehenllon, and

therefore .hou1d be used auob .or~ wider than at p~eseat II

tbls Ide. of Informal oducatlon Is aound. Such .odla can

Introduce the p.ople - espocla1ly the poor Ill1te~at. one. -

Into contact with new Idea. about alternatlv. llie-atyl. with

f •• e" but better quality chl1dren.

Age .t aarria~. t~ou9h Its effect on ef~ectlve d~.tlon

of .arrl.ge aod on Its own proved to be a aaJor factor In detor­

a1nlng fertillty. It I •• el1 tnown th.t tbe Goyernment of India

ba. take. logal measure. to ral.e the aie at aarr1aga_ ae.ld.a

atr1ct enforce.ent of the 1 •• , Indirect •••• ur •• aucb a. ~alalnl

tb. educ.tional level b, exteneion of and encou~a 9 ~.ent to .at.

u.e of educational f.cllitie. In tbe ~ural .rea. could h.1p, .1

..... led by the rasult8 of thll stld" to .alae the .ge at aarr1age.

The ~ole of oa.te al reve.led by the present .tudy la

oote.ortby. Caste proved to be • Significant factor In deter-,

a1nlnl education and occup.t1on where •• r tbe relat1onahlp •• er.

exa.lned. The r,)8u1t& lndlcated that hlgb caate p.ople let

education higher than that of the 10 .. r casta people, and .lao

that low caste people follow low level occupatlona. Slnc.

occupation Is deteralned by educ.tlon, the effect of cast. In

deteralnlnJ occupation la only .nbanced. Tbls Indlca~ua tbat

.ome of the drawb.ct. of b.ln~ In the low caste have not

167

dl,apP'ared evan now. It I, t~ .. that .. aa~.s al .. d .t

~"oYing tbe.e l.p~d~ents, such as ~ ••• rvdtlon of jobs .nd

flnancl.l .,.lstanc. for education for the low c •• te people,

have been in force for • loftg tl •• now In India. It .ppeara,

however. that there exlsts a need for the exten,loft of tbe.e

aoh •••• on a l.rger sc.l ••

In the d.ter.lnants of the uae of oontraceptivoa It •••

found that BOre of the olde~ .... n u.e birth oont~ol devlca.

than younger _oa.n. Tbe indication, p~obabl,. I, tbat contra­

•• ptlon 11 used only a •• birth control o~ birth ~o4uctlon

•••• Ur. and not fo~ purpo.e. of spacing. Probably by encouragl'9

,ounger .... n to .dopt birth oontrol 8.asures for spacing, It

.ay be posalble to reduce thelr fertility, by reduoln~ tbal.

fecund.blllty. Tba non-adoption of ••• auras for spacing

p~obably can bo due to la~k of avall.billty of che.p, .a~ •• nd

effective contraceptlv. dnlce.. It pOinta to the nead fo~

laproved 8CCe&a to tha .ode.n .eana of fertility control.

Tbe atudy bad hypotheli.ad ~811g10n .a one of tbe

yarlables deteralnln·~ uae of contraception. For the pu~poae

of .n.1Ylla Muall •• and Catholics •• re grouped together alnce

it 1s a commonly held bell.f tbat tbeaa two r.ligion. proac.lba

tha uae of fertility oontrol •• thods. Tbe atudy found that

.. ong wo.tlng .o •• n •• 11910n did not •• ttar .b11e .. on~ tbe

non-working _ .. an it dld. If tbi. differ.nca oan ba taten aa

pOinting to the fact that .o~k partloipation .111 eli.lnate the

dl.advant-J •• of religious atricturea tban It oalla fo.

16§

addltlonal aupport to m.asures .ia.d at .ncou~a91ng wo~t

partlclpatlon.

6.2.2 igoRa fir 'NiSbet research,

Tbls .tUdy could not compare Ita conolualon wlth those

of otbers because of tbQ ablonce of .l.ilar .tudi •••• apoclally

for working W08.n. If furtber .tudl •• a&' conduct.d on tb •

•••• methodology on wblch the pr.sent Itudy 1. don., and If th.y

00., to the aaa, lonclu.lon a. the pr.s.nt on" on. algbt .at.~

taln add,d confidence on the Interpretatlon of the r •• ult. ~lv.n

fOr tbe relultl of tbe pr.sent .tudy.

