Dairy Management

Key Terms• Heat (oestrus) the period when the female will accept service by the male. The

act of service by the male (bull) is known as bulling• Lactation the period of time that the animal is in milk• Calving interval the time between one calving and the next for an individual cow• Calving index the average time between one calving and the next for the herd• Dry period the time between the end of one lactation and the start of the next

(the period when the cow is not producing milk)• Service insemination of the cow by a bull or artificial insemination

Breeds of Cow

• There are 1 841 000 dairy cows in the UK across 14 060 dairy farms, thereby averaging each herd to 130 cows

• The average milk yield per cow is 7 717 litres per year. On average, each person in the UK consumes 75 litres of liquid milk per year, 10 litres of yoghurt and eats 6.1kg of cheese

Breed Holstein (Friesian)

Weight 700kg

Age at 1st Calving 2 years

Average number of lactations 3-4

Average yield 7 717 L

Days dry 50

Housed inside 5-7 months

Gestation period 280 days

Inputs

10 tonnes of grass in grazing season 12 000L water per

year

10 tonnes of silage in winter 2-3 tonnes of

concentrated food over the year

7 717L of milk per year

Outputs

1 calf every 365 days

25-35kg of faeces & 20-25L of urine per day

Milk Composition87% Water

4% Butterfat3.2% Protein

4.7% Lactose

The farmer is interested in the proportions of butterfat and protein because this is what the milk price is based on. This milk price is also based on the hygienic quality (decided by a Bactoscan reading) and the somatic cell count, which is the indicator for mastitis. The price paid to dairy farmers has been decreasing – in July 2015 it stood at 24.87p per litre.

LactationThe lactation cycle is the time from one calving to the next, including the time the cow is lactating and the dry period. The cow must produce a calf in order to lactate. The cycle typically lasts 420 days due to the demand placed on the high yielding dairy cow.

After calving, it generally takes a cow 4-8 weeks to reach peak milk yield in terms of litres/day. After the peak mild yield, the yield will decline at around 2-2.5% per week.

Dry Matter Intake (DMI)Initially, the DMI is low. It increases at a slower rate than the milk yield and reaches a maximum at 10-12 weeks after calving. The DMI is approximately 3.5% of cow liveweight (for example, a 700kg cow will have a DMI of 24.5 700 x 0.035)

However… a feed such as silage or grass contains 25% dry matter, so the fresh matter intake of the cow would be four times her dry matter intake (98kg of fresh matter per day)

Cows with higher milk yields and heavier cows have higher intakes.

LiveweightThe liveweight of the cow is at a minimum 12-14 weeks after calving.In early lactation, the demand for nutrients is high because of the high daily milk yield. However, DMI is not yet at the maximum. The cow is in negative energy balance – this means she cannot eat enough to meet her energy requirements so instead she mobilises her body reserves (body fat) which is known as ‘milking off her back’. If the weight loss of the cow is too high in early lactation she may have a reduced milk yield, low protein content of milk and reduced fertility. In early lactation the aim is to keep the cow below 0.5kg/d, with the cow losing a maximum of 35kg in the first 10 weeks of lactation.

LiveweightIn mid-late lactation, the milk yield decreases and the appetite increases so the cow is in positive energy balance (eats more than enough for maintenance and production thereby also uses food to replenish her body reserves). Therefore the cow is stable in mid lactation so she will should be able to gain 0.5-.0.75kg/d.

Dry PeriodCows should be dried off (stop lactating) before the next lactation and this is achieved by not milking her. This provides a recovery period for the udder. If the cow does not have a dry period, the following lactation yield could be reduced by up to 20%.

ReproductionThe average gestation length (pregnancy) is 280 days – however this is dependant on breed of cow, number of calves carried and sex of calf.Signs of calving:• Increase in udder size (the cow ‘bags up’)• Slackening of tail head muscles• Walk less easily• Seeks isolation from the herd

Labour lasts 3-8 hours given there are no complications and she may lose around 60kg (40kg calf, 20kg fluids and tissue). Lactation commences after calving.

