daniel kaki leke - university of adelaide · 2011. 6. 15. · a vet model for papua new guinea...

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN

SECONDARY SCHOOLS: INVESTIGATION INTO

A VET MODEL FOR PAPUA NEW GUINEA

DANIEL KAKI LEKE

B.Ed Preserv (PNG), B.Ed Hons (PNG)

M.Ed Studies (Adelaide)

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

School of Education

Faculty of the Professions

The University of Adelaide

© April 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES IN MAIN TEXT ............................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDICES ............................................................................................. v LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................ viii ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... ix DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................ 1 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA .......................... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND: FACTORS DRIVING THIS STUDY .................................................. 2 1.3 THE PNG EDUCATION STRUCTURE AND PLACE OF VET ...................................... 9 1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................................................................................ 17 1.5 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................ 18 1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................... 19 1.7 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THIS STUDY ........................................ 20 1.8 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................................................. 22 1.9 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND PHRASES ................................................................. 24 1.10 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................. 32 STAKEHOLDER PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL VET PROGRAMS ..................................... 32

2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 32 2.2 EVALUATION OF STUDENT OUTCOME IN VET ..................................................... 32 2.3 PRINCIPAL/TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF VET ........................................................ 39 2.4 BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PARTICIPATION IN VET ...................................................... 44 2.5 POLICY-MAKER AWARENESS ON VET ISSUES ..................................................... 54 2.6 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 64

CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................................... 66 CONCEPTUAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVES .......................................................................... 66

3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 66 3.2 THE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING PERSPECTIVE ................................................ 67 3.3 THE SITUATED LEARNING PERSPECTIVE .............................................................. 81 3.4 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 86

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................ 88 KEY LEARNING ELEMENTS AND THREE MODELS OF VET PROVISION ................... 88

4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 88 4.2 KEY ELEMENTS FROM THE LEARNING FRAMEWORKS ..................................... 88 4.3 THREE MODELS OF VET PROVISION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.................... 104 4.4 ATTEMPTS AT VET PROVISION IN PNG SCHOOLS ............................................. 122 4.5 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 130

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................... 132 RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES ............................................................................. 132

5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 132 5.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHOD ........................................................ 132

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5.3 SELECTION AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES ......................................................... 135 5.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ....................................................................................... 141 5.5 QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS ..................................................................................... 145 5.6 DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 146 5.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................... 148 5.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................................................. 150 5.9 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 151

CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................................................. 152 PNG SURVEY RESULTS ............................................................................................................ 152

6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 152 6.2 STUDENTS’ SURVEY RESULTS ................................................................................ 152 6.3 TEACHERS’ SURVEY RESULTS ................................................................................ 159 6.4 BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL SURVEY RESULTS ..................................... 168 6.5 POLICY-MAKER/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ SURVEY RESULTS ............................. 175 6.6 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 177

CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................................ 179 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS .............................................................................................. 179

7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 179 7.2 STUDENTS’ RESULTS ................................................................................................. 180 7.3 TEACHERS’ RESULTS ................................................................................................. 190 7.4 BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL RESULTS ...................................................... 197 7.5 POLICY-MAKER/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ RESULTS .............................................. 206 7.6 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ........................................................................................... 230

CHAPTER EIGHT ........................................................................................................................ 236 INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET MODEL FOR PNG ........................................................... 236

8.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 236 8.2 RATIONALE FOR THE INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/ VET MODEL ....................... 236 8.3 APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET MODEL FOR PNG .............. 245 8.4 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET MODELS ................................... 257 8.5 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 262

CHAPTER NINE ........................................................................................................................... 263 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................... 263

9.1 THE KEY FINDINGS AND NEED FOR ACTION ...................................................... 263 9.2 INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET MODEL IMPLEMENTATION PLAN ................. 270 9.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .............................................. 272 9.4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 272

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 275 APPENDIX A: STUDENTS’ SURVEY RESULTS.................................................................... 275 APPENDIX B: TEACHERS’ SURVEY RESULTS ................................................................... 336 APPENDIX C: BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL SURVEY RESULTS ....................... 347 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW DATA FROM POLICY-MAKERS/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 360 APPENDIX E: SURVEY LETTERS AND QUESTIONNAIRES ............................................ 381 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 404

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LIST OF TABLES IN MAIN TEXT

Table 1: The general PNG education structure…………………………………….….……10

Table 2: Terms used in various countries to describe generic skills…..................................26

Table3: Teachers/trainers’ conceptions of competence as reported in 2002….....................27

Table 4: Mapping key competencies into employability skills…………………….…….....29

Table 5: Key learning elements for VET……………………………….…………………..89

Table 6: Grade 11 & 12 pre-tertiary subject categories……………………………………127

Table 7: Grade 11 & 12 non-tertiary subjects in their learning area categories…………...128

Table 8: Number of listings under 30 business groupings and numbers

chosen for study………………………………………………………………….139

Table 9: School, gender, grade level and background of student respondents……………153

Table 10: School and gender background of teacher respondents………………………...160

Table 11: Teachers’ participation level in academic and VET subjects…………………..162

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LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: STUDENTS’ SURVEY RESULTS……………………………………275

Table A1: Grade 12 students who have participated or are currently participating in general academic and VET subjects………………………277




Table A5: Grade 12 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses………………...285 Table A6: Grade 11 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses………………...287 Table A7: Grade 10 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses………………...289 Table A8: Grade 9 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses……………….....291 Table A9: Grade 12 students’ views about VET………………………………….......293 Table A10: Grade 11 students’ views about VET………………………………….......295 Table A11: Grade 10 students’ views about VET………………………………….......297 Table A12: Grade 9 students’ views about VET…………………………………….....299 Table A13: Importance of employability skills and personal attributes

for Grade 12 students………………………………………………………301 Table A14: Importance of employability skills and personal attributes



for Grade 9 students……………………………………………………….307 Table A17: Grade 12 students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness……………………310 Table A18: Grade 11 students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness……………………312 Table A19: Grade 10 students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness……………………315 Table A20: Grade 9 students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness…………………......318 Table A21: People influencing Grade 12 students’ study and career pathways……......320 Table A22: People influencing Grade 11 students’ study and career pathways……......322 Table A23: People influencing Grade 10 students’ study and career pathways……......325 Table A24: People influencing Grade 9 students’ study and career pathways…………327 Table A25: Grade 12 students’ general academic and VET course preferences……….329 Table A26: Grade 11 students’ general academic and VET course preferences……….331 Table A27: Grade 10 students’ general academic and VET course preferences……….333 Table A28: Grade 9 students’ general academic and VET course preferences………...335

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APPENDIX B: TEACHERS’ SURVEY RESULTS…………........................................336

Table B29: Personnel involvement in developing general academic and VET courses…………………………………………………………...337

Table B30: Teachers’ observations of VET course development and delivery………..341 Table B31: Teachers’ views about employability skills and personal attributes included in general academic and VET courses………………...343 Table B32: Teachers’ views about VET employability skills and attributes…………..346 APPENDIX C: BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL SURVEY RESULTS……..347 Table C33: Business/industry views about employability skills and personal

attributes…………………………………………………………………...350 Table C34: Business/industry views about employability skills and personal

attributes in VET training programs…………………………………….....353 Table C35: Business/industry views about provision of employability skills

training for new employees……………………..........................................356 Table C36: Business/industry views about VET training and apprenticeship

program participation at different education levels……..............................358

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Papua New Guinea…………………………………………………………………2

Figure 2: The difference between traditional and constructivist classroom models………...78

Figure 3: 3C3R PBL problem design model…………………………………………..........99

Figure 4: Ten levels of curricula integration model…………………………………….....113

Figure 5: Upper secondary school curriculum framework…………………………...........126

Figure 6: Integrated Academic/VET Model for PNG……………………………………..250

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACER Australian Centre for Educational Research ADB Asian Development Bank ADTP Australasian Digital Theses Program ALP Australian Labour Party AQF Australian Qualifications Framework AQTF Australian Quality Training Framework ASI Adelaide Scholarship International CBT Competency-based Training CODE College of Distance Education CTL Contextual teaching and learning DEEWR Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations DEST Department of Education, Science and Training EBC Education Broadcasting Corporation GPA Grade Point Average HOD Heads of Department HSC High School Certificate ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund LSAY Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth MDG Millennium Development Goals NATTAB National Trade and Testing Board NCS National Curriculum Statement NCVER National Centre for Vocational Education Research NDE National Department of Education NRQ Nationally Recognised Qualification OECD Organisation for Economic Corporation and Development PBL Problem-Based Learning PETT Pre-Employment Technical Training PNG Papua New Guinea PNGQF PNG Qualifications Framework RTO Registered training organisation SM Subject Masters SSCEP Secondary Schools Community Extension Project TAFE Technical and further education TVET Technical and vocational education and training UAI Universities Admission Index UBE Universal Basic Education UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization UNESCO-UNEVOC United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization, International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training

UNDP PNG United Nations Development Program, Papua New Guinea VET Vocational Education and Training VETiS VET in schools

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ABSTRACT

Vocational education and training (VET) was introduced into the secondary school

curriculum in many developed countries because of its economic and social benefits.

Papua New Guinea (PNG), a developing nation, appeared to overlook VET as an important

tool for economic and social development since independence in 1975. Its secondary

schools have provided only an academic pathway for the top quarter of its students.

Thousands of secondary school students become school leavers at Grade 10 and 12 levels,

without having VET knowledge and employability skills/attributes. This student transition

problem negatively impacted on PNG society through high level youth unemployment and

unrest. The purpose of this study was to investigate and determine the characteristics of a

VET program model at the secondary school level which might address the current student

transition problem in PNG. The following question was used to direct this research: How

can a VET model address and minimise the current student transition problem at the

secondary school level in Papua New Guinea? This study applied the positivist

(qualitative) and descriptive (quantitative) mixed methodology. The use of

mixed/triangulation methods was considered important because one data collection form

would supply strengths to offset the possible weaknesses of the others. The data was

gathered using applied discourse/text analysis, questionnaires and semi-structured

interviews from purposely selected PNG stakeholders: students, teachers, policy-

makers/school principals and business/industry personnel. The results illustrated how VET

in PNG was given little priority at the policy level. Most stakeholders thought that

academic subjects would assure a better future than VET subjects. Although VET subjects

and employability skills and attributes were considered to have some importance by most

stakeholders, almost always they expressed some reservations. Most students and teachers

thought that VET subjects were less valuable than academic subjects. Similarly, most

business/industry personnel expressed that postgraduate students and other tertiary

graduates possessed better skills for work than the secondary school graduates. This was

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because VET programs were restricted to post-secondary schools or TVET colleges. Most

stakeholders failed to realise that the academic subjects could be studied only by a minority

students. Teachers and school principals were trying their best to manage their schools

within their means. Most did not have the required teaching and learning facilities to

implement the new VET subjects at secondary level. These reforms were put in jeopardy

because of the lack of resources, especially classroom space, training facilities and

qualified VET teachers. Although the stakeholders were positive about the importance of

VET, there was little evidence of actual participation in VET programs at the secondary

school level. The results illustrated a need to embrace both VET and general academic

subjects as an integral part of secondary school level in PNG. Therefore, the study

concluded that PNG needs to consider and implement an integrated academic/VET

program model at the secondary school level. This integrated academic/VET model would

enhance many students’ pathways for further education and training, employment and

improvement of life in PNG.

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DECLARATION

This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree

or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution to Daniel Kaki Leke and, to the

best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by

another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to this

copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan

and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I also give

permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the

University’s digital research repository, the Library catalogue, the Australasian Digital

Theses Program (ADTP) and also through web search engines, unless permission has been

granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time.

Name: Daniel Kaki Leke

Signature: ___________________________________

Date: ___________________________________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the following people and organizations for making my dream come true in

reaching another milestone in my life.

My sincere thanks and gratitude goes to my Principal Supervisor, Dr Christine Velde and

Co-External Supervisor Emeritus Professor Robert Crotty for their tireless and careful

reading and editing of each draft and their expertise in guiding the direction of this thesis.

I also wish to extend my appreciation to Dr Margaret Secombe for her assistance in editing

the final thesis draft. Margaret also edited the research instruments during the proposal

stage.

Also, my thanks and appreciation goes to the University of Adelaide, through the Adelaide

Graduate Centre and International Student Office for awarding me the Adelaide

Scholarship International (ASI). My appreciation and gratitude go also to the people who

facilitated my application for one of Adelaide University’s prestigious International

Postgraduate Research Scholarships.

Thanks to staff of the School of Education for providing the required resources and

facilities and for making the School environment an ideal place to study.

I am grateful to all the people in Papua New Guinea who helped me by providing

accommodation, office space and the necessary information during my field trip in 2008.

Thanks to the National Department of Education Officials, School Principals/Deputy

Principals, Teachers, Students and Industry Personnel who responded to the survey

questionnaires and interviews.

My dear Mum and Dad, you were always there for me. Kaipu Tara, you tirelessly woke up

at three o’clock every morning to prepare my breakfast for six years. You did that to

prepare me a four hour daily journey to the only primary school in a remote village in the

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central highlands of Papua New Guinea. You once said, ‘Son, if you go to school, you will

see many places and enjoy a good life’. In the same way, Yango Mama, you had great

dreams for me. You supported me financially from primary to high school. Unfortunately,

you both did not live to see and enjoy the fruits of your works.

The completion of this thesis would not have been possible if it was not for the support,

encouragement and prayers of my wife Jowella P. Leke and the cheerful and smiling faces

of my four children – Emmanuel, Melody, Healery and Faithy who have said, ‘I love you,

dad’, ‘you are the best dad in the whole entire world’. These words have been my

encouragement and strength to complete this journey.

Thanks to my Eternal God who has given me knowledge and strength on my journey.

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CHAPTER ONE

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This research focuses on the place and importance of Vocational Education and Training

(VET), as opposed to the traditional academic subjects, at the secondary school level in

Papua New Guinea (PNG). The thesis is divided into nine chapters. This first Chapter

describes the background to the study, revealing the unemployment trend both globally and

locally (PNG) and its related social problems, as major determining factors for undertaking

the current study. After a brief profile of PNG and its current context, there is a

consideration of VET and the push in many developed and developing countries to include

VET as an integral part of the secondary school curriculum to address unemployment and

to create multiple pathways for the students. The lack of such a program in PNG suggested

that VET at the secondary school level in PNG needed investigation in order to determine

how far its introduction could address the prevailing unemployment and its related socio-

economic problems the country currently faces.

Then PNG’s national education plan is analysed and described in order to see what role

VET has been playing amongst the traditional academic subjects (Math, English, Science

and Social Science). This is followed by a statement of the research problem; the purpose

of the study; identification of key research questions; the significance of this study and

possible contributions to be derived from it. Finally, the underlying assumptions and

definitions of key terms and phrases are clarified. This Chapter ends with a summary and

an outline of Chapter two to Chapter Nine of thesis.

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1.2 BACKGROUND: FACTORS DRIVING THIS STUDY

1.2.1 PNG and its current context

Figure 1: Papua New Guinea

Source: WorldAtlas.Com: http://www.worldatlas.com. Accessed: 18/10/2008

As Figure 1 shows, Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a developing country that lies to the north

of Australia. With the total land area of 461,690 square kilometres, the country is home to

about 6.1 million people (Post Courier, 2007), including well over 800 language groups,

each with its distinctive cultural attributes (Asian Development Bank, 2007). It is one of

the resource-rich countries in the world, endowed with mineral deposits and petroleum

reserves, agricultural resources, forests, fisheries and biodiversity (PNG National

Assessment Report, 2005; AusAID, 2006). PNG’s natural assets of oil, natural gas,

minerals, and fertile soil constitute advantages which many other more prosperous

countries have not had (Asian Development Bank, 2008).

While PNG is rich with all these natural resources, concerns have been raised regarding the

lack of human resource development. In particular, some critics of the education system in

PNG have claimed that over the last ten to fifteen years, the National Department of

Education and the Government of PNG have failed to put in place at various levels of the

education system, VET programs that could become the backbone for the country’s human

NOTE: This figure is included on page 2 of the print copy of the thesis held in the University of Adelaide Library.

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resources and economic development (Volunteer Service Organisation, 2006; Asian

Development Bank, 2005; Guy, 1999 & 1998; O’Donoghue, 1995). Such criticisms appear

to have been derived from two related factors: the low level of the country’s economic

development and an escalation in qualifications without increasing job opportunities.