Th. behaviour of .... of the fertlllty d.terminants

dlfferlngly In rcspect of wo~klng and non-wo~klng wom.n are IDrtb

probing. These dlffer'nGeI hav, been already pointed out and

are not ropeated ber, for the sake of brevity.

A.ong the dlffe=ences the cas. of family Income nged. a

ll~tl •• oro attention. Tb. orlginal hypothesl. wa' that Inco ••

ls negatly.ly rel.ted to f.rtl11ty. Tbe stud, ca •• out wlth

opposing conclusion. 1n this resp.ct. ?or wo~tln9 wo •• n tbere

•• a a positive association betw~.n in como and f.rtl1ity whereas

the oppollte .al found true in r~sp.ct of non-working w ... n.

Oft. 1. th,refore not quite au:. about tho.e r.latlonshlp.. Thi.

dlfficu1ty 1. not ~hat of thls study a10n.. The recent ••• earch ••

indicat. the fallacy of atralght away foraul.tln~ an lnv.r ••

•• latlon,hip between lnco.e and f.rtlllty. To qu.te Hull a ..

Hull (1977, 43), air.quently hypoth •••• are ba.ed on ~~oag·.

fla.'. and all too often n.gatlve relations are .xpressod ftot

•• rely as hypotb •••• to b. tost.d but .s "p.etltlon, of tb.

~.se.rcbor·. Tb.y have d.aonatrat.d In their artlol. that

-th.re are compelling roa.on. for e.plicltly .d.lttln~ the

possibllity of positive lnco •• -fertllity ralatlon. into analy •• s

of f.rtillty data, "pecially for those Investigations .hlch

focus on peasant locietles with sub.tantlal loolo-oconomic

Itratlflcatloo- (p. 44).

The lack of significant r~latlon.blp b.t_aen us, of

oontraceptlon and fertility al.o ... Dot .xplot.d. Tbe aaa ••••

auapected to be a stltlltla.l error earlier. In thl. context

it may be aentlo.ad thai It need not be lOt as Is evld.nt froa

tb. findings of S.stry (1973). He found that only a very l.a11

proportion of the work related variance In fertility .. ong

Aa.rlcan women could b~ .xplained by use of contraception. In

tb. light of thls, the findings of the present atudy 1. not very

.urpri.ing. A d.tailed enquiry on thls speclfio .Ipect alon.

caa s.ttle the issu.. Her. It .a, be pointed out again that

women's WOl"t partiCipation by itself and through the nature

of the job should have created aother-worker role conflict In

t~. worters persuading th •• to use aoro .f birth control .... ur ••

In their .tt.apt to ii.lt children. The presont .tudy, however,

could not lubstantl.te thl.. It 11 probably the relult of

Inability to got the correct Information on role conf11ct and Oft

ita Impact on use of contraception. Conversely, It II worth

probin; why 'e .. le wo~k pA~tl.lpatlon did not c~e~te eol. oonfllGt

1n tb_.

The var1able rellglon a. defined 1n the present study

dld not find Importance ln explaining use of oontraceptlon

.. ong working wo •• n. In thls contoxt lt may be recalled that

the prelumptlon .al tbat the UIO of contraception il g"erned

by tho re11gious faltha to whioh an indivldual b.longs. Tbi.

ma, not bo a correct procc.ure when factors .uoh as wo~k partl­

.1patlon and education Gin bave a negating Influence. So It II

worth probing further whether. while oonllderlng tbe dete~

.lnatlon of use of contraception. the rel.archer .hould go by

tb. religion to which the respondents b.long or by 8011cltlng

Information on the Individuals' attltud •• towards the use of

oontraception.

Soa. other a.pects relating to .ethodo10gy 1. warth

pointing out b.re. Tbo classlilcatlon adoptad for oast •• nd

eccupatlon ".r. oannot be d •• crlbed a. very solentlfic. Th •

••••• rch.r. 1n fact. proceeded in thl ••• tte~ with hesitation.

There wal no study to give guidance to measure the distance

.. twoen all available Ca.te cato~orlea and between occupation.

An imperative need for reaearob In th1s dlr.ction may be auggested

In this context. It .av. however, b. pointed out that .i~

the classification adopt0d lor tbele two variables In tbe present

work, valid relults .er. obtained for the r.latlonsblp. bet ... n

tb8 •• variables and the variables depending on th ....