The Oestrus CycleThe cycle typically lasts for 21 days. During the cycle, the cow stands to be mated by the bull (bulling). Heat lasts 3-30 hours with ovulation occurring 2-22 hours after heat

Calving IndexThe theoretical target for calving index is 365 days (1 calf per year), however in the UK the average is closer to 420 days. This greater than average length results in a drift in the calving pattern except for herds who calve all year round. If the farmer wishes to meet the theoretical target, the cow should be coming back in-calf in the 12th week of lactation. However, this is difficult to achieve because at the same time the cow will be producing a high milk yield and losing weight.

Factors Affecting Calving IndexOnset of OestrusAfter calving, the cow will have 1 or 2 irregular silent heats but should have regular cycles 4 weeks after calving. If after 45 days the cow has not shown heat, veterinary examination is advised. Reasons for a delay in onset of oestrus…• High yielding cows• Underfeeding or excess loss of body condition• Health problems such as difficulty calving (dystocia), retained placenta, ovarian

cysts

The majority of matings in UK dairy herds are carried out by artificial insemination.

Oestrus DetectionPhysical Signs Behavioural Signs

Rubbed tail and/or dirty flanks because she has been mounted by a bull

Noisy

Swollen vagina Restless

Bulling string Decrease in appetite

Blood or mucous on her tail Stand to be ridden by other cows with no attempts of escape

Cows mounting other cows from the wrong end

Sniffing, bunting

Chin resting and licking

Oestrus Detection• Observation: The cow should be observed at least three times per day for at least

20 minutes each time, especially in the evening because it will be many hours before the cows are milked again.

• Record Keeping: a farmer should therefore know when a cow is coming into oestrus so he can see if they are standing to be mounted.

• Presence of Bull: The bull pen should be situated close to the cow yard so when on heat, cows will hand around the bull pen. But, many farms don’t have bulls and most mating is done by artificial insemination (AI)

• Heat Mount Detector or Tail Paint: This is placed on the back of the cow. When the cow is mounted, the paint capsule bursts and the heat mount detector changes colour. However, if a cow rubs against a wall, this could trigger the detector of rub off the paint.

Oestrus Detection• Pedometer/Activity Meter: The activity of the cow increases around oestrus and

this can therefore be measured• Control Oestrus: A progesterone releasing intravaginal device (PRID) or

prostaglandin F2α can be used to bring the cow on heat at a given time and served after a fixed time. (Not to be used as a remedy for poor management)

• Cow wearing a pedometer.

Pregnancy RateThe pregnancy rate is the number of cows pregnant as a proportion of the number served. The target is 94%. If lower, there are various reasons…

Reasons for low pregnancy rates

Weight Loss

Crude Protein in Diet

Timing of Service

Mineral Deficiencies

Calving to Service Interval

• Weight Loss it is important to remember the cow farmer is often trying to get the cow in calf when she is in negative energy balance, but the cow should not be losing more than 0.5kg/day.

• Crude Protein in Diet aim should be 12-16% crude protein in the overall diet.• Timing of Service the optimum time to serve the cow is mid-late oestrus (12-15

hours before ovulation). The general rule is if a cow is seen bulling in the morning, serve her in the afternoon – if bulling in the afternoon, serve the next morning.

• Mineral Deficiencies reduced fertility can be caused by deficiencies in phosphorus, manganese, copper and iodine. It is important to get the right calcium:phosphorus ratio.

• Calving to Service Interval after calving, if there is a longer interval before the first serving the cow, the conception rate is likely to be higher but for the 365 day calving interval, start serving the cow from day 42 post calving.