Since PNG gained its political independence from Australia some thirty three years ago,

the country has achieved little of the national progress and prosperity hoped for by both its

citizens and its neighbors in Australia and elsewhere (Cox, 1996). The diversity and degree

of the nation’s problems have led to it being frequently characterized as a fragile state,

close to collapse (Cox, 1996). This economic situation reported by Cox some 14 years ago,

does not seem to have improved. The level of development achieved by PNG is still judged

to be low (United Nations Development Program, 2007).

There is a general expectation that a country like PNG, which is blessed with such

abundance of natural resources and cultural diversity, should experience good economic

growth and benefits. However, the opposite reality prevails in PNG. The performance of

the PNG economy over the past 30 years has suffered from periods of macroeconomic

instability, low and fluctuating growth and low investment (Asian Development Bank,

2008: 1). Investment rates indicate that PNG has been a difficult country in which to do

business. As a result, the country remains one of the least developed countries in the Asia-

Pacific region with more than 80 percent of its population engaging in semi-subsistence

activities. Education and health indicators are similarly weak (Asian Development Bank,

2008).

While the recent commodities boom has had strong positive impact on growth, experience

from other countries suggests that relying on natural resources alone is insufficient to

create the foundation for sustained economic expansion that would bring widespread

prosperity for PNG (Asian Development Bank, 2008). The global economic and financial

downward trend over 2008 and 2009 was expected to impact heavily on employment and

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other related socio-economic problems globally, including PNG (The Australian, 2009).

The development of relevant VET programs has been proposed as the best way of

countering the negative trends. At the most basic level, VET is seen as providing

individuals with the knowledge and skills needed to improve their daily lives, increase the

possibilities of adequate employment and hence raise their living standards. Such a need

was realized by some developing countries in Africa that PNG can draw lessons from

(OECD, 1998: 44a).

1.2.2 Youth unemployment trend

Youth unemployment trend globally and in PNG has been viewed as a major factor that

propelled this study in VET for PNG. First, many African countries have been facing

serious pressure from youth unemployment. A bleak picture painted on the African

continent currently concerns the rise in unemployment amongst the secondary and post-

secondary school graduates in countries like Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia,

Swaziland, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, as well as Mauritius. Of greatest concern were those

young people who have ‘low qualifications,’ are ‘unskilled’ or ‘unqualified’. Although

they make up bulk of the population in these developing countries, they have failed to get

employment or any opportunity to further their training (OECD, 1998: 44).

One of the main ways used to solve this unemployment crisis, however, has been for these

countries to revitalize technical and vocational education and training (UNESCO, 2007).

The African countries for example, have developed competency-based education programs

as ‘stepping-stones’ for reducing or eradicating unemployment problems. It was predicted

that failure to have policies to create skill programs that sufficiently equipped youth in

preparation for meeting the needs of the labour market or to create employment, could

result in these governments facing waves of youth unemployment, unrest, crime and

vandalism at unprecedented heights (Macan-Markar, 2002).

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In contrast, the driving force behind minimizing unemployment for some developed

countries, including Australia, Britain and USA was providing relevant VET programs

(Partee & Halperin, 2006; Lerner & Brand, 2006). Having realised from these examples

that VET and its associated skills can result in improved productivity, employment growth

and development (ILO, 2008), PNG seriously needs to consider VET as an integral part of

the secondary school system. The inclusion of an effective VET program would address

the prevailing massive unemployment trend that is perceived to be propelled by an

escalation of young people with school and university qualifications in PNG.

The unemployment rate in PNG has been considered the single most important factor in

pointing to the failure of the education system in PNG. Reports on social issues have

revealed an alarming number of school leavers and graduates, who far outnumber the

availability of jobs in PNG to accommodate them. Young people who have completed

schooling at Grades 8, 10, 12 levels, and even post-secondary or tertiary graduates in large

numbers, swarm into towns and cities in PNG looking for further education or employment

(PNG National Assessment Report, 2005: 18). Such a trend had been reported even earlier,

when the employment rate of school leavers finding work in the formal sector stood at 1 in

10 and when there was little absorption of labour in rural areas (McMurray, 2002).

In recent years, there have been more than 50,000 secondary school graduates annually in

PNG (Asian Development Bank: 2005). The unemployment rate in PNG over this time has

been considered the highest in the Pacific region (PNG National Assessment Report,

2005), although high rates of unemployment are currently being experienced in other

Pacific Island nations as well (AusAID, 2006). Future employment prospects for PNG look

gloomy (Asian Development Bank, 2006). School leavers and college graduates cannot be

employed in the government and manufacturing sectors because these sectors have shrunk

from about 14.5% to 13.6% of the labour force. An estimated 20,000 new jobs would need

to be created annually to even maintain the existing rates of unemployment (PNG National

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Assessment Report, 2005). There is a growing fear that failure to create job opportunities

in the country could lead to a blowout in the number of job seekers, escalating the formal

unemployment numbers to unmanageable proportions. This situation could get even more

out of control over the next ten to twenty years if nothing is done to minimise such a

negative socio-economic trend.

The worsening unemployment situation and its impact on PNG society has been reported

in the country’s second largest newspaper which claimed that more and more students

were graduating from high schools, colleges and universities and being left without jobs

(PNG National Newspaper, 24th November 2008). Unemployment, rural urban drift,

mushrooming of settlements on the fringes of towns and cities, lack of income and

employment opportunities, illiteracy, poverty in urban, suburban and rural areas were all

seen to be contributing to the increase in crime and other social problems in PNG (PNG

National Newspaper, 17 February 2009).

Furthermore, this employment gap has resulted in the majority of people living in poverty.

Similar trends have also been reported in a targeted research paper prepared for AUSAID

(Storey, 2006). This Report indicated that Pacific Island towns and cities were becoming

places of acute poverty and growing inequality. Poverty is now all-pervasive in PNG and

there has been a steady deterioration in the living standards for most of the population in

PNG over the last two decades (New Zealand Agency for International Development,

2008:7). One factor that seems to fuel this unemployment trend in PNG relates to

qualification escalation.

1.2.3 Qualifications without effective VET skills fuelling

unemployment in PNG

PNG is currently experiencing a problem in that more and more people are acquiring

academic paper qualifications but have few, if any, employability skills. The country is a

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young nation with only 6.1 million people. In order to develop this young nation, the

country needs to have an educated population. The recently announced plan of the national

government to provide Universal Basic Education (UBE) designed to take all school-aged

children up to secondary school level by the year 2018 (The PNG National Newspaper, 22

June 2009) needs to be commended. The country undoubtedly needs more schools and

educational institutions in order to properly educate its young people as the human

resources of the future. This study does not wish to advocate that PNG should have a

smaller number of educational institutions that would accommodate even fewer students.

This would make the problem even worse by leaving thousands of people uneducated and

illiterate.

However, the qualification escalation, together with its spill-over-effects on unemployment

and social unrest in PNG is a real concern. This situation has arisen because there are now

more than twenty-six higher educational institutions, six universities and twenty colleges

(Rooney, 2004), that have been producing an increasing number of graduates annually.

This has been regardless of the fact that the number of jobs available to such graduates

through government, private business, commerce and industry has not increased. This sort

of dilemma has been referred to as ‘diploma disease’, a medical analogy which is

appropriate because qualification escalation without much absorption into the work-force

results in detrimental consequences to society (Dore cited in Fredericks, 2001). This notion

of ‘diploma disease’ has been explained more fully:

The current system of schooling is based on a model that assists with the job

selection process, as well as a view that education becomes a means to an end, the

end being job attainment that apparently serves to fuel the qualification escalation

phenomenon, resulting in detrimental effects on employment, especially in

developing countries. (Fredericks, 2001)

The diploma disease symbolically refers to the enormous number of graduates that come

out of various educational institutions around the world but, as in PNG, most seek for

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employment in cities and towns, but to no avail. The more the annual number of school

leavers and college graduates increases, the narrower the employment bottleneck becomes.

As a result, many young people in PNG have begun to engage in anti-social activities,

while families live in poverty, especially in towns and cities, as described earlier (PNG

National Assessment Report, 2005). In PNG society, however, people see schooling as the

means of obtaining the diplomas and degrees which can ultimately lead children to

becoming lawyers, doctors, engineers, accountants, pilots and architects, to name a few.

Parents send their children to school with the expectation that they will become well

educated and thus able to get a highly paid job to assist the other members financially

through their work. What parents and guardians fail to realise is that there are only

comparatively few places available in these professions in PNG.

The result is that most students’ diplomas and degrees become ‘value-less’ (Asian

Development Bank, 2006), or in PNG’s Pidgin lingua franca, ‘pepa nating’, or ‘setifiket

nating’, meaning ‘just a paper’ or ‘just a certificate’, in the literal sense of the words. The

message in these words in the PNG context has a deeper meaning and wider social

implications. Unless people can use their qualifications to get employment, their

certificate, diploma or degree is useless, ‘samting nating’ in PNG Pidgin, that is,

‘something that is of no use’ (personal note). These words carry negative connotations in

the PNG context where school leavers and college graduates without work are often

ridiculed or teased by their relatives, tribesmen and peers. Young people in PNG have been

leaving the education system without having a clear future to go to.

The Madang Provincial Administrator, Joseph Dorpar, has also queried the future status of

young people leaving the secondary school system. Although youths can always go back to

their villages and communities because they have land to rely on, he questioned whether

they had the appropriate skills, knowledge and attitudes to make use of this opportunity.

Without these attributes, what guarantee is there that the youths can sustain themselves for

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a better future? He concluded that a change of attitudes and perceptions must be achieved

through education emphasising skills development for nation building (PNG Post-Courier,

Wednesday 25th February, 2009). A similar point was made by the current Minister for

Foreign Affairs and Trade in PNG, Mr. Sam Abel, when challenging MP Mr. Luther

Wenge on the Australian Seasonal Employment Scheme issue for PNG and Pacific

Islanders. He claimed that around 70% of young people in PNG were missing out on

continuing their education, while only 30% had the chance to go on to universities and

colleges (The PNG National Newspaper, 12 February 2009). To understand these claims

and to determine the place of VET, it was considered necessary to analyse the current PNG

education structure.

1.3 THE PNG EDUCATION STRUCTURE AND PLACE OF VET

The PNG system of education was subject to a National Review in 2000 (PNG Department

of Education, 2000). Four years later a proposal for the development of the system over a

ten year period, the PNG Education Plan for 2005-2014, was published (PNG Department

of Education 2004). The general structure of the PNG Education System, as it was in 2004,

is presented in Table 1 below. The arrows on the diagram clearly show the various

primary, secondary and post-secondary pathways. The top half of the shaded year levels

represents those who are able to continue with their schooling, while the bottom half

represents those who can only continue through the community, vocational and technical

options at the bottom of the diagram.

10

Table 1 The general PNG education structure

Source: PNG Department of Education (2004: 4)

Under this arrangement, there are five levels of education: Elementary: Prep. 1-2; Lower

Primary (the first stage of basic education): Grades 3-5; Upper Primary: Grades 6-8; Lower

Secondary: Grades 9-10 and Upper Secondary: Grades 11-12. Students were required to sit

for three national exams, the first one at the end of Grade 8, the second at the end of Grade

10 and the final one at the end of Grade 12. On the results of the first exam, the top 50% of

Grade 8 students were able to pass into Grade 9, while the other 50% were left to either

return to their village communities and participate in informal education sectors, or to enrol

in a local vocational training centre. If the ‘dropouts’ had enough money, they could

proceed to study in the distance education mode, or enrol in private vocational schools or

colleges in order to upgrade their results. Most of the subjects included in these private

NOTE: This table is included on page 10 of the print copy of the thesis held in the University of Adelaide Library.

11

institutions were adopted from the 2000 National Education for Assessment Report and

National Plan for Education 2005-2014 (2004).

A similar elimination process occurred at the end of Grade 10, when only the top 25

percent of the students were given a place in Grade 11, while the others were sent home or

encouraged to attend either vocational schools or Pre-Employment Technical Training

(PETT) colleges, if they had the funds needed to pay for such post-high school education.

Some dropouts could later make their way into other colleges and universities if they were

successful (PNG Department of Education, 2000). At the end of Grade 12, those students

who performed very well in the exam were selected to enter a college or university and

those that failed the exam were left to find their own way in the world.

1.3.1 The problem of school dropouts

Since the secondary school curriculum has been geared to preparing students for tertiary

study, a large number of students (three quarters of those who enter Grade 9) leave the

secondary school system without properly being equipped with VET or employment-

related knowledge and skills. Only a few of these secondary school leavers have the money

to access the two business and five technical colleges and one hundred and thirty two

vocational schools in the country (PNG Department of Education, 2005:1). According to

the National Education Assessment Report (PNG Department of Education, 2000), a

restructured flexible system of open and distance education colleges were to be established

to provide an alternative pathway for students who could not find a place in the formal

system, either in Grade 9 or Grade 11.

The National Education Assessment Report (2000) also mentioned provisions for Grades 8

and 10 school leavers to upgrade their subject grades and qualifications either at existing

government vocational schools or at similar private institutions, such as Port Moresby

Institute of Matriculation Studies (2003). In practice, only a fraction of dropouts or school

12

leavers find their way into Matriculation Institutes or any other vocational schools; the

majority fail to continue their education. The main reason for most school leavers not

taking advantage of these opportunities is that these vocational centres remain non-

compulsory and fee-paying (Rushbrook & Wanigasekera, 2004: 6). Not many parents are

interested in making the effort to send their children to these small, rather undeveloped

vocational centres, shown at the bottom of the diagram.

Even for those who complete Grade 12, the chances of entering tertiary institutions are

limited. Concern at the long term outcomes of the lack of places at post-secondary and

tertiary institutions has been expressed by University academics in PNG. While addressing

graduating Year 12 students at Lae Secondary School, Professor John Puma Lome, the

Chair of the Mechanical Engineering Department of the PNG University of Technology in

Lae, claimed that out of more than 10,000 Grade 12 school leavers in 2008, only 3,000

secured places at tertiary institutions for the 2009 academic year. The PNG University of

Technology at Lae, for example, admitted only 600. Professor Lome argued that unless the

National government directed funds to increase facilities at the universities, this bottleneck

would continue to jeopardize many Papua New Guineans’ chances to continue their further

education (The PNG National Newspaper, 17 November 2008). The negative scenario of

another 7,000 Grade 12 school leavers being denied further education options means that

they become added to the pool of unemployed young people in the country.

The creation of additional secondary places since 2004 has exacerbated the youth

unemployment problem in PNG. The provision of additional places in existing secondary

schools, as well as the creation of one or more secondary school(s) in each of the twenty

provinces in PNG (PNG Tourism Promotion Authority, 2004) was intended to allow for

the more equal participation of male and female students. For the year 2004, the enrolment

target rate was to have reached more than 70,000 students. But by 2006, there were

13

approximately 75,000 Grade 10 students throughout PNG who sat for the National Grade

10 Examination (PNG Post-Courier, Tuesday 17th October 2006).

Prior to national examination week, the Secretary for Education, Dr. Pagelio, announced

through the media that Grade 10 students all over PNG should do their best because the

results of the examinations would determine what they became in future. However, the

question which needed to be asked was how many of those sitting for these examinations

would ever make it into senior secondary school, quite apart from those eliminated from

further education at the end of Grades 8 and 12? Over the last three to four years around

75,000 Grade 10 students have sat for the National Examination to enter the upper

secondary school system, compared to only about 10,000 students who have completed

Grade 12 (The PNG National Newspaper, 17th November, 2008).

Over the years the PNG education system has been producing more and more school

leavers very few of whom have sufficient VET knowledge and skills to be profitably

employed. For example, the Asian Development Bank reported that there were more than

50,000 young people leaving school in 2004 and only an estimated 8,200 places available

at technical colleges and vocational centres throughout the country (Asian Development

Bank, 2005). Even then it had to be assumed that only a few school leavers would have

been able to take up these available places. At best more than 41,800 school leavers out of

that 50,000 would not have had the opportunity to attend any of these institutions. The

number of school leavers, as opposed to the number of post-secondary places and

subsequent employment opportunities for these school leavers has been greatly out of

balance. To minimise this problem, the Asian Development Bank (2006) proposed a

sustainable financing mechanism to support skills training at vocational training centres so

that after the training, at least 75% of the beneficiaries would be expected to increase their

income earning potential. The Asian Development Bank was on the right track in

14

recommending such opportunities. However, there was no clear justification for predicting

such a high level of benefit.