Por w.ftt of adequate ~elourcel it oou1d not be exa.lned

wbether spec1fication of l1Btage. betw •• a the variables Gould

bave lap~ov8d tb. postulated .odel. Wbether all tbe

••• uaptioftl of the analytlcal teohniqu. ha. b.en •• t io .110

aft a.pect worth probing. rurtber .tudi.. in tbela direction.

Gould be very rewarding.

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1969

• Non-r aal1y Plannln) M,tbod. 01 Population Control· 1A M. ~adlk ~ Ai (Id.) PAPyllt&on YAAlrll. Jroceedlngs 01 tie p.kl,tan Intern,tlon.l ... lly Plannln~ Confe~oBce at Dacca, II1 ... bad. Pakistan Paally Plannln~ Council.

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dev.loped A~.a.-. EconOlic Ptyeltpet,t 'Dd wyltMlll ~ •• a. 9. 62-63.

Kapad1., K.th

1966 11",.0 aAd ,; Miu 'A Iodla, ~lcutta. oxford vor:31tv PreG8.

leap.... , .... lIla

1912 lirA's' apsl tIM '''A'UQS '-a il IP4'" Delhi. tat Publications.

Carv •• Ira.,.tl 1966 ,lneblp 9;91011.\&001 In IOdi" loab.y. A.i.

Publishing Hous ••

Keyfl tz, ~Iathaft

1911 ·How Birth Control Affect. Blrth-, Slol.1 1101091 18 (1). 109-121.

Kirk. Dud1.y 1913 ·Pactor. Aff.ctlng Mosl ..

G. joh1.ff.lln (.d) i!!'t! P1An91Q~, H.~

KuplnekJ, Stanl., 1971 -Hon-~a.111al Activity and soolo-.conomic

ullfer.ntla1s in Pertl11ty·, ?mpsl"pbX 8 (3). 3&3-367.

Labovlt •• Sanford 1967 ft~oae ~.rv3tlons on M.a.ursa.ota aDd Statl­

stlos-, locil1 ~A.cii' ~6 (D.c .. ber). ~1-160.

1970 -Th' A~slgnm.nt of NUilbers t.o a.nk Ol'd.r C.-... gorl.'-, ~ .. rlG&.!!..!.~~~0..i.~oaLa.v..l@... (J_). a1~'23.

L.bovltz, Sanfo~d and stoven ~. Lubeok 1969 ·Is .... of 3.01al M.asure •• ftt- ~ Ai 2 (Suam.r).

1-4. Cited in Tbomas ' •• ll.on CrItique of Ordinal Variabl •• - H.M. 81alock Jr. ~QYI'l W-~~~~MU ...... __ .. ~~~t 1912, London,

1'8

Laad. lenne ...

1'" -'.1 .. 01p.1 •• f ,.u. ., .. l,al.- .Ia ."'­.ol'gath ted) Wilh liMA •• Y11t .", ••• r~aaol._ol JOI' •• y-8 •• a.

I.e •• ao, C.B.V.

1"6 -Tao •• d. Oft .... ft'. ao~. 'artioipatlon-, '''''$'gD i$Ri1iHh 12 (2'. 100-110.

" ... 11,n-Joa... oel".' 1974 .' IIp_au. 1M M' .. h. Londo ••

~ aft 'aM ...

.... 1. 'a .. c~" •• 1912 _,'ll fA 'Ak'9 aI' M •• Della1. *1\ .. State.

SUGat ona !'oun a' Oft in ladl ••

.., ........ D.JI.

1 NO rAl" CUIIIA I' 't :1""'1' Cl\l. -.ba,. Aa • PUbllab n9 ouae.

lin ral, ,M CIIft", If '.U" a.be,. ~.l. ubi .bln~ H~u.o.

hadellte_. David G.

191. I g. ,,"lltb/If 1JId~' INk.10y. lvtU';i 1 ty 06;\1 lorR Q "" ••••

"l'l'lot'. lieU.