Feeding the Dairy Cow Silage:- In the winter, the cows are fed silage which is grass that has been preserved by controlled anaerobic fermentation. Afterwards, it is compacted in a pit/clamp and covered with a plastic sheet to keep air out. In anaerobic conditions, lactobacilli ferment the water soluble carbohydrate in the crop to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and lactic acids causing a rapid fall in pH preventing further breakdown of carbohydrates. If air was present or there was a low level of water the lactic acid would then broken down into butyric acid and this is a sign of poor fermentation. It would increase the pH further losses of carbohydrates, a reduced quality with a lower feeding value. Dry Matter (DM): 250 g/kg Crude Protein (CP): 170 g/kg DM pH: 4.0

Previously, a self-feed system was used for silage but due to the increase in the size of dairy herds and silage herds being located away from winter housing. Now, dairy cows are more commonly fed silage using the barrier feeding method – the silage is brought to the cows using a feeder wagon and the cows reach through the barrier to access the feed.

Barrier Feeding MethodAdvantages Disadvantages

Easier to monitor how much the herd is eating Can be expensive (labour, machinery, shed space)

Allows group feeding – create own groups depending on stage of lactation and milk yield to feed different amounts

High labour requirement

Other feeds can be fed at the same time Suitable machinery is expensive and costly to fix if it breaks down

Chopped silage can be fed, increasing the intake by the cows

Shed space is often taken up by the feed passage leaving less room for the cows

Feeding the Dairy CowBulky feeds (forage) are unable to provide all the protein, energy and minerals the cows needs, particularly in early lactation, in high yielders and in poor quality forage. So, the diet needs to be supplemented with concentrates. Concentrates can be high in energy, protein or minerals and some can be high in two of these. - To provide energy: barley, wheat, sugar beet pulp, maize grains- To provide protein: soya-bean meal, rapseed meal- Vitamin/mineral mixIn a high energy concentrate…DM: 860 g/kgMetabolizable Energy (ME): 13.5 MJ/kg DMCP: 210 g/kg DMThe amount of concentrate fed to the cow depends on the milk yield and the quality of the forage. But, too much concentrate can lead to acidosis so only offer small amounts of concentrate at a time.

Concentrate Feeding: MethodsIn-parlour feeders: The cows eat concentrates during the milking processAdvantages Disadvantages

Cows are fed individually and can be rationed due to yield or stage of lactation

Most farmers milk their cows twice a day so they can only be fed concentrate twice per day

Each cow has its own feeder so cannot be bullied

Each feed is limited to 5-5.5kg of concentrate due to the risk of acidosis and the time would have to spend in parlour. This slows the milking process down

Moderate cost

Concentrate Feeding: MethodsOut of Parlour Feeding: the concentrate dispensers are stalls in the winter housing. When the cow enters the stall, the transponder around their neck or leg is read by a computer and the correct allowance of concentrate is given during a 6 hour period.Advantages Disadvantages

Cows can be rationed individually One feeder is required per 20 cows so they can be costly to install

Acidosis is avoided because only 0.25 of the daily allowance is given during a 6 hour period

Bullying may occur

Total Mixed Ration (TMR)This is when a mix of all dietary ingredients are fed together, for example silage, concentrate, barley, root crops. A mixed wagon is required to mix and distribute the diet and the diet will be fed on a barrier feeding system. Advantages Disadvantages

The cows eat little and often so there is less chance of developing acidosis

Need to be grouped according to stage of lactation to avoid them becoming overfat

Low cost feeds can be used May be reluctant to enter the parlour if concentrates aren’t fed

The farmer has control over the ingredients

Mixer wagons are costly

No in parlour feeding required

The cows can be group fed

Grazing ManagementThe average grass production on a lowland dairy farm is 10-13 tonnes of DA/ha/year. The peak production is in May but at this time, production is higher than requirement. So, some grass is conserved as silage and fed in winter. Grazed grass is relatively cheap food but it must be used efficiently. Letting the cows have too much grass will result it in becoming mature as it will be wasted. Too little grass will result in increased intake and therefore reduced milk yield. Types of grazing systems…• Rotational Grazing• Continuous Grazing