1.3.2 Colonial education policy reflected in the current system

The current PNG education system still maintains the structures laid down during the

British and Australian colonial era. The British ruled the colony from 1884-1897 (Waiko,

1993: 30) and from 1906 to 1975 the Australians took over administrative control (Piau,

Lynch & Crowley in Lynch, 1992: 115 & Woolford, 1976). The imposition of colonial

education policy is well reflected in the enforcement of English as the lingua franca in

New Guinea. This was most evident when the first Australian Lieutenant-Governor, Sir

Hubert Murray, stated in 1906 that:

as a matter of permanent policy, I am of the opinion that English should be made the

common language and not any of the native languages, or any combination of

them… to attempt to preserve the native languages and to give them rank as official,

is in my opinion a step in the wrong direction, and is in effect to sacrifice the future

of the race to the convenience of the present moment (Piau, Lynch & Crowley in

Lynch, 1992: 128).

The result of the position taken by Sir Hubert back then was not just to maintain English as

government policy but to transplant the English language to PNG soil. No wonder the

English lingua franca later became the official medium of communication in PNG (Leke,

1995).

In the same way the school structures which the colonial administrators introduced into

PNG reflected their countries’ education models and social class system. It can be argued

that Britain’s entrenched social class divisions led to a divided system of schools and

qualifications in PNG, with a narrow elitist academic curriculum at the top (Young, 1993:

204). In Britain and Australia those who did not make the grade in the end of primary

school examinations were sent to technical or vocational secondary schools, but in PNG

15

there was little such provision. Most of the drop-outs were left to fend for themselves.

Furthermore, since PNG students were leaving secondary schools in countless numbers

without having any VET education, they found it hard to enter further education or the

workforce because of lack of necessary skills and attitudes (Hill & Bablis, 2006).

PNG undoubtedly adopted the British/Australian colonial education legacy and the policy

seems to have prevailed over the thirty years of PNG’s statehood. It can still be seen to

underlie the Education Plan proposed for 2005-2014 (PNG Department of Education,

2004). This model has resulted in a pyramid-type of education provision, where only few

students are allowed to reach the top of the educational ladder while the majority become

school dropouts and are given no opportunity at secondary school for alternative vocational

education. Consistent with this elitist approach, secondary school teachers in PNG have

interpreted syllabuses in ways which have promoted a competitive, exam-oriented

academic curriculum and proved particularly effective in separating high average students

from low average students. Ken Fairweather, Member for Sumkar (Madang) has recently

claimed the present system of education in PNG is enjoyed by the privileged minority who

has the money, while the majority misses out (The National Newspaper, 11 September

2009).

Critics have pointed out how the school curriculum’s focus on Western European

knowledge has made it seem completely irrelevant to village life and the way its teacher-

centred, expository pedagogy has differed from the informal education of a village

community (Kukari, 2004; Anderson, 1997). According to Hill and Bablis (2006), the sort

of education that secondary schools have been offering in PNG does not provide students

with the necessary VET or employability skills to enable them to contribute meaningfully

to the human and social capital of rural life. The problem is that parents, students and

teachers have been focusing so much on achieving better academic results in the traditional

core subjects (English, Math, Science and Social Science) through a competitive

16

examination system that they have forgotten the importance of developing vocational and

other commercial skills that are of relevance to village and community life.

Buchanan (2000) also drew attention to this aspect when he referred to the constant battles

between parents and policy-makers as to what sort of education should be in schools. In

Buchanan’s judgement, most Papua New Guineans have been influenced by Western

notions of class, and reflect the aspirations of Western parents for their children’s high

educational attainment and entry into the professions. He concludes that both academic and

vocational education in PNG can be subject to the hidden relations of what he terms as

performativity and technology relations which appear, paradoxically, invisible to the very

real concerns of parents and students in society (Buchanan, 2000: 5). Buchanan’s

discussion, however, raises questions as to whether or how much the preference of

stakeholders (students, teachers, industry personnel and policy-makers/school principals)

for academic subjects above vocational ones in the PNG context is permeated by capitalist

ideology which allows for the promotion of only a few up the educational ladder.

Similar concerns have been expressed by Papoutsaki and Rooney (2006), when they

argued that governments in PNG have transplanted colonial education legacies directly

into the PNG education system, particularly higher education, by directing it almost

exclusively towards satisfying the higher level manpower needs of the country (Papoutsaki

& Rooney, 2006: 423). Thus PNG has been embracing the formal Western education

system for its anticipated benefits of economic advancement and upward social mobility,

ignoring the way it has reinforced class distinctions and rampant social drifts (Papoutsaki

and Rooney, 2006).

Consecutive PNG governments have failed to provide most secondary school students with

any appropriate VET knowledge and employability skills. Only recently has the PNG

Department of Education made a first tentative attempt to embed VET subjects within the

secondary school curriculum. Such a situation prompted one school teacher to call on the

17

National Government of PNG to reform the existing system of education (The National

Newspaper, Tuesday 17th February, 2009).

1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A nation’s future depends on the productive capacity of its workforce, whose VET

knowledge and skills are a vital part of that resource (Richardson & Teese, 2006). Since

PNG has yet to develop an effective VET system, this study would draw lessons from

those developed countries’ VET programs, especially some characteristics of the

Australian and American VET systems. One realized that despite PNG government’s

maintenance of Australia’s colonial education legacy, the current study considers

necessary to draw some lessons from the Australian VET system. Australia not only

delivers the traditional academic subjects but also VET programs that provide multiple

further training and employment pathways.

VET at secondary school level in Australia has relevance for this PNG study because it is

perceived as an important vehicle for providing employment-based training and

qualifications. Consequently, students taking part in VET programs in Australia since the

mid-1990s have increased dramatically, with well over 90 percent of senior secondary

schools delivering VET subjects as part of their curriculum (Lamb and Vickers, 2006).

VET at the secondary school level has helped to provide students and graduates with

multiple school-to-work transitional pathways, including further education, training,

employment and improvement in living (Barabasch & Lakes, 2005: 3).

In contrast, the national government in PNG paid much less attention to the employment

needs of young people. While the introduction of VET has come to be considered one of

the most important reforms to the secondary school curriculum in many parts of the

developed and developing world, including most countries in Africa (Association for the

Development of Education in Africa, 2008), PNG has yet to come up with an effective

18

VET system that caters for most secondary school students and provides pathways for

further education and training and employment. Most students in PNG have been exiting

from various levels of the secondary school system without any effective VET knowledge,

skills and attributes which could prepare them for employment. This has ultimately had

detrimental socio-economic consequences on students and PNG society at large.

Such a situation may become a major threat to PNG’s long-term development. PNG cannot

continue to produce school-leavers who have no proper training in VET skills and

attributes. The student transition problem at the secondary school level has created pools of

unemployment, chronic-under-employment, and despair among younger and less qualified

individuals (Hardy, 2000:3). The negative social spill-over are currently being felt in PNG.

PNG’s education system cannot be considered inclusive, until it effectively accommodates

the learning of VET skills and attributes at the secondary school level. The lack of an

effective VET program at the secondary school level over the years has contributed to the

past and current unemployment and related social problems for PNG (Looker & Thessen,

2008). There is an urgent need for a secondary school VET model which enables VET

skills and attributes to be developed in order to address the problem of the 75% of students

who are unable to continue their secondary studies and to help bridge the socio-economic

gap that exists in PNG society.

1.5 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study therefore, has been to investigate and determine the

characteristics of a relevant VET model at the secondary school level which would address

the current student transition problem in PNG. In order to achieve this purpose, the study

explored possible socio-economic factors that influence the need for an effective VET

program at the secondary school level in PNG; the extent to which VET plays a role under

the current education system in PNG; and the VET programs and conceptual learning

19

frameworks used to develop employability skills and attributes in Australia and USA

which might help to determine an appropriate model for PNG. The researcher then

collected the views of PNG stakeholders (students, teachers, policy-makers and

business/industry personnel) on VET programs at the secondary school level. The purpose

again, was to determine where VET was playing its effective role along with the traditional

academic subjects that subsequently might have a bearing on the current situation

described so far for PNG.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The main research question was: How can a VET model minimise the current student

transition problem at the secondary school level in PNG? To answer this research question,

four subsidiary research questions were formulated.

Question one

What do PNG students derive from VET at the present moment? What should PNG

students derive from VET?

Question two

How do PNG school teachers presently regard VET? How should PNG school teachers

regard VET? How should school teachers co-operate with the business and industry sectors

to achieve an effective VET program in PNG? Question three

How do business and industry sectors regard VET? How have they participated and need

to participate in VET?

Question four

How do Education policy-makers and school principals regard VET in PNG? How could

they contribute to VET?

20

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THIS

STUDY

1.7.1 Significance

The study in VET is considered important because it not only improves the employability

skills and attributes of young people but also assists them to find employment and further

training (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2008:1). The

international community of educators and policy-makers advocated VET’s importance as a

vehicle for economic and social change in developed and developing countries (UNESCO-

UNEVOC, 2006: 181a).

The days when a high school dropout was able to secure long-term employment in

agriculture, fishing, forestry, industry, mining and even the service sectors in most

developed nations are rapidly coming to an end (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 181b). The

knowledge-based transformation of these sectors suggests that future farmers, fishers,

foresters and miners require specialised education to be able to operate computer-

controlled agricultural, fish-finding, mining, manufacturing and timber-cutting equipment

(UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 181c).

In the transition from traditional, peasant-based agricultural economy that caters for the

nuclear family or tribe to a modern technology-based economy in an international

marketplace, global demand requires mass production of goods and services, especially in

the industry and agriculture sectors. In developing nations where large numbers of students

drop out of school at different stages, integrated TVET models in which relevant subjects

are taught in conjunction with TVET may be more appropriate (UNESCO-UNEVOC,

2006: 181d).

On the other hand, VET knowledge and skills are considered the engines of economic

growth and social development in developed countries (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006). Such

21

an assumption is supported by a Canadian study by Looker and Thessen (2008) about the

importance of high school completion and second chance options for Canadian students.

This study concluded that, having secondary school students without VET knowledge and

skills would have serious repercussions, not only for school leavers, but also for society

(Looker & Thessen, 2008: 3). While UNESCO-UNEVOC and other concerned education

planners are advocating the need for an effective VET system, PNG has not yet revitalized

VET at the secondary school system. This study would seek to find an appropriate VET

model that would assist to minimize the prevailing unemployment and related social

problems.

1.7.2 Contribution

This study on VET for PNG is important because it has produced a unique and relevant

VET model that will accommodate the interests of all stakeholders in PNG, as well as

international donor organisations, including AusAID. In particular, this VET model will

not only call for VET policy-making and innovation, VET curriculum design and

development, VET research and knowledge development, but also result in individual and

collective benefits. Advantages anticipated for stakeholders in this study include the

following.

First, for teachers and students, this research provides ground rule for a system of

education that embraces VET into schools as a matter of priority as it comes with

enormous benefits for teachers, the community and the society as a whole.

Second, for business/industry people, other VET providers and the community, this study

provides information on the human resource problem that confronts PNG, a perspective on

these problems, and the benefits that VET brings to the community. The latent functions of

these VET-related activities in the community are: First, skills transfer and employment

creation, such as, entrepreneur activities, retail and wholesale activities, engaging in

22

agricultural and livestock programs, marine life management, environment management

programs, building and construction activities, auto-mechanical activities, mining

activities, to name a few. Second latent function of VET would be: reduction in

unemployment, poverty alleviation, greater peace and harmony in society, the opportunity

for integral human development and sustainable economic development for the nation.

Finally, for policy-makers, this research sets guidelines for an alternative VET model that

provides a VET-skilled base at the secondary school level that encourages continuity and

economic growth for PNG.

1.8 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY

The assumptions of this study are that a relevant VET model at the secondary school level

in PNG could help to close the socio-economic gaps that exist within society there. The

research questions have been based on the assumption that a lack of VET programs that

emphasise knowledge and key skills development at the secondary school level would be

devastating for graduating students. In the PNG case, however, it would imply that most

secondary school leavers would find it hard to get employment for a very long time.

Continuing to produce thousands of under-skilled school leavers from various levels of the

education system in PNG, at least 90 percent of school leavers every year (The National,

Monday, 22 September 2008), would result in negative socio-economic repercussions for

PNG.

In order to address these problems, it is not considered appropriate to have only a few

people make the decision or to decide what should be done at the policy and planning

level. In addition, any change within the existing education system to incorporate a VET

pedagogy that requires the adoption of competency-based training using a job-related skill-

based and flexible mode, requires collaborative decision-making. People from a cross-

section of life, including policy and planning personnel, in particular, education officials

23

from the National Department of Education, business/industry personnel or school

principals, teachers and students have to be included. Such a view is supported by Bradley

and Nield (2002) who state that true vocational learning requires new concepts of how

institutions are organised and how the profession operates. It should be emphasised that

this should be undertaken in a cooperative environment rather than one in which

institutions are told by outsiders how to be organised (Bradley and Nield, 2002: 40).

This research, focused on education policy-makers, business/industry personnel,

principals/teachers and students. The reason for selecting these people, especially the

business/industry personnel, is the suggestion made by Harris, Simons and Moore (2005).

In their research they bring to focus, the importance of networking and networks with VET

providers and industry, since these communities share three elements – a domain of

knowledge, community and practice. VET practitioners and their industrial counterparts

are quite clear about the body of knowledge that forms part of the learning network

(Harris, Simons and Moore, 2005:6).

These people are also considered to be well-informed as to what is happening within their

own organisations and what is needed for the rest of the community, especially in relation

to ‘enterprise education’. An ‘enterprise education’, is referred to by Spring and Syrmas

(2002), as learning directed towards developing in young people those skills,

competencies, understandings and attributes which equip them to be innovative and to

identify, create, initiate and successfully manage personal, community, business and work

opportunities, including working for themselves (Spring and Syrmas, 2002:13).

At the most fundamental level, it is assumed that the school leavers in PNG are

incompetent and that their qualifications do not meet potential employers’ job

requirements or job selection criteria. This limits the students’ chances of ‘future

endeavour’ or potential pathways for employment or further education. Most students and

school leavers, therefore, are seen to be lost in transition (Bottoms and Young, 2008: iii).

24

1.9 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND PHRASES

This study aimed to investigate and determine the extent to which vocational education and

training (VET) can play a more effective role in the education system in PNG. Information

was sought from literature and stakeholders in PNG.

Vocational education and training (VET) has been a very low status area of training that

Papua New Guineans have over-looked since the country’s independence in 1975. For this

study, the term has been given a much more high status meaning, because it has come to

play such a very important role in developed and developing countries. The acronym

‘VET’ has been used in the place of ‘vocational education and training’. The acronym

‘TVET’, often used internationally, has also been used to mean ‘technical and vocational

education and training’. ‘VET’ in this study has been used to mean both technical and

vocational education and training.

VET, however, has varied definitions. The literal definition of the term ‘vocational’ is

‘connected with the skills and knowledge that one needs to have in order to do a particular

job’ (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2005). Vocational education and training

(VET)), prepares learners for careers that are traditionally non-academic and are directly

related to a trade, or ‘vocation’ in which the learner participates. VET is functionally

characterized by multiple objectives that are embedded in various learning programs

(Barnett & Ryan, in Malley et. al. 2001: 15). Such programs assist all young people to

secure their own futures by enhancing their transition to a broad range of post school

options and pathways. It engages students in work related learning built on strategic

partnerships between schools, business, industry and the wider community (Spring &

Syrmas, 2002: 5). VET programs incorporate an element of life-long learning through

connecting young people continuously with the world of work in such programs as career

education and enterprise education. VET supports young people’s transitions from school

25

to employment, further education and training (Spring & Syrmas, 2002). Other researchers

have considered VET and its skills as important aspects of education (Harvey, 2004).

Vocational learning is not used in this study often but it needs explanation because of its

usage in day-to-day vocabulary. The two terms form an overarching phrase that represents

broad vocational programs in schools involving general learning that addresses a broad

understanding of work. These programs are intended to develop in young people a range of

knowledge, skills (or competencies) and attributes which are relevant to a wide range of

work experiences (Spring & Syrmas, 2002: 9).

VET in Schools (VETiS) relates to VET programs that are available to Australian students

in Years 11 and 12. They require delivery through a registered training organization (RTO)

and recognized both for senior secondary certificates and vocational certificates within the

Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) (Barnett & Ryan, 2005: 16). The delivery of

VET programs requires the learning of ‘generic skills’, ‘employability skills’ and attributes

and these terms require clarification.

Generic skills/competencies/employability skills have been defined collectively despite

their distinctive use by various organizations. Generic skills, to a certain degree, refer to a

large group or class of something, general, not specific (Sykes, 1976). The term also

coincides with other terms that require further clarification. In Australia, the National

Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) defines generic skills as those that

apply across a variety of jobs and life contexts. These are also known by several other

names, like key skills, core skills, essential skills, key competencies, necessary skills,

transferable skills and employability skills (NCVER, 2003). Yet, according to Callan

(2003:10), teachers often have no clear understanding of generic skills.