1- mM:!=S4;t:!!=;DUI!;:t;!fdr .•• 'OOftA. neco •• Col1.~. a"QarOb Institut ••

1970 -Catt. ;lanklng and Pood TI' ... aot.lcm •• ,. 148'&>1. " •• 1,.,.-, J.a MlltOft 'Ia,.l' aad •• I'U" i. ~oba 'N_) Ikytlfa' la' "hr- i9 IMi,o Iigcl'''', CIll .. ,.. A oe PtabU •• lftl ';.Pdf. 133-1"1 •

.... jtld .. ; •• a ••••• ~011.... ~.~~.,.. 1m "alg". iducatlon end "rr'ageablllt, 01 ._.

1I~.1a io.lo1oWl.t. 3. 69-13. ------ --...... 1'., ilob.rt

1917 -The 3w •••• , I .... a.fore ,be ~o.ld·. ", 110QU " •• klf .... alft. (Juu ~) •

...... u •• .1.1(.

1966 -.f'.ot 01 Bd"'loa on ]%.r\111t,-, •• CeA • .le.r9. (eda) .,. Trlvaftdru.. Go¥.rnaen' •••• 1

a.l. ;Cuup .,.k,

179

"non, A. S~ •• tua.r 1967 ·s ... Corr.latlon .f Attitude. Toward Faally

Planning In lad la-, l.2.Y£n.l of r .. lly ,il,f.r. 13 (Jun.)_ 12-1 ••

• tebel, AMrl. 1970 ·W.~klng wives and Faal1y Interaction In ?rench

and Aa.rlcan Faalll.s·, ,ote.DI'tonal Jourpll af CII,lsa\ly. S9c~oloax, XI. l' -16'.

l1akl.r, Meredith 1970 -r-,rtl11ty and r ••• le Labour iorCI PartiCipation

In India. A Survey of 1101"k. In Old De lhl A I"ea-, i8M1nll of rlll1, fllflr., IVII (l)c 31-43 •

.... r, C.A.

1"2 ·~ota Sapling-, Joyrnal,..ii the a.olal ~tatl'tlGll ~oqletl' A 11~. 411-423 •

.... 1". CeA. and G. (alt.on 1973 iMtY' Y Method, 10 Spcl.1 lpy.'tigatioo,

H. n ••• nn aducatlonal Boot. Ltd.

"~d.l, Alva aDd Viola Kl.ln

London a

1968 iaalS" Xwp apl.,. Hgae Ind aert, London. aoutlod)9 and Kegan Pa.,.l •

• ". IIOnI 1965

.. araya.n, K.

P.ail! lID. and P,rtilttxt 1n papers contrlbut.d by Indian Authors to t • ~orrd Population Conference. B61grdd&, Yugoslavia, N •• Deihl' Of tic. of the ~.gl.trar-~oDll"al, 131-13& •

1974 ft';f.trat, of popul,tlop' '91f' C.n .... 0' India 1 .~. I. Gov.rn~9nt of n aPr ••••

•• ,ar, P.K.B. 1974 ~Tb. Influence of Edu~atlon on f.rtll1ty-,

Tbe ~yrn'l of ~ .. 11X d!1far, 20 (3). 28-36 •

.. ote.tlen, P •••• Dudl.y Kl~t and ~beldon Jog.1 1969 ~Tbe Problom of Population Control-. Ja

P.M. Kau •• ~ (ad) fbi Popylatlon itl110n •• ••• J.r • .,. Plent c. itall, 139-1 •

Qauy. sylvia 1968

~o

Qetry, ;;;yly1a 1970 -Labo~ ~oroe Partioipatlon and Child Bearing

statua-, ~.og£aRhx .pd i~,,'t'on', e"QQlft~. t.Z'entol Ontario Instltute or studies ln ~.catlon.

Pauali, Kantl 1971 -A Study of Interval aetweeft A Je at ~arrlage

aDd ~lrst Birtb ln Indla-, technlcal aeport No. Aathropolo~/7l. Ind1an ~tatlstlcal lnltltute, Calcutta, iD Kamala Gopal lao (ed) §tudlqs 10 fgatly 'lapAlogl 'odla, 1974, ••• Oelhl' A h nay Publications.

'at.ali, Kantl and Cblttaranjan Malater 1967 -Tbe ~91.tlon'hlp betw~.D F.-ily Type and

:'ertl11 ty-, jl1bap :s :ttMrlil eYld HUArtgrlY 45 (4). 4~1 60. .