Strip GrazingPaddock Grazing

Set Stocking

Strip Grazing• The cows have access to a limited area of fresh grass within the field each day,

good for conserving grass for silage• They are kept off the fresh grass by an electric fence. The fence should be moved

1 – 2 times per day (in the morning and in the evening)• Efficient, flexible system• Low cost• Frequent decisions made by a skilled person is required (e.g. how much grass to

offer)• High labour requirement (move the fence)• Risk of poaching especially in wet weather as all the cattle are concentrated into

a small area on the fresh grass

Paddock GrazingEach paddock is grazed for a set period of time before being moved onto the next period (water troughs in each paddock).28x1 day paddocks each paddock is grazed for one day then allowed to re-grow for 27 days.4x7 day paddocks the cows graze one paddock for 7 days then move to the next paddock for 7 days• Farmer has good control over the quantity and quality of herbage to offer the

cows• Low labour requirements• High initial cost due to fencing, cow tracks and water supply• Low flexibility due to small paddocks so hard to incorporate into farm rotation

Wye College SystemThis system is a combination of the 4x7 day paddock system and strip grazing. An electric fence is used within the paddocks to allow the cows one seventh of the paddock each day.• Easy to operate• Lower cost than other paddock grazing systems• Inflexible • Is significant costs associated with it (e.g. water troughs, fences)

Continuous Grazing (Set Stocking)The cows graze over the whole area for the entire grazing system (can have a day and night grazing area)• More difficult to control the amount of grass on offer. If the cows are overstocked so

there isn’t enough grass, the milk yield will decline. If the cows are understocked, the herbage will mature and the quality of the grazing will decline.

• Cows can be turned out sooner as the grass needs to be grazed in spring before it gets too long. Fertiliser should be applied monthly. Grass yield and quality decline in late season so the grazing area must be increased by using silage aftermaths

• Low cost• Reduced risk of poaching as more area available for cattle but this means it takes

longer to collect cows for milking• Easy to manage system• Grass utilisation is less efficient. Harder to control quality of grass

Zero GrazingUnder this system, the cows are housed or they can be kept in a ‘feedlot’ or on a sacrifice area of grazing. The grass is cut and transported and fed fresh to cows in summer. Silage is fed during the winter. • Efficient use is made of the grassland because the cows can’t select which areas

to eat, so more of the grass is utilised• The cattle aren’t grazing so there is a reduced risk of poaching but tractors still go

in and out of fields so gateways may become poached• Grass from inaccessible fields can be used• High labour and machinery costs (cut and cart grass)• Increased slurry as the cattle are housed for 12 months

Conserved Forage SystemsOn some farms, the dairy cows are not fed fresh grass and do not graze, instead, they will be fed silage or TMR throughout the year. Some farms only do this with high yielding cows but let low yielding cows graze.

How to Choose a System• The advantages and disadvantages and how they suit a farm

• Layout of the farm (e.g. close to roads, closeness of fields to parlours)

• Soil type (heavy soils are better for continuous grazing)

• Farmer preference

Main Welfare Problems in Dairy Production• Hunger or acute metabolic diseases due to an imbalance between nutrient supply

and demand• Chronic discomfort through bad housing, loss of condition• Chronic pain or restricted movement due to distortion of body shape, bad

housing and management

Welfare CodesThere are FIVE FREEDOMS (updated by The Farm Animal Welfare Council in 1993)• Freedoms from thirst, hunger and malnutrition • Freedom from discomfort• Freedom from injury, pain and disease• Freedom to express normal behaviour• Freedom from fear and distress

Freedom from Thirst, Hunger & MalnutritionThe amount of water needed by a cow is dependent on the milk yield, the water content of the feed and the environment. Dry cows can drink up to 14 litres/day whereas lactating cows can drink up to 65 litres/day so there must be enough space at troughs and a good supply of water to meet the cows needs.Milk is 87% water so if the cows are thirsty, there will be a decreased milk yield. This leads to a reduced DMI which also means a further reduction in yield.Water is supplied ad libitum (the cows drink the water voluntarily) so there needs to be sufficient water troughs and must be carefully distributed seeing as cows are reluctant to walk over 250m for water.An adequate diet should also be provided.