In addition, there are six common elements of generic skills that have been emphasized by

various organizations, educational institutions and individuals. These six have been

26

described as basic or fundamental skills; people-related skills; conceptual/thinking skills;

personal skills and attributes; skills related to the business world; and skills related to the

community (NCVER, 2003: 1).

There have been, however, important developments and distinctions in the definition of

generic skills in education and employment. These definitions add a theoretical and

academic flavor to VET and make possible interesting comparisons of the views of

employers and educators from countries within OECD (NCVER, 2003). For instance,

Table 2 shows the terms used in various countries to describe generic skills.

Table 2 Terms used in various countries to describe generic skills

Source: NCVER, 2003

Generic skills, refer to the type of skills that Mayer in 1992 identified as ‘key

competencies’, such as collecting, analysing ideas and information; expressing ideas and

information; planning and organising activities; working with others and in teams; using

mathematical ideas and techniques; solving problems; and using technology. The terms

‘competencies’ and ‘employability skills’ require further clarification although, both terms

have similar meanings and usage in educational and industry domains.


27

Competencies as a term, has been widely researched and discussed in the light of current

education and industry practice in Australia and elsewhere. For example, in a

teachers/trainers conference paper on competency-based assessment in vocational

education and training, Velde (2002) identified a range of definitions offered by teachers

and trainers that require noting. These definitions are outlined in Table 3.

Table 3 Teachers/trainers’ conceptions of competence as reported in 2002

Source: Velde 2002

Although there are a number of commonalities in the trainers’ responses, it is clear that

there is no one definition of the term ‘competence’. Rather, it has a contextual usage and

application, as viewed by trainers and teachers. Similarly, the terms ‘employability skills’

and ‘personal attributes’ tend to be defined and used contextually. In addition, studies

undertaken by Sandberg in Velde (2009) and Billett in Velde (2009) respectively, discuss

the need to understand work and competence as an integrated phenomenon. They claim

that competence is an attribute-based phenomenon that is made-up of a specific set of

attributes, such as knowledge, skills and attitudes, which people use in accomplishing their

work. Competence and work are intertwined and one cannot talk about work without

competence or visa-versa (Sandberg, in Velde, 2009: 4). Similarly, Billett discusses

workplace competence as being integrated with social and personal perspectives. He writes


28

that occupational and situational requirements need to be established which constitutes

competent performance at work (Billett, in Velde, 2009:33).

Employability skills are defined by the Australian Department of Education, Science and

Training (DEST), now Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations

(DEEWR), as those skills required not only to gain employment but also to progress within

an enterprise so as to achieve one’s potential and contribute successfully to enterprise

strategic directions. Employability skills are sometimes referred to as ‘generic skills’ or

‘capabilities’ or ‘key competencies’ (DEST). A key training package prepared for the

Department of Education, Science and Training by Cleary, Flynn and Thomason (2006)

provides current understanding and rationale for ‘employability skills’ and designates why

it should be included in training packages in Australia. Employability skills are already an

inherent part of all components of training packages and units of competency, thus their

inclusion highlights what these skills are in the context of particular job roles. (Cleary,

Flynn and Thomason (2006:5).

For the trainers, assessors and registered training organisations (RTO) that are familiar

with key competencies, employability skills represent an opportunity to build on existing

practices and techniques. So, whether a VET practitioner is new to the VET sector or

experienced, employability skills become a meaningful tool because they assist learners

and candidates for assessment to reflect on and/or demonstrate that they are not only

technically competent, but also have the skills necessary to achieve and maintain a

successful employment outcome (Cleary, Flynn and Thomason (2006:5). How key

competencies can lead into employability skills has been mapped out by Cleary, Flynn and

Thomason (2006:10) as shown in Table 4.

29

Table 4 Mapping key competencies into employability skills

Source: Mitch, Rosalie and Seth (2006: 10)

‘VET competencies’ and ‘VET employability skills’ seem to be referring to much the same

qualities. The Australian industries’ preferred term has been ‘employability skills’ (Cleary,

Flynn and Thomason, 2006) and this term has been used most often in this study and other

earlier studies (Robinson, 2000). Employability skills are now embedded in Training

Package qualifications and units integrated within delivery and assessment (Macleod,

2006) This term has been used most often for this study because most people in PNG who

know the English language would understand ‘employability skills’ better than a related

term, such as ‘competency’.

Attributes mean the ‘qualities’ and ‘characteristics’ possessed by a person. In most

instances, they refer to those capabilities expected of an individual, although

‘characteristics’ is sometimes used to describe a workplace/job-specific requirement

(DEST, 2002: 3). Such attributes include the following: loyalty, commitment, honesty,

enthusiasm, personal presentation, common sense, positive self-esteem, and sense of

humour, ability to deal with pressure, motivation, adaptability, initiative and enterprise,

balanced attitude to work and home life, reliability, resourcefulness, self-confidence,

willingness to learn and openness to new ideas and techniques (Robbie, 2004: 60).

a1172507

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1.10 SUMMARY

In summary, the PNG education structure of 2004 illustrates that vocational education is

placed at the bottom level of post-primary education, for those forced to leave at the end of

primary schooling or lower secondary schooling. It is quite separate from other education

structures, except for the limited opportunity, presumably for the very best students only,

to move sideways into technical education and then upward to tertiary education. What has

been happening is that the vocational subjects have been pushed down or shifted outside to

separate vocational schools or pre-employment technical training institutions and other

private colleges. These separate vocational schools have been accessed by only a few

school leavers, while the majority missed out on receiving any vocational education.

If PNG is to change for the better, it needs to learn from developing countries like Africa

or developed country like Australia. In the former case, many have begun introducing

targeted technical and VET/TVET courses into their secondary school levels because this

results in the enhancement of economic competitiveness and contribution to social

inclusion, employment, and poverty reduction (Association for the Development of

Education in Africa, 2008: 3).

In the latter case, VET in Australia over the last fifteen years has come to provide immense

opportunities for secondary and post-secondary school students and school leavers to seek

employment, venture into further education and training and improve their lives in society.

For example, the provision of VET programs at the school level has resulted in better

chances of employment and training for most students. VET programs at the school level

have also reported positive effects on the transition to successful post-secondary activities

for early school leavers (Woods, 2007: 1).

As long as PNG fails to equip its secondary school students with VET skills and personal

attributes, it will continue to suffer socio-economic problems. The policy that has made all

31

vocational schooling in PNG non-compulsory and fee-paying (Rushbrook and

Wanigasekera, 2004), has served little purpose as it provides VET to only a very small

minority of students. Therefore, an identification of a relevant VET model for PNG would

be informed by previous VET studies and research views of the PNG stakeholders

(students, teachers, business/industry personnel, and education policy-makers/school

principals).

Chapter two is devoted to reviewing literature, identifying and describing the provisions of

the Australian VET system as seen through the eyes of key stakeholders (students,

teachers, school principals, business/industry personnel and policy-makers) in the

Australian context. Chapter three considers conceptual learning frameworks for VET,

focussing on two very important and yet closely related theories, the ‘constructivist’ and

‘situated learning’ perspectives, which underpin this study. In Chapter four there is a

summary of key elements from the learning frameworks, which would seem appropriate to

the PNG context and a discussion of three models of VET provision in secondary schools.

Chapter five describes the research design, procedures and limitations of the research

surveys undertaken in Port Moresby. Chapters six and seven present an analysis and

discussion of the PNG survey results, based on the perceptions of the key stakeholders

(students, teachers, industry/business personnel, policy-makers/school principals) on VET

programs as compared to the traditional academic subjects. In chapter eight, an integrated

academic/VET program model, informed by the results of the study, is presented. The final

chapter summarises the key findings and gives recommendations for implementation and

further research, with concluding remarks on the significance and contribution of this

study. The next Chapter focuses on the impact of VET programs on stakeholders in

Australia.

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CHAPTER TWO

STAKEHOLDER PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL VET PROGRAMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This Chapter evaluates the perceptions of stakeholders (students, teachers, school

principals, industry personnel, and people in the policy-making level) derived on VET in

schools programs in the Australian and international contexts. The characteristics of VET

in schools, including the employability skills, attributes, need for teacher training, and VET

administrative issues as perceived by the stakeholders would help to address the problems

in this PNG study. The following information evaluates secondary school students’

perception of VETiS program in Australia.

2.2 EVALUATION OF STUDENT OUTCOMES IN VET

The Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2006)

claimed that over 95% of Australian senior secondary schools were now offering VET

programs which allowed students to gain practical work skills under a nationally

recognized VET qualifications framework. Most programs were also recognized as

subjects for the end of schooling certificates offered in the various Australian States. The

courses included industry areas like hospitality, tourism, IT, retail, business, building and

construction, engineering and laboratory operations, mining, arts, entertainment, sports and

recreation.

2.2.1 VET participation improves student outcome

There is some evidence that participation in VET in schools (VETiS) programs leads to

better student outcomes. Marks (2006) in an ACER Research Report identified data from

the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) indicating that those secondary

33

schools in which integrated VET subjects counted towards the Year 12 certificate had

higher Year 12 completion rates than others (Marks, 2006: 33). There was also a

significant difference in employment levels between the students who undertook VET

courses and those who did not. For example, those Year 12 leavers who had taken VET

courses while at secondary school were more likely to be in full-time work compared to

early leavers and Year 12s who left school without VET courses (Marks, 2006: 33). Other

research has suggested a divergence in student evaluations of VETiS.

A study conducted with Years 10 and 12 students in public secondary schools in three

states – Queensland, Western Australia and New South Wales - by Dalley-Trim, Alloway

and Walker (2008) revealed that student evaluation of VET programs differed according to

their aspirations. The 340 student participants were grouped into academic and non-

academic streams for both genders (boys and girls). Focus group interview techniques

were applied to gauge their views on VETiS programs, its merits and its limits and its

place within the curriculum, and of those students who do VETiS. They provided insights

into the reasons why students chose or do not chose to enrol in VET in Schools or

participate in a VET pathway while at secondary school (Dalley-Trim, Alloway and

Walker (2008: 60). The results are revealing and they may have implications for this study

on VET in PNG.

Many students could not define VET or explain exactly what VET was about, although

most indicated that VET was aligned with TAFE. Although VET and general academic

subjects were integrated into the curriculum of these students, their teachers had not clearly

distinguished VET from non-VET subjects. The implication is that many students are not

well-informed about VET when making decisions about subject selections and the VET

pathways available to them at the secondary school (Dalley-Trim, Alloway & Walker,

2008: 62).

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When students were asked their reasons for enrolling in VET subjects, most spoke

positively about VETiS. They claimed that VET was good and enjoyable, provided

welcome relief from the more taxing demands of academic subjects, and was exciting and

practical in nature with opportunities for gaining life-skills. Moreover, it provided valuable

qualifications which gave a head-start in terms of post-secondary school pursuits, as well

as vital links to TAFE pathways, as qualifications to fall back on. Many also found it less

intellectually demanding and less emotionally stressful (Dalley-Trim, Alloway & Walker

(2008: 63).

For the academic students, VET was clearly marked as the domain of the non-academic

students who were considered doers of physical and under-valued work, while non-VET

subjects were for the doers of valued and mentally rigorous work. Some students

considered VET the ‘dumping ground’ for ‘trouble-makers’. There were also indications

that some teachers devalued VET and encouraged some students not to take VET subjects.

The academic students labelled those students who were taking VET subjects as

academically weak, dropouts who were not destined for university. These students

described VET as a ‘road to nowhere’ and a ‘waste of time’, claiming that ‘VET courses

are (so) very easy that people can do the courses without studying’ (Dalley-Trim, Alloway

& Walker, 2008: 66).

The status of VET in the eyes of the students and its perceived usefulness was also linked

to the importance they placed upon university entrance requirements. The onus placed

upon tertiary entrance, and the relationship between the perceptions of VET as futile and

value-less, was evident in students’ comments. The place of VET within the curriculum

was viewed with open suspicion by students in tertiary-bound pathways. As one student

suggested, it was not wise to mix academic and VET subjects as the latter were of little

value, if not potentially dangerous, to the tertiary-bound student (Dalley-Trim, Alloway

and Walker (2008: 67). The researchers challenged Federal/State governments and VET

35

providers to do more work on the VET agenda, especially on the image problem of VETiS.

Students at the secondary school level need to be better informed on the merits and

importance of VET pathways. Porter’s (2006) New South Wales and Queensland study

found that most students expressed themselves positively on the importance of

participating in specific VET programs. They also understood the need to develop personal

qualities and generic work skills. Despite the traditional pathways from school to work

remaining the norm, and the influence of the structure of the curriculum, there was a

positive response to the benefits of VET courses with a structured workplace component

(Porter, 2006: 6). Many students found that a self-paced learning in a non-competitive

environment mode of delivery suited their learning styles. Smaller classes and different

teaching approaches were preferred by all students, but especially by those students with

lower academic ability whose overall attitude to school improved as a result of their

participation in VET (Porter, 2006: 7). VETiS program in the Australian study improved

multiple pathways for students.

2.2.2 VET improves further training and employment pathways

Porter’s study found that VET courses structured with workplace components were highly

regarded by students, coordinators, trainers and employers (Porter, 2006). The students’

comments provide insights into the way participation in VET work placements helped to

motivate them to achieve work readiness.

First, students found VET programs very useful because they offered certificates under the

Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). These qualifications, which were recognised

nationally, had led to further tertiary training and enhanced their opportunity for

employment. The advantage of acquiring both qualifications and work experience in the

initial stages helped to determine later levels of student satisfaction (Porter, 2006: 18).

Those who had obtained a job or a technical and further education (TAFE) place

considered that undertaking VET at school had helped them to achieve a ‘head start’,

36

compared to general education students. In particular, the ‘work-placement’ component

gave them a chance to practice work skills, exposed them to the job application and

interview process, and enabled them to make contacts for the future (Porter, 2006:18).

Such experiences gained from participating in VET programs at the school level boosted

the morale of students.

Second, the students also valued the fact that work experience gave them the opportunity

to experiment in a safe environment, an important factor that allowed students to make

informed decisions about their future careers. The majority of students reported that the

experience of work-placement was one of the main factors which influenced their

participation in the school-based VET program (Porter, 2006:18). Teachers and trainers

noted that taking students out of the school environment and placing them in situations

where they could experience ‘a real’ working environment and where they were ‘treated as

adults, often resulted in improved attitudes and presentation in students (Porter, 2006: 18).

Such an opportunity to put theory into practice can be seen to represent authentic

pedagogical principles. It is a curriculum model designed to merge academic learning with

its career and vocational application in the workplace (Lankard, 1998: 25). The majority of

students, school coordinators, employers and trainers reported that the growth of

confidence and self-esteem among students was shown in increased maturity which

facilitated the transition from school to work. They expressed satisfaction that students

acquired better work ethics because of their positive outlook and response to employer

expectations (Porter, 2006: 18).

Students reported that work-placements also resulted in bringing them into contact with

prospective employers. In a small number of cases, 10% of students were offered either

ongoing casual work or traineeships and apprenticeships by their host employers. The

majority felt that they had made useful contacts which would assist in their transition from

school to work and their career choices. A number of students commented on the

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usefulness of specific industrial skills that they were anticipating using the specific

industrial skills which they had learned in their post-school careers or further education

(Porter, 2006:19). Others mentioned more general practical skills like: communication,

computing, teamwork, and general work and life-skills that would be useful in their

everyday life and applying for jobs.

Overall, the majority of student respondents thought that VET subjects were relevant and

useful to senior school students. VETiS courses had helped them to broaden their

curriculum knowledge and offered more relevant subjects for senior students not intending

to go to university (Porter, 2006: 20). Many liked doing practical activities. Others

appeared to prefer the teaching and learning methods of VET subjects, which gave them a

sense of freedom to learn for themselves and at their own pace and offered progressive

assessment. Some students also stated that they liked the VET subjects because they

received more direction (Porter, 2006: 19).

This finding is consistent with situated learning theories outlined by Doolittle and Camp

(1999) and Kerka (1998), to be discussed in chapter three. It deals with understanding

specific employability skills and attributes. These employability skills were considered

very important by secondary and (post-secondary) students in the Australian context.

2.2.3 VET improves students’ employability skills

Embedding employability skills and attributes into the secondary school curriculum

improves further training and career aspirations for students. A 2004 study by the

Queensland Department of Employment and Training looked at various aspects of

secondary school students’ understanding of the key employability skills and attributes

which were required in Queensland and Australia generally (Lawson, 2004:2). Students

were asked about the employability skills for two main reasons: first, to determine the fit

between student perceptions and employer perceptions as expressed in the Employability

38

Skills Framework; second, to identify whether a more focused approach to employability

skills could enhance student perceptions of current employer requirements.