1913 -Intervil bet •• en AJ8 at .arrlaje and ?lr.t Bl=th 1n Ind1a·, Socii! i101ogy 20 (1). 103-110.

""aJe, U and V. ,othaadapanl 1969 -Modernization and AttitUd.' Touard ?aa11y

Sla& and Pamlly Plan~lng. ~na1y'1. of S ... D~t. from Indla-, *21111 Blologx 16 (March). 44-48.

'at .. lk, Nltyananda 1957 ·&ducatlon 1n tbe Area ot aarpall-, Ia

J..,lh ~bannon (ed) y"'nd~Y6&ORQd ~r9al .... YOZ'k. Harper and Brother~. 1 1 c.

Petter.en, N1lll .. 1970 Population, London, .~~lll!n.

Plt'engor, Donald 1973 -An lixponentlal ~odal of feaale SteZ'111ty-,

pemographx 10 {l h 113-121.

Pl11al, K. Nahadevan, and ~. Kara,aeaD N&abootbll'l 1912 ·Caste, Statu. aad Pe~tll1t, In a lural AZ'e.

of r.-l1 ~.due, lYl1e~1n of Jandhlgr •• fy,tltute of lural Kealt!LandP .. nI:''P1iiinIiii;-'-- ,1;;0.

'otter Jr., l.G. 1~9 ·So.o P~obl.m. In Pl'.dlctln~ a Couple's

Cofttr~c~ptlY. Futgre-, I.",lc, JUt,t.rlX 6, 2~2~9.

181

a.a,., M.V.

1966 -S ... Alpect. 0' Part11!t, 1n ~r.la-, 1B a.s. Kurup aad K.A. aaorge Ceda), population ~!!f99!n "rala, Tr1van1ru.. Government Pre.I,

alnacte. S.A. and P •. l .. ,chandra,.

1970 ':Ito 'Dd E,ploxeon!. l08ba,1 Tata Institute of ~oC al 3clEtn~e.

Rao, V.It.l.V.

1974 -rb~ Indian SXP(trlmellt in t:aal1y Planning. A Review and ~ug3estlonQ ior the Future-, Convocation Add: ••• , 8amba,' Intern,tlonal InaLltut. for Populatloo ~tudl.8.

ael0, J.a. 1962 -i ... Aspecta 01 P,.il, , .. f.~'lllty In Indl,-,

ropyl.t1oo styd1., lVI 267-21&.

1963 -Pertl1ity Dific .:cn~4.\4ls 1n IBdl •• EvldenM f~ • Rural .ackground- t "tft!tt .'VIII ,_ qUarterly: 41 (Ap~ll}1 1 9.

aal., J.a. and Tara P.tanka~

1969 -Dilferentlal ~er'11ity of COQtraceptora and ROn-Coatraceptors-, Proceedings of the lD\!rQltigoIA £fQylltlgp cAPfgreeC1. LARdO" 18198. Internat onal Unton for t e Sciont1 10 ~tudy .f Populat1on, 1971.

Rldle,. J.C. 11 11 1969 -On tha APpeuat !lub-::coundlty 01 Non-F_ll,

P1annars-. iii"} 'lOlQax 16 (1). 24-28.

aoas, All .. n, D.

'967 ~,Hlndy re,lfY 1n It! UrbaO 5't"09, Cae,d •• versity 0 oronto Pr~s,.

S_u.l, T.J. 1967 ·~ulture and Hu.en fertility 1n Indl.-, Jou~n.l

01 P .. lly ~elf~re , (4). 4~lJ. aeproducod In ~nn.th C.~. Ka .. ey.~ (ed), t2Ru1gtloq st;jl ••• 1.1,et,9 a~S!Y' 'Adwlllll£lb. Chicago. aa aeaally and Co., 1911. 3-361.

• •• trr. K. a .. achandr. 1973 -re .. l •. /ort Partlolpatlon and wort Motivated

Contr;,scaptlon-, "'no.a£~ ".!!1!!_ Ho.e. Ibi Ga1ldb~rall Institute orau£al iletl", end '_'U jil.llnl~;-i3aiidiiIiii.;

Saxena. G,B.

19~ -Differential Partllit, In a ~ural Hindu Co.aunitYI A Saaple ~urvey of ;tural uttar Pradesh, Indla-, Eug~ftlc!--1.~artel"ll 12 (Sept). 137.1e,

lobulta, TboOdor,_ W. 1973 "The value ot Chl1d't"enl ,\n Economic Perspectlve-.