Acidosis – What Is It?Acidosis is a metabolic disease.The normal rumen pH is around 6.0 and is usually controlled by buffers in saliva and the level of lactic acid in the rumen is low. If the pH falls, lactic acid bacteria can grow and a high starch diet will encourage the production of lactic acid. Also a high starch/low fibre diet leads to a reduction in rumination and saliva production. This means that the animal is less able to belch and has a reduced buffering capacity. The low pH in the rumen causes water to move from the blood to the rumen via osmosis and the animal becomes dehydrated. As the animal attempts to buffer the low pH in the rumen, bicarbonate moves from the blood to the rumen and lactic acid is absorbed into the blood. This causes acidosis. The lactic acid corrodes the rumen wall allowing the invasion of fungal and bacterial infections.

Acidosis – Symptom & EffectsSymptoms Effects

Acute• Elevated heart rate• Diarrhoea• Depressed• Decreased appetite• Liver disease

Sub-Acute• Reduced feed intake• Poor body condition• Temperature• Diarrhoea• Lethargy• Weight loss• High pulse and respiratory rate

There is a decrease in the amount of acetate produced leading to a reduction in the fat content of the cow’s milk

Acidosis – Treatment & Prevention• There is no specific treatment due to the disease not being detected at the time

of depressed ruminal pHPrevention;• Decreased starch intake• Increased silage intake• Little and often amounts of concentrate• Feed a concentrate that is high in digestible fibre (e.g. sugar beet pulp)

Ketosis – What Is It?Ketosis (acetonaemia) occurs when there is an energy deficit in the diet and the cow metabolises its fat too quickly. It is most likely to occur in early lactation. The body fat is broken down and ketones are produced which then accumulate in the liver. Beta hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is also produced when the body fat is broken down.

N.B. measuring BHB in the blood can indicate the nutritional status of the cow.

Ketosis - Symptoms• Reduction in milk yield• Reduced appetite• Loss of weight and condition• Lethargy• Smell of acetone on the breath/in the milk• In severe cases, liver failure or Fatty Liver Syndrome may occur due to the

accumulation of the mobilised fat in the liver

Ketosis - Prevention• Condition Score avoid having over-fat and over-thin cows. When dried off, the

cow’s condition should be 3.0. Over-fat cows are more likely to develop ketosis because they have lower appetites and must mobilise more fat in early lactation.

• Correct Rationing the diet should contain sufficient energy for the level of production of the cow. The lactation diet should be introduced to the cows for the last two weeks before calving and during lactation the diet should be palatable. Giving the cow adequate feeding space will encourage intake.

• Prevent Other Diseases other diseases can result in a reduced feed intake, so the cow would have to mobilise body fat leading to ketosis.

Milk Fever (Hypocalcaemia)This normally occurs around calving. When lactation commences, there is a sudden demand for calcium which can lead to low levels in the blood. Calcium is required for muscle contraction.

Symptoms Prevention

• Difficulty walking• Becomes recumbent• Rumination ceases• Animal becomes unconscious• Death is normally due to cardiac and

respiratory failure

• Diets fed to dry cows should contain low levels of calcium, promoting an increase in the number of calcium receptors in the small intestine. So, in early lactation when the cow has high calcium requirements, the amount of calcium should be increased and a large amount will be absorbed due to the increased number of receptors

Grass Staggers (Hypomagnesaemia)This occurs due to low magnesium levels in the blood. Most cases occur on lush spring pasture, although it can also occur in September. There is less magnesium in spring grass than in silage.