When the students were asked about their future aspirations, many of them articulated

personal visions related to their field of study. They talked about becoming future

employers down the line, owning their own business, working in industries that promised

them good financial incentives, such as the mining industry. The researchers therefore,

stated that, such career aspirations could be a powerful motivator for the development of

employability skills, because the achievement of these goals required more than a set of

technical skills (Lawson, 2004: 37).

In response to the open-ended question, ‘What do employers look for in their staff?’,

students identified personal attributes, employability skills and technical skills. It showed

that, when responses were categorised, attributes were given greatest importance by most

students (Lawson, 2004: 37). Students appeared to have a good appreciation of the

attributes that were valued by employers. Although the ‘ability to deal with pressure’ and

‘balanced attitude to work and home life’, did not have much relevance for these young

entrants to the labour market, the importance of ‘being respectful, polite and hardworking’

had positive response (Lawson, 2004: 38). Most student focus groups nominated

‘communication’ and ‘team-work’ while one group identified ‘technology’ and initiative

and enterprise’. These results suggested that the VET program structure did influence

student perceptions of employer expectations because ‘communication’ and ‘team-work’

were covered as areas of competency in the programs (Lawson, 2004: 39).

To gain an understanding of the breadth of students’ concept of employability skills, they

were asked to discuss these in relation to an employer or manager as well. Although

students associated a broader range of attributes with a good employee than with an

employer or manager, they understood that employability or generic skills were important

for everyone in the workforce (Lawson, 2004: 40). The results also showed that students

39

appreciated the fact that employers looked for such skills and experiences (Lawson,

2004:41). This finding would provide important information for including such

employability skills in PNG secondary schools. Similar information has been expressed by

school principals and teachers in Australia.

2.3 PRINCIPAL/TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF VET

A number of studies have focussed on issues such as incorporating VET into secondary

school that directly affect principals and teachers. The purpose of this section is to find out

principals and teachers’ views on the VET programs introduced into Australian secondary

schools and the need for VET curriculum options, and their delivery relevant to the

population of the particular school. It also describes teachers’ views on the importance of

incorporating employability skills directly into VET teaching and a need to train VET

teachers has been noted. The findings in VET in Australian secondary schools have

implications for any attempt to introduce VET programs into PNG secondary schools.

2.3.1 The key lessons for school principals

On the basis of principals’ experiences in effectively integrating VET programs at the

secondary school level, Schneyder (2002) discussed the need for curriculum options and

their delivery to be relevant to the population of the particular school. Curriculum

management, mainly timetabling, had to be flexible enough to enable staff to deliver the

relevant curriculum and maximises individual students’ chances of success. The schools

had to be managed properly, while the strength and diversity of community partnerships

were exploited and strategies for the school’s promotion developed (Schneyder, 2002: 43).

However, more of these curriculum initiatives could not be sustained unless there was

tangible ownership of them by the school principal (Schneyder, 2002: 43).

The successful incorporation of VET programs in some Australian secondary schools

could often be traced to the influence of the principal. As Schneyder observed, these

40

principals were clear about the reasons for introducing VET into their school curriculum

and the outcomes they sought for their students. Successful transition into post-school

pathways and successful achievements in post-school options were their aims. They were

prepared to challenge the traditional beliefs of staff and parents in order to increase

participation in training and development programs and establish sustainable links between

the school and its community (Schneyder, 2002: 43).

For example, one principal took the initiative to negotiate an industry sponsorship program

in order for his students to have access to industry level training in a computer-aided

drawing program on campus. As a result, after completing school, the students who

participated in that program went directly to work with the industry that organised the

program (Schneyder, 2002: 43). This was a typical example of what principals and

teachers could do if they took ownership of the school’s VET programs and the future

welfare of their students.

Schneyder further noted that the welfare and personnel management of the school’s human

resources were an important part of the principal’s administration. VET teachers’ training

needs should be maximised in order to upgrade their level of understanding of VET skills,

as well providing for self-confidence in the knowledge base and the personnel edification

which are critical to teacher development (Schneyder, 2002: 45).

2.3.2 Teacher attitudes to VET

The importance of teachers’ attitudes to VET was highlighted by Klee in his study of the

perceptions of VET held by teachers in Queensland. In the case of some teachers, the

provision of VETiS was tolerated as the soft option for those students greatly challenged

by traditional academic offerings. To the experienced practitioner, VET options provided

an avenue through which previously unrecognised skills and talents could be developed,

recognised and packaged (Klee, 2002: 48).

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The consequences of these attitudes in classroom teaching need to be recognised by both

the administration and teaching staff. If VET is perceived as a ‘dumping ground’ for

academic failures and the less privileged and VET programs are delivered in these terms

by staff, with little or no rapport with the students involved, then it is doomed (Dumbrell,

cited in Klee, 2002a). Rather, the school VET practitioner has a very important role to play

in encouraging students and showing that they care for them. This becomes a motivating

factor, encouraging students to learn in ways that assist them to move from school into the

workplace with recognised skills, greater self-confidence and a more positive outlook on

life (Dumbrell, cited in Klee, 2002b). Schneyder had made a similar point in challenging

principals to have the passion to instigate and pursue the new VET initiatives by taking

ownership of and arranging for staff to undertake short course training programs

(Schneyder, 2002).

2.3.3 Teaching employability skills

Lawson’s Queensland study also investigated teachers’ understanding of employability

skills as opposed to Mayer’s key competencies as they were called in Australia. The study

found that not all teachers had been introduced to the key competencies. Some could not

remember participating in any professional development on the implementation and

assessment of these competencies and even having read any descriptions of the key Mayer

competencies (Lawson, 2004:18a). A good many others claimed to have read descriptions

of the Mayer key competencies. The implication was that teachers’ knowledge and

approaches to employability skills varied across the system. The key competencies had

been made available in training packages which should have been accessible to teachers in

every educational setting to use in their teaching of VET courses (Lawson, 2004: 18b).

Due to the absence of a commonly used model of employability skills, and knowledge of

the key Mayer competencies, teachers were using their own versions of employability

skills and attributes. They included competencies routinely in training packages, such as

42

communication and team work, or competencies derived from a personal philosophy of

education, such as critical thinking, creative problem-solving, independent learning and

social responsibility (Lawson, 2004: 19a). In addition to these personal models of

competencies, the study showed that teachers were consciously fostering the development

of personal attributes, such as dependability, flexibility (responding to urgency),

hardworking (willing to work), honesty, persistence, personal presentation, reliability

(turning up on time every day), respect for others and self confidence (Lawson, 2004: 19b).

Lawson noted that the students in the focus groups mentioned more employability skills

and attributes than their teachers did. The reason for this was assumed to be that the

students were able to identify most of the attributes shown to them during lessons by their

teachers. This was an indication that the teachers were having a greater impact on student

perceptions of employer expectations than expected. The teachers were of the view that, to

have easy access to employment, their graduates needed to be able to demonstrate a blend

of personal attributes, employability skills and technical skills, especially in an

apprenticeship program (Lawson, 2004: 19).

The teachers found that the best way to developing a learning and assessment strategy for

employability skills was the integrated approach. Specifically, most teachers thought that

delivering stand-alone generic units on employability skills in isolation was not good

practice, because it did not reflect the workplace integration of generic and technical skills.

They thought it was much better to integrate the generic with the technical competencies in

developing a single learning and assessment strategy. The employability skills and the

technical knowledge of a course, or a program should go hand in hand (Lawson, 2004: 23).

The employability skills noted in this study included planning and organising, working in a

team, problem-solving, used along with the development of technical skills. Participation

in various projects provided opportunities to develop learning techniques for updating

industry knowledge and using the local area to access information, for example, collecting

43

information about what was required by their training institution. Students were also able

to develop modelling skills, such as passing or sharing information and tools to fellow

students; and providing individual instruction to assist individual students resolve conflicts

(Lawson, 2004: 25). Examples of the development of specific employability skills

observed in various lessons included the following:

Communication involved specific skills like using numeracy effectively, reading

independently, listening and understanding, speaking clearly and directly, empathizing,

sharing information, writing to the needs of the audience and engaging in non-verbal

communication.

Teamwork meant that students were able to work effectively with other people of different

ages and gender, working both as individuals and as part of the team, knowing how to

define roles as part of the team.

Problem-solving involved developing practical solutions to improve the quality of

products, with teachers working through a systematic problem-solving process to assist

students with developing practical solutions, or the teacher assisting students with

developing practical solutions.

Planning and organising occurred when students were able to coordinate tasks for

themselves and with others during a specified time-frame, were able to manage time and

prioritise activities, able to use numeracy effectively, coordinating tasks effectively, and

planned the use of resources, including time management.

Self management meant that students in the course of their activities were able to decide

where people had to stand or to instruct each other in what to do and what to expect, thus

taking responsibility for the safety of themselves and other team members.

Learning meant students performing some learning tasks using different methods, being

responsible for arranging tasks and having them checked by their teacher for assessment

when they were competent. Thus, engaging in this process meant that the students were

taking responsibility for managing their own learning, and students were coaching each

other and giving feedback (Lawson, 2004:27- 28).

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2.3.4 Teacher training

Finally, teacher training must be seen as an important part of introducing VET into

secondary schools. One cannot have an effective VET teaching and learning program

unless the teachers are well trained and qualified in specific areas of VET. Such has been

the case for the schools in New South Wales. For example, Evans (2005) noted that New

South Wales established entry requirements or benchmarks for VET teachers. Teacher

training programs have been established on the basis of these teacher quality principles. To

enter training for the Hospitality Framework, for example, teachers must have a

qualification to teach Home Science or Home Economics, or a degree with a major (i.e.

three years of degree level study) in Food Technology or a Certificate II or higher level

qualification in Hospitality or Cookery. Teachers then receive training in methodology for

competency-based training and assessment, training in the relevant training package and

complete a work-placement (Evans, 2005: 15).

All teachers are expected to achieve the Certificate IV in Assessment and Workplace

Training, at least at the same level of the industry specific VET qualification which they

are delivering in order to meet AQTF standards for trainers and assessors (Evans, 2005).

This is an important requirement to maintain teacher quality and professionalism. This

teacher quality framework is an important benchmark for VET upgrading and quality

assurance which might be considered useful for PNG. The next section describes

business/industry perception and participation in VET programs.

2.4 BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PARTICIPATION IN VET This section describes an international challenge for business/industry to provide

sustainable VET programs in secondary schools; recognize the changing workplace skills

in the Australian context and alter their training programs to suit these conditions; the need

for business/industries to participate in providing specific skills related to their area of

45

operations/business; and to recognize and develop necessary employability skills and

attributes.

2.4.1 International challenge for industries to provide sustainable TVET programs in schools

According to UNESCO-UNEVOC (2006), as business/industry become involved in

providing TVET to either their existing employees or the new and up-coming ones in

secondary or post-secondary training programs, they indirectly become responsible for

implementing the UNESCO’s Recommendations on TVET and its links to sustainable

development (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006:4) Promoting sustainable TVET requires the

commitment and co-operation of employers at all levels, from senior management to

supervisory personnel and employee associations (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006:12).

Workplace learning should deliver sustainable TVET in concert with the modification of

work processes, as the two are inseparable. In developing nations, the challenge for

business/industry organizations is for them to make TVET more sustainable by addressing

the skill requirements of the future, rather than repeating training for the skills required in

the past (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 12).

Business/industry personnel are supposed to be in the front-line in developing and passing

on to secondary or post-secondary school students, the skills and attributes required for

their particular trades/jobs. Often, however, the full range of skills needed is not

developed, as Velde (2009) indicated in her study of employers’ perceptions of graduate

competencies in China. She cited Venter’s study that showed huge shortages in

management and technical skills in many organisations in China (Velde, 2009:39). The

UNESCO-UNEVOC Report (2006) placed the emphasis on a skills framework to develop

the social, human and physical capital needed for a sustainable livelihood. Young people

need to be prepared for a life of productive employment, with not only the entrepreneurial

skills to develop work opportunities for themselves and others, but also the commitment to

contribute to the well-being of their communities (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 18a).

46

In the case of developing countries, training packages for new employees or trainees need

to be concerned with basic education in literacy and numeracy. As the report reiterates,

‘the health and safety of workers often depend upon their ability to read instructions (e.g.

on fertilizer bags) and to make accurate calculations (e.g. of mixing and application

levels)’ (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 18b). At another level, a need for industries to

recognize the wider skills of scientific and social literacy is important. For example,

equipment maintenance and repair and understanding technological change (scientific

literacy) and for group work, dialogue and negotiation with colleagues and supervisors,

gender and ethnic tolerance and other skills needed for harmonious relations in the

workplace (social literacy). The inclusion of literacy skills by industries to the world of

work for secondary school students who pursue their studies in VET or TVET programs

becomes critical (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 18c). At the same time, such inclusion of

TVET programs by industries into their training programs in collaboration with schools

and other training organizations would assist in promoting integral human development.

The need now is for business/industry organizations to prepare students to become

responsible, free and mature people; equipped not only with the appropriate skills and

know-how of the latest technologies, but also with deep human and spiritual values and

attitudes – a sense of self worth, self esteem and dignity’ (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006:

18d). This is a challenge for industries in developing nations, including those in PNG to

step forward to assist their governments in providing relevant industry-based training skills

for students at the secondary (or post-secondary) school levels.

VET programs at the business/industry level need to have a values orientation that focuses

on the knowledge, skills and attitudes for social sustainability that can develop all the

powers and faculties of the individual: cognitive, affective and behavioural. From these can

flow work values and attitudes such as creativity and adaptability, productivity, quality and

efficiency, patience and perseverance, loyalty and commitment, freedom, responsibility

47

and accountability. In the larger term, a spirit of service, a futures orientation, and a

genuine love for work itself be developed (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 19).

Business/industry personnel also needed to be aware of values that have ethical, legal and

moral implications. The obvious ones include respect for cultural diversity, gender

equality, workplace relations, teamwork in the workplace, relations between employers

and employees, safety procedures and citizenship (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006: 19-20).

From the point of view of industry/business, some of these values relate to very important

qualities that industries look for in their employees and pass on VET students in the course

of their training. Since business/industry people are important players in imparting work-

related knowledge and skills, they become important partners in the development and

implementation of VET programs. They also expect to be able to employ competent

secondary or post-secondary graduates who can contribute effectively and meaningfully to

various industry programs.

2.4.2 Changing workplace skills in the Australian context

The stakeholders in the Australian context expect VET system to produce students who are

well informed of tasks and requirements of various trades and organisations. For example,

research studies conducted by NCVER revealed that, ‘governments, industry, enterprises

and the community have great expectations of the vocational education and training (VET)

system’ (NCVER, 2004:1) to train and provide the manpower needed for the society.

In the Australian context, changes in the workplace environment have altered the skills

which businesses and enterprises demand of their workers and professional. For instance,

how staff think, feel and carry out their functions has been challenged as they are asked to

work in new, more integrated and flexible ways, and to undertake tasks not previously

associated with their work (NCVER, 2004: 2). VET providers have recognized the need to

48

be more actively involved in providing the training to achieve these changes (NCVER,

2004: 1).

At the same time, managers and their staff in industry and business community were

prepared to change their attitudes and endorse VET programs. Such a view has been

articulated also by Misko (2002) who claimed that, in a knowledge-based society, the

majority of workers were expected to apply higher-order knowledge and skills in their

occupation-specific and general tasks. To remain competitive, businesses were required to

continually upgrade technical skills and knowledge (Misko, 2002: 65). Moreover, the

growing complexity of skills is demanded by workers (Karmel, 2008). According to

Billett, 1994), more refined concepts of cognitive skills (compiling, analysing,

coordinating), interactive skills (serving, supervising, mentoring) and motor skills

(handling, driving, precision working), are needed by students (Billett, 1994: 3). Their

concerns are summarized in the following points.

First, qualifications and earnings do not always capture the actual skill requirements of a

job. Many people with a qualification do not use that qualification directly in their work,

while others who do not have any formal qualifications have the skills to do their job.

Second, the demand for interactive and cognitive skills is projected to grow, while the

demand for motor skills is likely to fall (Karmel, 2008:2a). In addition, the employers

interviewed considered interactive skills as the key skills for the next decade. Third, a

process of skill deepening is occurring as the increasing complexity of jobs requires

workers to move up the interactive and cognitive skill hierarchies. Finally, to accommodate

the demand for interactive and cognitive skills, training packages and curriculum design

need to focus on these skill sets (Karmel, 2008: 2b).