Jo~a] of Political =~O~!, 61 (2)1 -2 - $13'

Sengupta t A.

196$ "Fa.ll, Planning In Indl~ - The laportance of Huma!l ~~ei;ors "'!" >1J,.£1.1 of Fyll! i\e1fl£o 11 4, 39-46.

Sldb, Kaushal K, 1,.,4 f.aw~~'. ?IiQill;:l' Ibi 31 1\1'_ elctol, Hew Delbl.

AbhlDa., ~ubllc6tlo4 ••

liMa. J ... ,

lts7 ·DltfQr~ntial P.~tl11t1 Q~ Fa.lly Limitation In an U%'ban ~olll\h.anity ot uttar Prade8la·, roaglatloR .tyd 1.1 .11 (No.,e."el" h 1~7-16~,

lovanl. M,V.

1912 ~Qilil 'ijf~l¥ af KglnlQNr ~lty VA" III ~ e"'l1 ~!10i APi 19:2,1 ~1~. Poonal Gothal. Institute • 'olltlc.. Econ~lcs, P¥bl1catlon No. 24.

'ovani, N.V., and ~umtdlnl Oandekar

10: I~& i. ?oona. GOkh3\i Institute 01 190' l~~~f ~.V~ af ~ •• ,~. C9~ 'Dd ~IS.II Pol t 45. Eooftomlca.

stHokel, Joh" lAd :.loqbul. At. ::boudhury

1"9 -Pa4tora a-iated to Kn .. ledJe and Practice of , .. lly Plannlni 10 East Pakl.tanl Villages-, Soct.1 Bl0101.l 16 (1). 29-38.

s tycos. "'.yone 19'71 Id.!..o.l9..ttL..:.:".lllL .nd .1.a1d 1¥ ,l,oolng in Lat'.

Aaerlca, Haw Yo~kl ~ca~aw Hill.

StYOOI, J.M., and a.H. Weller 1967 ·ae.le .working a ole& and 'ertl1l tyt', R,19S1l.Rl\X

4 (1)_ 210-217.

Tholl1nson, .~ alpb 1965 fl2Y1.~lQO Ryo.el.i, New Yo~kl a.ndon House.

TbOllPaon, ,~.s •• nd D. T. Lewl.

1970 PAPulatlon PrAbl .... N .. Yorkl .. ~ •• Hl11.

Tlen, H. Yuah

1967

Tletze 1969

-.obility, non-Faall!.1 Activity and 'ertl1Ity-, Q!logrRpbx 4 (1)1 218-227.

·The .. e of sffectlvones. of Contra~lptlve ~tbods· in Clyde V. Klaer, l.se&£gh In r"ily Pl,nnlng,-'rlnc~ton. PrincQton University Prls., 3~ -369.

United Natlon. 1961

1974

W.l1.r, a.H. 1965 ·The alploy •• nt of .lv •• , DOilnance aad rertl11t,·,

.I'MU.l of Hartl,a' .nsi tbe faaily 30. 437-442.

Wbelpton, '.K., A.A. C •• pb.l1 .nd J.8. ,.tteraon 1966 f.rtlli\x aAd Fllily Planpiog in tbe Uni~.d l,a"I,

Prlncatonl P~lnceton ualverslty Pr ••••

Wi1aon. Thoaa. P.

1912 -Critique of Ordinal Vari.bl •• • 10 H.M. Blalook Jr.

Wlrlght, ;i ... ll

CiVil). :,J09811 In th. So.;i.l j C~:r ne@', I.ondon I .. calllan.

1964 -Th. Interpr.tation of MUltivariate Sy.ta •• •• 11 O •• alr '-pthron. 11 11 (ed.) 1tltlS ~;ICS 'ocI t:f!t:ttlC$ in Blo1oi¥. New tor • Ha uer

u 1 • 1n9 Ca.pany. 11-33.

Youssef, Nadia I. 1912 -Differential Labour 10rce Partloipatlon of

Mo •• n 1n Latin American and ~lddl. Ealt.~n CountrlG8' Tbe Influence of Family Chracteriatlcs-, iRc1,! ?0"1' '1 (2). l3$-1~3.