Symptoms Prevention

• Nervous/fidgety• Convulsions• Collapse• Rapid death

• There is not an available store of magnesium in the body but it can be administered to the cow daily:- treating the pasture, adding magnesium to water, providing mineral licks, using boluses.

• Buffer feeding of silage • Improve the pasture by including clover in

the sward and avoid early use of potassium fertiliser (makes the magnesium less available)

• Do not apply slurry to the grazing in early season

Freedom from Discomfort - HousingThe average cow weights 700kg and spends 7-14 hours of the day lying down. When a cow lies down, she lies down front first and gets up front last.There are three types of housing…• Byres• Loose Housing• Cubicles

Byres and Loose Housing• Byres

The cows are chained in stalls and milked in the stalls. This is rare in the UK• Loose Housing

The cows will be bedded with straw and mucked out every 4-6 weeks. There will also be an area of bare concrete to encourage hoof wear - Water and feed troughs should be located in this area.

CubiclesIndividual stalls which the cows are free to enter and exit at their own will.Design considerations…

Length Width Kerbs

• 2.3-2.4 metres if the stall is not a solid wall

• A lunge area if the stall has a solid front – an extra 0.25 – 0.30 metres

• 1.2 metres between partitions

• Too high strain on the cows legs leading to lameness

• Too low bedding could become contaminated with slurry from the passageways and this can lead to mastitis.

• The slurry can soften hooves and horns due to the protein digesting enzymes

• 15-20 cm (lower if using mattresses)

Types of Partition

Newton Rigg Dorsdunn

Cows prefer cantilever type partitions

The vertical bars can cause damage to the hocks and pelvis from rubbing when they lie down

• PassagewayWide enough to let cows pass one another. Minimum width is 3.0m, ideal width is 3.6m. A loafing area should also be provided to encourage hoof wear.

• Neck RailTo prevent the cow standing too far forward in cubicle so they don’t dung on the bed – they should also be able to have all four feet in the stall. If the neck rail is too close to the passageway, the cow will stand with only her front feet in the stall and this can contribute to lameness. It should be positioned 1.6-1.9 m from the rear kerb and 1.2-1.3 m above the bedded surface

• Slope2-3% so the cow can lie uphill

At lease one cubicle per cow should be allowed but it is better to have an extra 5%

• TemperatureThe lower critical temperature (LCT) is the lower limit of the thermoneutral zone. Below the LCT, the cow has to increase heat production by shivering. In a Friesian, the LCT is -20 but wind chill must also be taken into account. So, winter housing must be designed to reduce the effects of wind chill and rain rather than the effect of the cold. The limit of optimal productivity is -5. Below this, local chilling of the udder occurs – blood flow to the udder is reduced so the udder receives less nutrients, decreasing milk production. So, the aim needs to be to reduce heat loss through convection and conduction

• BeddingTo keeps teats, udders and flanks clean and reduce heat loss through conduction. E.g. mattresses, chopped straw, sawdust

Freedom from Injury, Pain & DiseaseWhat are cows at risk of?•Lameness•Mastitis•Metabolic Disorders• Infectious Diseases

Lameness - CausesIncorrect Feeding Poor Walking Surface Housing Design Other Factors

• Acidosis (directly related to laminitis)

• Protein: the overall crude protein content of the diet should be less than 18% but the effect on cow’s feet is not clear cut

• Zinc: zinc contributes to the formation of keratin which gives the horn its rigidity. A deficiency can therefore lead to lameness

• Can lead to bruising and puncturing of the sole which gives an entry for bacteria

• Examples include pitted concrete and sharp flint gravel tracks

• Cubicles need to be designed to encourage the cow to lie down

• Standing for long periods can cause lameness

• If cows are forced to stand in the passageway, in wet conditions, this can cause the horn to soften

• Slurry contains protein-digestive enzymes so need to be kept clean

• Cows need loafing areas to wear hooves down

• Genetics – black hooves are harder than white

Lameness- Prevention• Foot trimming• Foot baths, using zinc sulphate or formalin (can also use foam baths)• Antibiotics can be used for some infectious causes• Attention should be paid to slurry hygiene, cubicle design and husbandry

Mastitis – What is it?Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland caused by an infectious agent (usually bacteria). It can be diagnosed by determining whether there is a high somatic cell count in the milk (which would be unfit for human consumption).