Another area noted by Karmel related to the study done by Martin and Healy on ‘Changing

work organisations and skill requirements in Australia’. Their aim was to investigate the

extent to which the contemporary workplace had changed. The researchers compared

49

practices in several industries (call centres, hospitals, manufacturing plants and mining

operations) with a model of high performance. They also considered whether employees

needed new sets of skills and what role VET should have in providing these skills. They

found that Australian organisations had experimented with elements of high performance

model, including teamwork, decentralisation of authority, increased knowledge-sharing,

flexibility in job content, pay-for-performance and strict recruitment practices. Additional

training provision had made an important contribution to developing these new skills

(Karmel, 2008: 4). These skills and values are notable for their absence in the education

system in PNG.

2.4.3 Industry participation in school VET programs

According to Karmel (2008), training providers are being called upon to adapt not only to

emerging skills needs but also to demand for greater flexibility to meet social differences

in VET needs. Thus, the VET system needs to investigate population differences in

clientele and to identify the social, economic and cultural barriers which some people face

in finding long term employment (Karmel, 2008: 4).

VET programs are responsive to people’s various needs at different ages and stages of their

participation in the workforce. VET at basic and skilled levels (certificates I and II, and

certificate III, respectively) dominates the learning activity of teenagers and young adults.

Skills enrichment, reorientation and personal development become more prominent in

VET programs for established workers and older people. It also needs to be recognized that

VET activity rises as socio-economic status falls. People from a lower socio-economic

background are not achieving the higher level training qualifications which reap the greater

rewards for participation in VET (Karmel, 2008: 5).

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These disparities can often be traced back to the individual’s experience of schooling.

Partly, for this reason, employers and trainers have reported that their involvement in

school-based VET programs has had positive outcomes.

The employers and trainers taking part in VET program were able to select well-trained

staff and students for the future; gain personal satisfaction associated with helping others;

achieve financial assistance in the training of students and staff; and exercise some

influence on the development of some training, including future training packages. More

than two thirds of employers indicated that the school-based VET program was producing

young people who could think for themselves in a work situation, and who had the right

attitudes as well as maturity for their (Porter 2006: 20). Some smaller employers, however,

felt that many elements of existing training packages had been developed in consultation

with large firms and were not in line with work practices in small businesses. They would

welcome further input on designing training packages, specifically for their own areas of

business (Karmel, 2008: 7).

In Harris, Simons and Moore (2005), the practice of schools networking with VET

providers and industry, in particular TAFE colleges was considered to be very important.

Such communities of practice have in common a structure that consists of three elements –

a domain of knowledge, community and practice…VET practitioners and their industrial

counterparts are quite clear about the body of knowledge that forms part of the learning

network and they generally develop functions based on mutual respect and trust (Harris,

Simons & Moore, 2005: 6).

In New South Wales a VET model has been developed which links business/industry with

the secondary school. ‘An Employer’s Guide to Workplace Learning for Secondary

Students in Government Schools and TAFE NSW’ (2005) has specific guidelines about

how business and industries can work hand in hand with Years 9, 10, 11 and 12 students

(NSW Department of Education and Training, 2005:1). This unique business/industry and

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secondary school connection is an important initiative as the programs encourage young

people to gain practical experience of the workplace and learn industry and workplace

skills as part of their studies. They also allow employers to help young people understand

the workplace, as well as careers and job opportunities and directions in industry (NSW

Department of Education and Training, 2005: 1).

The programs which have been developed under these guidelines support a wide range of

experiences in industry settings, often tailored to the type of work students may be

planning to do after completing their studies. In addition, the direct experience of a

workplace helps students learn quickly and powerfully about the nature of work and the

context of the workplace. It helps young people better plan their transition through school,

and from school, to a more fulfilling working life (NSW Department of Education and

Training, 2005:1). Similar views have been expressed by Australian industry personnel in

recent research done by Foster, Delaney, Bateman and Dyson (2007: 25). The provision of

such employment-related training at the school level would help students decide their

further training and employment.

2.4.4 Industry employers’ views on employability skills

The study on employability skills/attributes conducted by the Queensland Department of

Employment and Training (2004) interviewed twelve employers by the telephone. It

became clear that when employing new recruits, employers considered a different mix of

attributes, employability, and technical skills than those they considered when employing

qualified trades people. Qualified trades people were expected to exhibit a high level of

technical skills along with other personal attributes and employability skills. (Lawson,

2004: 44). The study revealed that, in most cases the ‘off the top of the mind’ response

related to personal attributes. Although not all employers nominated the same attributes,

across the respondents, there was a great deal of consistency with the employability skills

52

frameworks, as well as with student views of employer expectations. The degree of overlap

with teacher views was less (Lawson, 2004: 44).

The researchers pointed out that all employers mentioned communication which was often

aligned with self-esteem or self-confidence. However, only some employers mentioned

literacy and numeracy skills as important since these skills were seen as essential

prerequisites for successful completion of both pre-vocational programs and trade

qualification (Lawson, 2004:46). All employers also mentioned the importance of

‘learning’ through phrases like, willingness to learn or being open to new experiences,

although such expressions were thought to fall into attributes, rather than skills.

Similarly, problem-solving was considered an important skill for employees to have, but

was not considered a highly significant factor when assessing applicants for an

apprenticeship. The general view seemed to be that problem-solving skills would develop

as the apprentices gained technical experience (Lawson, 2004: 46). In the same way,

information technology skills were not considered important entry-level skills for

apprentices or trainees. However, they were considered important for qualified trades-

people. A number of employers indicated young people today had grown up with

computers and associated information technology and most schools provided many

opportunities for students to develop information technology skills (Lawson, 2004:46).

However, it was considered important to confirm these skills in the case of already

qualified tradespeople.

None of the employers mentioned difficulties in finding applicants with appropriate

attributes and skills (Lawson, 2004: 48). All were using a variety of strategies to identify

the most suitable candidate for a position. In particular, the written information supplied by

the candidate on their educational and employment history was used to identify

characteristics, such as personal presentation, commitment and knowledge of the industry.

For example, participation in a relevant VET in schools program and a paid part-time job

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in the industry was seen to be a good indicator of commitment to the industry. For others,

completion of a pre-vocational program was seen to indicate commitment. Persistence and

reliability were also identified through consideration of the previous employment history.

Although employers were aware that young applicants had a limited work history, a stable

employment pattern appeared to be considered more favourably than a variety of paid jobs

(Lawson, 2004: 49). Commitment and physical fitness were identified by some employers

from information about hobbies and interests. Learning skills or scholastic aptitude was

identified through school records or completion of a VET qualification, or short courses.

Interviews were seen to provide employers with opportunities to assess attributes and

skills, such as commitment, communication skills, enthusiasm, knowledge of the industry,

openness to new experiences, physical fitness, positive self-esteem or self-confidence and

willingness to learn (Lawson, 2004: 49). The need to take account of personal qualities

highlighted above has also been considered vital in the Ghana study by Anamuah, Asabere

and Dennis (2007: 144).

The importance of personal attributes was also highlighted in a research report by the

Australian Department of Education, Science and Training (2002). All employers who

participated in that research expressed a strong emphasis on the need for both entry-level

and on-going, to exhibit a broad range of personal attributes. Many indicated that during

selection and promotion processes, they tried to identify the personal attributes of the

applicants. Some of them stressed the significance of these personal attributes to a

harmonious workplace and effective customer relations while others, especially from large

enterprises, had strong emphasis on balanced attitude to work and home life, ability to deal

with pressure, motivation and adaptability (DEST, 2002: 38).

The sorts of personal attributes which employers said they usually looked for in applicants

during the interview included, loyalty and commitment, work readiness skills and honesty

as important above everything else. Employers with good attributes were seen to enhance

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the culture of the business, while loyalty to the company and to one another as employees

was regarded as essential. Positive attitudes to life and outlook on life came first, then the

basic skills, enthusiasm and motivation (DEST, 2002: 38). It was obvious that employers

were using a range of tools, such as, observation, work-placements and references to assess

the attributes for employment or job promotion (DEST, 2002: 38). The final section

evaluates the views from policy-makers.

2.5 POLICY-MAKER AWARENESS ON VET ISSUES This section describes factors that have led policy-makers and VET advocators to include

VET subjects in the secondary school curriculum. It first describes policy issues on

mainstreaming VET programs at the secondary school level in Australia. There has also

been a demand for more highly skilled workforce, at the same time as the ageing of the

population has led to the retirement of a number of experienced workers. The result has

been complete policies re-think of the delivery and format of VET programs and then

incorporation into the curriculum of secondary schools at the senior level.

2.5.1 Global demand for developing a skilled labour force

While unemployment has been a major concern in developing countries like PNG (ILO,

2008), the demand for a skilled labour force to ensure on-going economic growth has been

the key economic and social driver for new VET policies in OECD countries (Cotis, 2006;

Kilpatrick & Allen, 2001: 15). A major factor in many OECD countries has been the

demand for quality education that meets the needs of the skilled-labour market (Robinson,

2000: 2). One of these demands that has shaped the current skills requirement has been the

rise of the information and knowledge-based economy (Robinson, 2000:2) and a demand

that society focus on globalisation, technological development and workplace change

(Stanwick, 2003: 6). According to UNESCO reports, TVET programs are the best way to

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develop a skilled, committed and motivated workforce which understands how global

changes impact upon local opportunities for business and industry (UNESCO, 2006: 20).

Developing a skilled workforce has different dimensions and concerns in developing

countries. A case study conducted in Ghana, Africa by Anamuah, Asabere and Dennis

(2007) highlighted the importance of three types of skills: cognitive, affective and

psychomotor. In this study, cognitive skills considered important for the student included:

computational skills, problem-solving, communication skills, literacy, logical thinking,

innovation, creativity, academic competence and adaptability (Anamuah, Asabere and

Dennis, 2007: 144).

Similarly, the affective skills which were considered vital for a person to acquire in order

to be productive in a working environment included: humility, punctuality, self-discipline,

moral integrity, interest, self-confidence, commitment, honesty and team-work. Finally,

psychomotor or manual skills involved: practical skills, job-centred skills and typing or

information technology skills as very important. If these skills had not been learned and

practised by students by the time they finished secondary school, many youngsters who

completed their education at this stage would face a somewhat uncertain future (Anamuah,

Asabere & Dennis, 2007: 144). This conclusion is a challenge for students in Africa and

has wider implications for other developing countries, including PNG. VET and skills

development at the secondary school level can be seen as a crucial step forward in meeting

the current economic and skilled labour trend.

VET policy provisions in other countries like Singapore, China, the United Kingdom,

Norway and Germany need to be looked at in order to determine the extent to which these

countries match their supply of skills with current and projected skill needs (Karmel,

NCVER, 2008). Karmel claimed that among these countries, Australia’s VET system was

held in high regard, with many of its VET elements copied by other countries. The findings

suggest that, while comparisons are difficult to make because of the strong influence of

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historical, cultural and political contexts on national training systems, getting an

international perspective can help in considering how to tackle weaknesses in national

systems, including Australia’s (Karmel, 2008: 8). Comparisons between the international

and the Australian VET sectors reveal that one of the Australian VET system’s major

strengths is the highly integrated model of national skill standards and national framework

for the awarding of qualifications (Karmel, 2008: 8).

Most countries, however, recognise that an investment in high-level, intermediate and low-

level VET skills development results in an effective contribution to productivity, a

lessening of social inequalities and a reduction in unemployment (Karmel, 2008:8).

Evidence to support this view comes from countries in Europe, India and China where

these countries which have demonstrated the high return on VET investment which a

proficient labour forces provides. China has been cited as an outstanding example. The

skilled labour force that China developed has become the backbone of its current economic

growth. China enrolled one third of all its secondary school students in TVET institutions

(Diallo, 2005). One wonders why China has been experiencing a wave of development in

recent years! Its VET development programs and their impact on technological innovation

and development could become a model for a developing country like PNG.

Another factor of concern, however, is the ageing of the workforce in some developed

countries. For example, in the Australian context, the ageing population becomes a major

factor that draws the attention of researchers and policy-makers for proposing and

revitalising VET and skills development in Australia that PNG can learn from.

2.5.2 Recruiting a skilled labour force In some countries, population ageing has created a generational gap in the workforce that

needs to be bridged by training the younger generation with VET knowledge and skills.

The ageing population in Australia, Europe and US, for example, has resulted in a

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declining rate of growth in the size of the skilled workforce (ATEC Report, 2002). In order

to maintain labour and economic sustainability, the OECD countries have given priority to

two policies. The first was concerned to establish a policy for recruiting a skilled-labour

force. The other related to filling the workforce gap by introducing revitalised VET

programs into the secondary school curriculum to encourage the younger population to tap

into skilled training programs (OECD, 1999).

In the Australian context, Tan and Richardson, cited in Karmel (2008), examined the

effects of an ageing population on the future skills supply in the country. The researchers

provided a detailed analysis of projected occupations and age groups to 2020, highlighting

those occupations using VET-acquired skills. The researchers quantified the compositional

effects of changing demographics on both the quantitative (‘how many?’) and the

qualitative (‘what type?’) dimensions of the supply of skills. Karmel (2008) cited the

researchers’ key finding on Australia’s ageing population and their implications for VET

programs as follows.

First, over the next 15 years, the workforce will continue to grow but its age structure will

change significantly. By 2020, people aged between 50 – 65 years will comprise 45

percent of the working age population. However, the age distribution of new entrants to the

workforce will remain constant for males and decrease for females. Second, by 2020, it is

expected that almost all the non-trade occupations will have more people aged over 55

years than those in the under 25 year range. People in the trades will have the youngest age

profile – a situation which is expected to persist for the next 15 years (Karmel, 2008: 3a).

On the positive side, however, the results from Tan and Richardson’s study makes it clear

that the workforce will become more qualified, as more people with higher levels of formal

education and training move through the labour market. There will also be an increase in

associate professional and managerial occupations for VET-qualified people. ‘Skill

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deepening’ will lead to even higher levels of qualifications (Karmel, 2008: 3b). These

predictions imply a growing demand for the Australian VET sector to assist in improving

the employability skills of people who are currently marginal to the workforce in providing

training to help people upgrade or enhance their VET qualifications at advanced diploma

and diploma levels. In the business/management disciplines, such a scenario should offer

older workers a quick return on their training investment (Karmel, 2008: 3c).

Of equal interest has been the opportunity for VET providers to promote skills

development in the education system in order to meet skilled labour demands - not only for

older employees and students in the school system but also for school dropouts and those

‘excluded’ from society. The highlights of these have been the provision of second chance

options for secondary school dropouts in Canada. The failure to provide second

opportunities for instilling VET skills can be seen to have detrimental consequences for the

school leavers concerned, as well as for the society as a whole (Looker & Thiessen,

2008:3). VET programs for young people therefore, can not only bridge gap created by the

aging workforce (Woyzbun et al. 2006; and Mitchell, 2003) but also other socio-economic

gaps in society. This possibility has important implications for PNG.

2.5.3 Challenges for VETiS program

The stakeholders need to be aware of some of the challenges facing VETiS programs. The

type of the challenges that these stakeholders might face have been identified by Porter

(2006) in the Queensland and NSW study. Porter’s (2006) study revealed that in some

work situations, students had to work late nights and unofficial hours. Student employee

problems, such as absenteeism, needed to be dealt with immediately to maintain the future

support of the employer. Employers could sometimes assign students menial cores during a

work-placement because of the lack of continuity in their attendance. For this reason

weekly short periods of work-placements proved less satisfactory than blocks of working

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time. Although students found the VET workload acceptable, a few mentioned problems

when many assignments were due around the same time, or when VET classes were

scheduled out of normal school hours, or when work days did not finish until late (Porter

2006: 20).

There was also a concern about the high cost involved in running a VET program that

needed to be addressed. One of the three main disadvantages mentioned by Queensland

schools was ‘the expense and funding’ involved in the program. These included the set-up

costs, the resources required and ongoing expenses. Porter indicated that some school staff

considered it very important to have an effective administration to take care of the financial

side of VET. AT the same time, with the shifts in government funding, long-term planning

was difficult and there was always competition with other departments within the school

for funding new equipment. The costs involved in any VET program and its ongoing

financial support from government was a big issue that needed to be addressed prior to any

VET development (Porter, 2006: 22). Despite all this, one Queensland coordinator

declared, ‘VET is expensive, but the benefits far outweigh the disadvantages’ (Porter 2006:

22).

The overall administration of VET courses was time-consuming and burdensome too, due

to what Porter referred as the ‘paper chase’ involving the tracking of students, keeping

records, and developing individual training plans. Many VET coordinators were part-time

or only allotted a small number of hours for these duties out of their total working week.