Contagious Mastitis spreads from cow to cow (e.g. through the milking equipment)

Environmental Mastitis caused by bacteria present in the environment and is more difficult to control

Summer Mastitis transmitted by flies (usually in July-September)

Mastitis - Symptoms• Sub-clinical symptoms which can only be detected by milk cell count• Severe clinical infection recognised by clots in the milk, reduced milk yield, heart

and udder swelling

Mastitis – Prevention: The Five Point Plan• Hygienic Teat Management

- Good udder preparation before milking.- Milk infected cows at the end of the milking session- Clean the unit after use- Teat disinfection after milking- Fly control through using insecticide and hygiene control

• Prompt Identification and Treatment of CasesUse a strip cup pre-milking for early detection and treatment

• Dry Cow Management and TherapyUsing intra-mammary antibiotics when the cows are dried off

• Culling Chronically Infected Cows & Persistent Offenders• Regular Milking Machine and Maintenance

Ensure the equipment is functioning properly

Infectious DiseasePrevention of infectious diseases such as pneumonia, BVD (Bovine Virus Diarrhoea) can be down to good management:• Vaccination policy• Housing design• Hygiene• Clear buying-in policy

Freedom to Express Normal BehaviourThis is most important when the cow is on heat/bulling. The farmer must be able to detect when the cows are on heat to be able to artificially inseminate them at the correct time. Observation and record keeping is key – the cow will stand to be mounted by another cow so needs sufficient space such as a loafing area.

Freedom From FearIt is important to avoid fear.The let down of the milk in the udder is controlled by oxytocin and the production of oxytocin can be stimulated by the calf nudging the udder or by the sight and sound of the milking parlour. However, if the cow is afraid, adrenaline is produced which prepares her for ‘fight or flight’ so the cow doesn’t let her milk down.

Calf Rearing – The Newborn CalfThe calving area should be clean, dry and cleaned out between cows. When the calf is born, mucus should be removed from the nose and mouth and the tongue should be pulled forward. The naval cord should be dipped/sprayed with iodine to prevent bacteria entering and causing navel ill. The calf should suck from the cow to receive colostrum and removed 24-48 hours after being born. If it is removed later, there will be a strong bond to break.

Colostrum – The First MilkColostrum is high in fat and antibody content. It is required by the calf for…1. Passive Immunity there is no transplacental transfer of antibodies, so the

antibodies in colostrum transfer across the stomach wall into the calf’s blood upon ingestion of colostrum.

2. Energy the fat and lactose in colostrum provide energy3. Laxative helps to remove the meconium (first faeces)

The cow should be fed colostrum for a day or two after being removed from its mother

Birthweight and WeaningThe birthweight of a calf is around 40-45 kg depending on the breed and sex. Calves sired by beef bulls will be heavier for example.The dairy-bred calf is fed on whole milk or milk replacer until weaning.When can the dairy calf be weaned?• Weight: 60kg• Age: 5-8 weeks• Eating 1kg/day dry food• OR gaining 0.5kg/day

Calf DigestionInitially, the rumen is very small and non-functional (it is less than two litres in size, compared to 140 litres in a fully grown cow)

Calf Digestion• Abomasum

An enzyme called rennin causes the milk to clot – the clot contains casein and fat. The clot is digested in the abomasum and the whey (rest of the milk) passes into the small intestine to be digested.

• RumenMicrobial digestion occurs here in the adult bovine. In the calf, the micro-organisms are picked up from the environment and they colonise the rumen. As solid food intake increases, this stimulates rumen fermentation and development.