This meant that many had to complete work in their own time. Another difficulty for

schools was the need for staff involved in VET courses to keep up their industry

experience in order to maintain accreditation. It was revealed that, given the shortage of

time and money, teachers tended to complete their up-skilling in their holidays or after

school. Some coordinators felt that schools were not sufficiently flexible in their timetables

to allow VET students to move smoothly between school, work, TAFE, and training. Often

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the different structural needs of VET teaching, such as long blocks of teaching time, were

not recognised in the time-tabling of VET subjects (Porter, 2006: 22).

Another set of challenges had to do with ‘infrastructure and implementation’ and ‘quality

assurance in relation to the monitoring and supervision of VET courses’. Having adequate

infrastructure to support the school-based VET program was perceived to be important and

necessary step in the delivery of VET to school students. Many respondents expressed their

concerns about the underdeveloped infrastructure, including the amount of knowledge,

information and documentation relating to procedures and protocols for the VET program

implementation process and the lack of resources and inadequacies in funding

arrangements (Porter, 2006: 23).

Poor co-ordination and communication also threatened the effectiveness, efficiency and

quality of the Australian school-based VET programs in the early stages. These factors

included lack of confidence and understanding of assessment processes; differing

expectation between stakeholders which led to confusion; lack of monitoring and

coordination of course content in different locations; and tensions caused by differing

priorities and lack of coordination among the VET training institutions in relation to

timetabling student activities (Porter 2006: 23-24). For those considering the

implementation of a VETiS program in PNG, it is important to understand what the initial

difficulties were and how they were dealt with.

The interviewees pointed to two approaches which had helped to solve these initial

difficulties: local management committees and flexible administration, including

timetables and workloads. Most stakeholders interviewed indicated the importance of

establishing local management committees in order to assist in the planning and execution

of VET courses at the secondary school level. For the Queensland schools, the gradual

development of community and policy liaison co-operative groups resulted in relationships

between schools, training providers and local industry (Porter, 2006: 25).

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Similarly, the New South Wales schools and their local communities established

coordinating groups of interested stakeholders, which included representatives from

school, private and public trainers, as well as employer associations. This was an

interesting way of getting the community involved; a lesson not to be ignored for the PNG

situation. The local management committees were involved in disseminating information,

provided advice, produced agreed guideline protocols and procedures and were continuing

to develop strategies that would enhance the implementation of the school-based VET

program. This kind of cooperation and coordination strengthened the infrastructure of the

program by providing administrative services and support networks both within the local

community and to other regional groups (Porter, 2006). Greater accountability was also

established through formalizing procedures, among the three organisations involved in the

delivery of the school-based VET program (Porter, 2006: 25).

The other solution concerned a more flexible administration strategy agreed to by the

majority of stakeholders. The majority of stakeholders involved in the assessment of VET

competencies spoke highly of the improved and flexible administration of the procedures

that had taken place during the course of this study. Furthermore, the introduction of

flexible and extended school timetabling in some schools provided a solution to student

workloads and the prioritisation of training between the various VET providers (schools,

employees and trainers). Similar perceptions were expressed by some school principals and

teachers.

2.5.4 Integrating VET options in the planning stage

The growing demand for vocational learning in schools has led to significant expansion in

the range of VET programs for senior secondary school students who wished to link

opportunities for study at school with experience in the community and the workplace

(Kilvert, 2002). One of the problems has been to change the structure and delivery of the

senior school curriculum to incorporate VET programs in the mainstream organisation

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(Kilvert, 2002: 26). Difficulties of matching the school timetable structure, with students’

VET course choices, compounded with other school programs, could force some schools to

maintain the traditional curriculum. This would work against the sustainability of VET

programs and pathways in a school’s curriculum provision. Other schools have succeeded

through thoughtful planning to integrate VET programs and to design delivery mechanisms

which can fit mainstream school management practices (Kilvert, 2002: 26).

Some Australian secondary schools, for example, have integrated VET options into each of

the planning, implementing, monitoring and reporting phases of their organisational

management cycle. VET options have been identified in accordance with student,

community and industry interests, particularly with the training priorities of business and

industry in the local region. The schools have applied their own costing model to enable

them to calculate their capacity to deliver the VET programs. They have identified the

funding bases that apply to each student enrolled in the school and those areas of cost-

demand that arise from specific requirements of VET programs. Moreover, they have

satisfied quality assurance requirements relating to structured work-placements (Kilvert,

2002: 26).

As part of the planning phase, for example, schools included VET options in the course

counselling processes for all their students. VET options were presented for consideration

as part of the planning for each student’s individual learning pathway, so that they were

seen by students, parents and staff as an integral part of the range of subjects available to

students (Kilvert, 2002: 27). The resulting information from these planning activities was

used to construct the organisational plan and timetable in the school. Timetabling was then

based on the principle of maximizing the pathways and learning opportunities for the

greatest number of students (Kilvert, 2002: 27). This principle balanced the different

demands of the academic and vocational programs rather than allowing the learning-

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teaching methodologies of one to determine the other. Consequently, different blocks of

learning time were created for the different programs.

In the implementation and monitoring phases, schools recognised that the students’

learning was not restricted to the traditional classroom learning situation but extended into

a range of work and community contexts. Accordingly, the use of teacher time was

structured so as to support and monitor learning in these contexts. Thus, the assessment

plans of students studying VET programs were made explicit, as well as the competencies

they were expected to demonstrate as part of the learning process (Kilvert, 2002: 27).

This model of identifying appropriate job-related VET programs and associated skill

development in line with community needs and availability of job markets within the

community; the creation of timetable blocks that fit both VET and general academic

subjects; and the student counselling prior to VET and general academic subject selection

would be important lessons for any developing country, like PNG.

The importance of VET at the secondary school level as an educated policy has been

advocated by all Australian State and Federal leaders in a way that cannot be taken lightly.

For example, Tom Barton, Queensland State Minister for Employment, Training and

Industrial Relations recently challenged Queenslanders and Australians by claiming that

change is powered by people who have the creativity, talent, hard work, and the research

capability to find better ways of doing things (Queensland Government, Department of

Employment and Training, 2008).

One of the most comprehensive statements on the important role that VET plays in the

secondary school system in Australia is to be found in the ALP’s Education Revolution,

New Directions for VET (2007). It made the following key points on skills development, as

emphasised by Kevin Rudd, then Leader of the Opposition, now Prime Minister of

Australia and Steven Smith MP, then Shadow Minister for Education and Training.

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First, Australia’s future economic prosperity is tied to the skills and productivity of its

workforce. For Australia to compete successfully in the global economy, she must invest in

the human capital of Australia by building a highly skilled workforce that can compete

with the best of its neighbours. Second, in the midst of acute skills demand, Australia

needs highly skilled and educated workers with a commitment to lifelong learning and an

ability to adapt to the future demands of technology, industry and the economy. Third,

Australia’s future vision depends on dealing with two future challenges. Australia needs

first to lift the number of students who complete senior secondary school and secondly, to

increase the number of people with vocational and skill trade qualifications.

Finally, in order to address the economic challenge of an increasing demand for skills,

Australia must widen the range of opportunities available to students in the secondary

school system (Rudd and Smith, 2007:2). They added that the number of young people

undertaking post-school training and education was entirely dependent on how many

students completed senior schooling and warned that the result of low secondary school

retention rates would include limited access to further educational opportunities, reduced

participation in and higher rates of unemployment (Rudd and Smith, 2007: 5).

All this emphasis on VET in the Australian context has major policy implications for VET

development in developing countries, in particular, PNG. The more secondary school

students participate in relevant VET courses and learn the employability, the more students

would have access to further training, employment and improvement of life.

2.6 SUMMARY

VET in the Australian context showed that despite the problems, there have been positive

indications that the VET system at the secondary school level has benefitted its citizens

(NCVER, 2003-2006). Whilst VETiS program was seen as beneficial for most students,

those taking the academic pathway had negative views about VET. In contrast, students

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taking VET courses realized that VET was important because of its embedded skills that

were needed for their work. Secondary school teachers and principals also saw that VET in

their schools was important. However, they realized some set-backs in relation to VET and

academic course time-tabling issues, difficulties in placing students with industries and

monitoring their performance. At the policy-making level, VETiS program was considered

important by school principals and leaders in the state and national levels.

VET characteristics highlighted so far could provide some benchmarks for a value-added

VET program model at the secondary school level in PNG. Whilst stakeholders in the

Australian context showed positive attitudes towards VET and its embedded employability

skills/attributes, such views have not been expressed by any person/group in PNG other

than a few reports that assume the need for VET at the school in the country. The

conceptual framework and approaches underpinning VET discussed in the next Chapter,

may assist in delivering an appropriate VET model for PNG.

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CHAPTER THREE

CONCEPTUAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The conceptual learning perspectives that underpin this study on VET derived from two

important theories – ‘constructivist’ and ‘situated learning’. These two learning

perspectives appear to share common assumptions about the roles of teacher and learner.

They are very different from those of the traditional classroom of earlier years where the

teacher’s role was to transmit knowledge and the students were expected to absorb it. The

existing learning theory referred to most often by curriculum designers and teachers in

PNG has been Piaget’s theory of children’s cognitive development (Ministerial Committee

Report, 1986). A similar learning perspective was stated in the Delors Report known as the

‘four pillars of learning – to know, to do, to live together and to be’ (Delors, et al. 1996).

Whilst these existing learning perspectives have been considered vital for assisting

education development in PNG, they appear to be limited in scope because they focus on

the classroom context. On the contrary, the two rival perspectives (constructivism and

situated learning) go further by reinforcing content knowledge in practical situations. It can

be argued that although constructivism and situated learning have been applied in various

social and educational teaching and learning domains in the world over, in PNG these

learning frameworks were not known or used in any educational settings.

This chapter therefore, introduces these two frameworks with the aim not only to show

their educational significance, but also show how they can be appropriate to school VET

programs at secondary (and post-secondary) school levels in PNG. These learning

perspectives would help greatly in determining an appropriate secondary school VET

model for PNG. In order to determine this, the chapter first defines the two perspectives to

show how they are related (or differ) in their application.

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3.2 THE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

The constructivist perspective has shaped educational thinking and planning in the last

fifteen to twenty years as recorded by Collins (2008), Chadd and Anderson (2005),

Doolittle and Camp (1999), Kerka (1998), Brown (1998), Billett (1994, 1996), Brooks &

Brooks (1993), and others. These sources provide invaluable insights into looking at VET

in a new and fresh way and understanding how constructivism has played an important role

in shaping VET pedagogical approaches in recent times.

‘Constructivism’ is a learning theory that has recently received support from cognitive

researchers because of its suggestion that learning and teaching environment makes

knowledge transference in the workplace more effective. The constructivist theory, Kerka

(1998) writes, relies on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the

world. For example, instead of absorbing or passively receiving objective knowledge that

is out there (as in the traditional classroom model), learners actively construct knowledge

by integrating new information and experiences into what they have previously come to

understand, revising and interpreting old knowledge in order to reconcile it with the new.

According to Hoover (1996), the central idea of constructivism is that human learning is

constructed, so that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous

learning. This view of learning sharply contrasts with one in which learning is the passive

transmission of information from teacher to student, an approach in which reception, not

construction, is the key (Hoover, 1996: 1). Constructivism is about internal processes; it is

about knowledge development inside a person or learner.

There are two important principles involved in the idea of constructed knowledge. The first

is that, learners construct new understandings using what they already know, or knowledge

gained from previous experience. This form of learning shows that knowledge is gained or

acquired through experiencing trials and errors. According to general knowledge, the

Wright Brothers built the first plane in the early 1900s through a trial and error process

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until the airplane lifted off the ground. This illustrates that, trial and error, learning and

experience, become the ingredients in shaping a person’s knowledge, thus in the process an

individual becomes competent in his/her profession. Prior learning and experience is also

crucial for the learner because this assists in influencing the new or modified knowledge

which a learner will construct from new learning experiences, a very vital combination in

the learning process.

Likewise, ‘constructivism’ is defined by Brooks and Brooks (1993) as a theory based on

observation and scientific study about how people learn. It is about people constructing

their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and

reflecting on those experiences. When people encounter new things, they try to reconcile it

with their previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what they believe, or maybe

discarding information that is seen to be not relevant. In any case, the people become

active creators of their knowledge. This is done by way of asking questions, exploring, and

assessing what they know (Brooks & Brooks, 1993).

The second principle of constructivism regards learning as ‘active’ rather than ‘passive’,

because the learners confront their understanding of a specific task or skill in the light of

what they encounter in the new learning situation. They discard the irrelevant and take into

account knowledge and understanding that are obvious. This principle is consistent with a

saying in the Enga language in the Highlands of PNG that goes: kirambupi pyae-e nemba-

nemba pyuu pingi larae singi kandale which means: one learns to weave an arm band;

discards it and weaves it again until the skill of arm-band-making is mastered. A first time

arm-band weaver makes several trials attempts until he or she becomes a competent or

professional arm-band weaver.

Along this line, Hoover (2008) conceptualises knowledge development as follows: learners

remain active throughout the process: they apply current understandings, note relevant

elements in new learning experiences, judge the consistency of prior and emerging

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knowledge, and based on that judgment; they can modify their knowledge (Hoover,

1996:1). Getting the learner involved in the activities is an important approach to

knowledge creation and development today. On that understanding, Chadd and Anderson

(2005) draw the analogy that the teacher or trainer becomes a facilitator and provides the

learning environment conducive for group sharing and participation. Active participatory

learning and sharing assists the learner to grasp the meaning of things and to become

competent and proficient in the area of learning (Chadd & Anderson, 2005:25).

A similar account of a constructivist approach to learning is expressed by Kerka (1998). In

her analysis, there are a few key features of knowledge construction that she referred to as:

‘functional context’, ‘social context’, and ‘usefulness’. These appear to work effectively

when (being) embedded in the school context in which new knowledge and skills are used

where these approaches reinforce and motivate learners. Using a constructivist approach,

for instance, teachers facilitate learning by encouraging active enquiry, guiding learners to

question their assumptions and coaching them in the construction process (Kerka, 1998: 1).

This approach contrasts with the behavioural one that has dominated education, in which

the teacher disseminated selected knowledge, measured learners’ passive reception of

facts, and focused on behaviour control and task completion, a traditional method of

classroom teaching and learning (Kerka, 1998: 1). The constructivist teacher, on the

contrary, is more interested in uncovering meanings than in covering prescribed material

(Kerka, 1998:1). Covering prescribed material is the traditional model of teaching that has

been used in PNG education system.

The constructivist approach appears to accommodate every person by providing

opportunities to excel in their learning while the traditional teacher-centred method appears

discriminatory, in that only the able students are pushed through the education system in

order to find success in life (Kennedy & Haines, 2008:4), as in the current PNG system of

education. Constructivism thus involves a process whereby the teacher provides a learning

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experience in order for the student to make sense of that experience (Collins, 2008). The

author maintains that:

Constructivism is a theory of learning and not of teaching where constructive

learning environment is a learner centred rather than teacher centred.

Constructivist theory places the student at the centre of the learning

experience, and learner-centred education can be facilitated by the teacher.

Students learn by doing, therefore, actively engaging students in experience-

based learning is key to the construction of new meaning (Collins, 2008:2).

Brown (1998) puts the theory of constructivism into a more general perspective by

describing it as the way people construct meaning through their interpretative interactions

with and experiences in their social environments. It presumes that prior knowledge and

experiences play an important role in learning and form the basis for subsequent actions

(Brown, 1998: 6). Evolving from the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, and others, constructivism

reflects a paradigm shift from a teacher-centred pedagogy based on behaviourism to a

learner-centred educational approach based on cognitive theory (Brown, 1998: 6). In

contrast to behaviourist epistemology which focuses on intelligence, domains of

objectives, levels of knowledge, and reinforcement, constructivist epistemology assumes

that learners construct their own knowledge on the basis of interaction with their

environment.

3.2.1 Constructivism applied to VET

Brown (1998) identifies the four epistemological assumptions that are at the heart of

constructivist learning and applies them to vocational education. They include: knowledge

being physically constructed by learners who are involved in active learning; knowledge

being symbolically constructed by learners who are making their own representations of

action; knowledge being socially constructed by learners who convey their meaning-

making to others; and knowledge being theoretically constructed by learners who try to

explain things in terms of why they do not completely understand (Brown, 1998: 7).

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Brown describes this model for constructivist practice, particularly in relation to vocational

education in four paragraphs that deserve further reflection.