• Oesophageal GrooveThis is a groove in the rumen wall that diverts milk past the rumen and into the abomasum. When the calf sucks from the cow, there is a reflex action so the muscle above the groove contracts, transforming the groove into a pipe directing milk into the abomasum to be chemically digested.

Calf Feeding SystemsIndividual Penning and Bucket Feeding

Individual Penning & Bucket Feeding

Advantages Disadvantages

Can rear small uneven groups Fed at a fixed time so labour must be available

Good supervision – easy to monitor for signs of illness

High labour requirement (feeding, cleaning buckets)

No competition or bullying

Reduced cost (no machines)

Calf Feeding SystemsGroup Housing & Teat Feeding

Group Housing & Teat FeedingAdvantages Disadvantages

Less labour (more calves per stockperson) Cost of machine and alternatives if it breaks down

Reduced penning costs and specialist buildings can be used

Need a good stockperson to be able to detect illness or behavioural changes in one calf amongst a group

Social interaction Difficult to monitor milk and creep feed intake of individual calves

Natural sucking on teats triggers reflex action of oesophageal groove

Increased risk of disease transfer through sharing teats and using the same equipment

Calf Starter RationThe starter ration fed to the calf is usually pellets or a coarse mix. It should be palatable and highly digestible in order to encourage the intake of dry feed by the calf. It should be fed from 1-2 weeks of age.

RoughageThe calf can be fed hay or good quality, clean barley straw. Older calves can be fed silage. Roughage encourages rumen development and rumination.

PneumoniaCauses• Viruses• If stressed, more predisposed to it (weaning, marketing, transportation)• After a lungworm infectionSymptoms• Chesty cough, increased breathing rate• Clear discharge from the eyes and nose• Slightly red eyes• Loss of appetite• Stand with its head down• Arched back

Pneumonia - Prevention• Housing

If the bedding is wet, micro-organisms will increase. The bedding area should be sloped for good drainage. Good ventilation, low humidity, no over-stocking

• Avoid stressNo mixing groups of calves. Better to not buy calves through markets.

• Vaccination

Calf Scours (Diarrhoea)Can occur due to digestive upsets of viruses and is commonly seen in the first three weeks of life.Symptoms• White, yellow or green diarrhoea (can be watery)• Dull• Depressed• Dehydrated death

Calf Scours - Prevention• Correct Feeding

Not too much milk, no sudden dietary changes• Colostrum at Birth

To receive passive immunity to help protect against scours• Housing Design

Warm, dry bedded area. Well ventilated, no draught. “All in all out” system so cleaning and disinfecting can take place between groups of calves

• VaccinesAdministered to mother in late pregnancy for passive immunity

Calf WelfareSome basic guidelines states by the ‘Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock – Cattle’• Houses should be inspected at least twice a day• The calves should receive colostrum within the first 6 hours of life and fed twice a

day• Individual pens can only be used for calves up to 8 weeks of age and should have

one perforated wall• Artificial light should be provided between 9am and 5pm if there is no natural

light• Calves shouldn’t be transported if less than a week old and if the navel has not

completely healed

CastrationThe Burdizzo can be used without anaesthetic on calves under 2 months of age

The rubber ring method can be used without anaesthetic on calves under 7 days of age

If the cow is older than 2 months, a vet must perform the castration.

Disbudding and DehorningDisbudding is the removal of the horn buds before any of the horn material can be seen (before the calf is 2 months old). The preferred method is to use local anaesthetic and a hot ironIt is preferable to disbud calves rather than waiting till they are older to dehorn them. Horned and non-horned cattle should not be kept together so older cattle may need to be dehorned at this point. It is done under local anaesthetic using a saw(some cattle are genetically hornless – polled)

Supernumerary TeatsSome calves are born with more than 4 teats. These extra teats can be removed under local anaesthetic using clean, sharp scissors before the cow is 3 months of age. After this, the operation should be performed by a vet.