First, in constructivism, the focus of teaching is on the empowerment of the learner. The

teacher’s role is to engage learners in the discovery of knowledge and provide them

opportunities to reflect upon and learn theories through real-world applications of

knowledge. The constructivist approach to teaching and learning moves learners away

from the rote memorization of facts to meta-cognition and self-evaluation. Brown makes

reference to Hoskins (1995), saying that this approach promotes an examined life and

encourages the critical reflection on values, beliefs, and assumptions (Brown, 1998: 14a).

Second, in a workplace where businesses have become performance driven and jobs and

tasks have become disintegrated, great emphasis is placed on collaboration, teamwork, and

interpersonal communication skills. As Brown explains, work activities are socially shared

and performed in social systems in which what one person is able to do depend

fundamentally on what others do (Brown, 1998: 14b).

Third, Brown acknowledges that classroom activities are not consistent with these

workplace realities. In the classroom, activities typically are individually performed and

judged on the basis of each individual’s performance. Activities are detached from

meaningful context and from real-life situations and communities of practice. To prepare

students for work in a participatory workplace, learning must be connected to the social

environment in which it is to be applied (Brown, 1998: 14).

Finally, constructivist learning environments offer the potential for locating learning in the

context of real-life situations and problems. They offer a rationale for curriculum

integration that connects learning with the workplace. Brown cites Kerka (1997: 1)

claiming that learning is facilitated through the design of classroom activities that guide

students to work collaboratively with others, set their own consequences and pace of work,

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and actively engage in problem-solving, critical thinking and negotiation. Such contexts

allow learners to move from passive observers to active learners who construct knowledge

by integrating new information and experiences into what they have previously come to

understand, revising and reinterpreting old knowledge in order to reconcile it with the new

(Brown, 1997: 15).

The proponents of the constructivist approach argue that contextual learning in natural

settings such as the workplace provides venues for knowledge acquisition and

construction, practice and reinforcement. It raises a question amidst a popular

philosophical view that ‘learning to know’ is more important than the application of that

knowledge’ ((Kerka, 1998:4a). However, the opposite can be true for VET where,

‘learning to do’ appears to be more important and knowledge somehow can move

gradually into the process (Kerka, 1998:4b).

Kerka’s proposition for this constructivist approach results from work carried out by Lynch

(1997:27) and Stevenson (1994) who claimed that the essential role of VET is none other

than to facilitate construction of knowledge through experimental, contextual and social

methods in real world environments. Kerka argues that, because the focus of

constructivism is on the learner, VET should be conceptualised as a learning process rather

than a teaching process (Kerka, 1998: 4). As Kerka convincingly argues:

the vocational teacher’s role is not to set tasks, but to organize experiences

that allow learners to develop their own knowledge and understanding…The

teacher plays the role of a coach who provides guidance that gradually

decreases as learners become more proficient, and who models, mediates and

diagnoses. The learning environment should reproduce the key aspects of

communities of practice: authentic activities sequenced in complexity,

multiple experiences and examples of knowledge application, access to

experts, and a social context in which learners collaborate on knowledge

construction. (Kerka, 1998: 4)

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The analogies drawn here regarding the constructivist approach to contextual learning in

education, in particular VET, is an important point of reference for a conceptualization of

VET and its application at the contextual level, that is, at the secondary (or post-secondary)

school levels in PNG. The theory is about equipping the person with the appropriate

knowledge and skills which can be applied in the field.

Applying this theory of constructivism to any educational context, especially in the PNG

context would mean not only applying simulated skills using the latest IT softwares, but

also taking the students outside the classroom situation into places where they can apply

the knowledge and skills in various areas of work. The application of these theories outside

the classroom environment may include: engaging in agriculture, horticulture, fish

farming, building and construction, land management, tourism and hospitality, auto-

mechanics, entrepreneur management, to name a few. It is a hands-on training approach, a

very constructive way for skills and knowledge development to take place.

3.2.2 Constructivist pedagogy for VET in the American context

The implications for constructivist pedagogy applied for VET programs in an American

context can also be considered useful for this PNG study. The information is drawn from

Doolittle and Camp (1999) from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in

the United States, who have much to say about reorienting teachers to the theory of

constructivism in relation to VET. The writers ventured into a deeper level of thinking in

the philosophy of vocational education. Their argument comes at a time when the

traditional view of curriculum development and pedagogy in VET has been based on

behaviourism. The traditional theory allowed the proponents to organise the curriculum

and pedagogy based on synthesizing knowledge within a field that aims to describe,

explain, and predict behaviour and experience (Doolittle and Camp, 1999:1). The

contrasting theory that Doolittle and Camp proposed has been constructivism. This theory

of constructivism seems to have wider positive implications for career and technical

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education, especially for the PNG context. Most other current studies appear to be

grounded generally in constructivist approaches and reject the confines and distortions of

positivist methodologies (Kennedy and Haines, 2008: 4).

Unlike the implicit learning theory of behaviourism that underlie the traditional curriculum

and pedagogy of career and technical education for a very long time, this rival theory of

constructivism not only emphasises job skills but also a higher order of thinking, problem-

solving and collaborative work skills (Doolittle & Camp, 1999:1). The writers examined

the principles of constructivism and challenged people in the teaching profession to re-

think a number of fundamental assumptions underlying this theoretical framework.

Doolittle and Camp (1999) in their report identified eight essential factors of constructivist

pedagogical principles that may be considered useful information for this study. These

principles appear to provide a framework that underpins a VET program appropriate to

assist students’ learning:

First, ‘learning should be taken place in an authentic and real-world environment where

experience in reality is paramount despite building representations of reality, consensual

meanings in social activities, or personally coherent models of reality. The experience,

both socially and objectively-oriented, is a primary catalyst of knowledge construction.

Experience provides the activity upon which the mind operates and therefore, knowledge

construction is enhanced when the experience is authentic (Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 10).

Thus, the individual can construct an accurate representation of the real work, such as the

following:

When an Automotive Technology student learns to operate a micrometer in

the course of solving an authentic problem, such as the construction of a

solar-powered car, the knowledge constructed will be more accurate and

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viable than if the student merely practiced using the micrometer in isolation

(Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 10).

The authors made reference to Glasersfeld (1984), whose work stressed that when the

above strategy takes place, knowledge then becomes useful, relevant and viable (Doolittle

& Camp, 1999: 10). Similarly, contextual teaching and learning can rectify the problems

students face in connecting learning in the classroom to their lives outside of school by

demonstrating learning and working are not separate activities. Constructivism requires

active participation in problem-solving with an authentic learning activity that is relevant

to the students. Contextual teaching and learning utilises a constructivist model (Chadd and

Anderson, 2005: 27)

The second principle explains that learning involves ‘social negotiation and mediation’.

Social interaction, the authors maintained, assists in providing for the development of

socially relevant skills and knowledge and a mechanism for adapting to those social

situations. They reiterated that, one would not be able to learn the social norms and cultural

practice of a given society unless one takes interest in it and participates in the social

activity. The authors referred to Spivey’s 1997 work to show that an integral component of

social mediation is the ‘use of language’ that becomes the medium through which

knowledge and understanding are constructed in social situations. The following quote

illustrates this connection:

When a student is actively involved as an employee/trainee in a cooperative

education workstation, the student must learn the language of that domain, as

well as the skills necessary to perform the job efficiently and effectively.

Smooth functioning as an employee in a training station is predicated on the

student/trainee becoming a functioning member of the workplace milieu

(Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 11)

Language learning and use would play an important role in transmitting information and

helping to acquire the skills and knowledge of a particular culture or an activity in VET.

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For example, the naming of certain parts of a trade and explanation of a process require

certain specific words, linguistic symbols and rules.

The third factor of constructivist pedagogy suggests the making of the content and skills

relevant to the learner. Doolittle and Camp (1999) stressed that ‘if knowledge is to enhance

a learner’s adaptation and functioning, then the knowledge attained (content and skills)

must be relevant to the learner’s current situation’. This would likely lead to an increase in

motivation as the learner comes to understand the need for certain knowledge. Experience

with relevant responsibilities will provide the learner with the mental processes, social

information and personal experiences necessary for functioning within one’s environment

(Doolittle and Camp, 1999:11). The authors illustrate this concept with an example from

agricultural education in the following way:

The concept of farm project program…was designed specifically to provide a

real-world, personal application for each student for the direct purpose of

making the in-class instruction more relevant to the student…In the same

light, cooperative education programs in career and technical education

emphasized the importance of the teacher providing classroom instruction to

meet the student-trainees’ on-the-job needs (Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 12)

Contemporary work-based learning is grounded in teaching and learning research related

to cognitive sciences, psychology, and pedagogy. Work-based learning is consistent with

research from these disciplines in that it blends an integrated curriculum of mental, tactile,

theoretical, applied, academic, and vocational subjects This integration provides increased

retention of knowledge, deeper understanding of the subject matter and the ability to apply

knowledge and skills in unstructured environments (Chadd & Anderson, 2005: 28).

The fourth factor of constructivist pedagogy relates to the teacher’s comprehension of

contents and skills based on the ‘learner’s prior knowledge’ of something. All learning

begins within a learner’s prior knowledge, irrespective of this constructivist position. For

example, the authors illustrate that, if a student gets a math answer wrong, instead of

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bluntly saying that the student’s answer is incorrect, the teacher should begin to understand

why and how the student worked out the mathematical problem that resulted in the wrong

answer. When beginning to understand how the learners learn and acquire knowledge, will

the teacher be able to create effective teaching experiences, resulting in maximal learning

(Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 12).

The fifth factor of constructivist pedagogy deals with ‘formative assessment’ that serves

teachers set up to inform their students’ future learning experiences. To understand the

level of a student’s current knowledge, the teacher needs to assess acquired knowledge on

an on-going basis until competency or mastery is achieved by the learner. Such formative

assessment is necessary to accurately create the students’ next series of experiences and

activities (Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 13). Therefore, the authors considered competency-

based education as ‘hallmark’ of career and technical education. Thus, an on-going

evaluation is necessary in order to identify and ascertain students’ mastery of acquired

tasks and skills. Only through normative evaluation by both teacher and student,

modifications are made as part of that successive process for students to be able to master

the skill (Doolittle & Camp, 1999: 13).

3.2.3 Constructivism in the classroom

The Online Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2004) provides a simple classroom

model of how the traditional and constructivist models of learning takes place in the

general classroom. Figure 2 compares this traditional classroom learning situation to the

constructivist one. The significant difference lies in the assumptions about knowledge,

students, and learning.

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Figure 2 The difference between traditional and constructivist classroom models

Source: Education Broadcasting Corporation (2004: 1)

Contrary to criticisms by some conservative/traditional educators, constructivism does not

dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. However,

constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help students to construct knowledge

rather than to reproduce a series of facts (EBC, 2004: 2). The constructivist teacher

provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which

students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and

convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism

transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in

the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge

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actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the

textbook (EBC, 2004:2).

Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to

‘reinvent the wheel.’ In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate

curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but,

rather, attempt to understand for themselves how it turns, how it functions. They become

engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience, learning to

hypothesise, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their findings

(EBC, 2004: 2).

Similarly, Hein (1991) highlights nine characteristics of constructivism and he challenges

VET providers and VET teachers, on the need to pursue constructivism in whatever area of

teaching and learning contexts they work in.

1. Learning is seen as a process by which the learner uses sensory input and constructs

meaning out of it. The learner needs to do something. Thus, learning is not the

passive acceptance of knowledge which exists ‘out there’ but that learning involves

the learners engaging with the real world.

2. People learn to learn, that learning consists both constructing meaning and

constructing systems of meaning and each meaning we construct makes us better

able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.

3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental; it happens in the mind.

However, physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning,

thus we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands.

4. Learning involves language - the language we use influences learning and that

language and learning are intertwined.

5. Learning is a social activity, thus our learning is intimately associated with our

connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family, as well as

our friends and neighbours around us.

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6. Learning is contextual. We do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract

ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives. We learn in

relationship to what else we know and what we believe, our prejudices and our

fears.

7. One needs knowledge to learn. It is not possible to assimilate new knowledge

without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on.

The more we know, the more we learn. Thus, any effort to teach must be connected

to the state of the learner’s previous knowledge and experience.

8. It takes time to learn, since learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning,

we need to revisit ideas, ponder them, try them out, play with them and use them. If

one reflects on anything he/she has learned that person soon realises that it is the

product of repeated exposure and thought. Even moments of profound insight can

be traced back to longer periods of preparation.

9. Motivation is key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation

helps learning, it is essential for learning. Motivation is broadly conceived to

include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless, we

know the reasons why, we may not be very involved in using the knowledge that

may be instilled in us, even by the most severe and direct teaching (Hein, 1991:3-

4).

In summary, Hein and those proponents of constructivist perspective analysed so far

provide the practical application of the constructivist approach to teaching and learning of

knowledge – something worth considering as part of the conceptual framework. The

learning principles, including those nine highlighted by Hein provide the essence of

constructivist pedagogy. They emphasise the learners’ role in the acquisition of knowledge

through experience, self-reflection and construction. Pedagogy is based on the dynamic

interplay of mind and culture, knowledge and meaning, and reality and experience (Hein,

1991:15). Having described what constructivism is, and how it is applied in learning, the

next section defines and explores what the second learning perspective of ‘situated learning

is about and how this theory is applied in VET.

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3.3 THE SITUATED LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

3.3.1 Situated learning in VET

A critical debate about situated learning and knowledge development in vocational

education was put forward by Lindberg (2003) and Billett (1994 & 1996). Billett (1994)

cites the definition of ‘situated learning’ provided by Brown et al. (1989), as a learner

executing tasks and solving problems in an environment which reveals the various

intended uses of the knowledge. Billet stressed that, during the last decade there has been

unprecedented interest in a situated learning model within the educational research

community (Billett, 1994: 1).

Billett outlines the theoretical framework that underpins this paradigm. These included the

advent of the domain-specific knowledge development that is embedded in circumstances

of its application; situated learning being a social process where direct and indirect social

guidance is encouraged between the facilitator and learner of work-based knowledge and

skills; and the provision of guidance and problem-solving (Billett, 1994:2). One such

situated learning research was conducted by Lindberg (2003). She conceptualises the

notion of ‘situated learning’ or ‘knowing in the vocation’ as a social practice in the

classroom context. She interviewed twelve secondary school VET teachers individually

and in small focused groups from five VET programs in two Scandinavian countries,

namely: Sweden and Finland. These interviews were semi-structured and supplemented

with classroom observations in order to contextualize the interviews into teachers’

classroom practices.

Whilst analysing the interviews, the themes in this Scandinavian study appears to show

contrasting results. However, the initial impression emerged from the analysis indicates

that teachers were having two common objects in their teaching of VET. These two objects

include, ‘knowing in the vocation’ and ‘knowing in the school’, both of which can be

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related to each other through the situated judgement perspective. From this perspective,

‘vocational knowing’ is perceived as, knowing what to do and how to do it in various

contexts. For example, Velde’s (2009) study, illustrates the conceptualization of various

areas of VET, indicating conflicting views with those industries that provide employability

skills and those that do not (Velde, 2009; Lindberg, 2003: 44).

The situated judgment perspective involves a linguistic aspect (a vocational language

for…) and an experiential aspect (experience of working with…). Even if they are

constructed as two separate aspects, they are inseparable when it comes to knowing. They

interact, change and develop each other. Vocational knowledge shapes the learner’s

perceptions of all that is to do with the trade – and language plays a key role. For example,

Lindberg found that using a vocational language – naming objects and processes, orally

assessing the results, talking about the job, defining its problems and then solving them, is

necessary as part of sharing the knowing with others (Lindberg, 2003:44).

Individuals with a vocationally situated judgment use their knowledge to identify the

possible or most likely problems, and base their solutions on this knowing. Instead of trial

and error reasoning, they use reasoning where the different aspects of the situated

judgment interact (Lindberg, 2003:45). Lindberg’s finding shows that no problem exists on

its own nor can be resolved on its own. Rather, solving a problem needs to be reasoned out

and resolved as part of a whole and in the process, learning is acquired.

The results of Lindberg’s study showed the importance of vocational students mastering

the knowledge and tools of the trade. Lindberg elaborates on the importance of intellectual

and physical tools of the vocation, in that each vocation has a set of tools that are needed in

performing the work. Some tools are physical, like wrenches, drills, and hammers in the

technical vocations, and whisks, knives, and various kitchen utensils within the hotel,

restaurant and catering vocations. All vocations use machines and tools of different kinds,

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and a skilled worker knows how to handle and use them, how and what kind of service is

needed and when (Lindberg, 2003: 47).

Other tools are intellectual; they can be formulas of different kinds, or explicit theories

(about the strength of different materials, nutritive substances, electrical circuits), or

principles about how something is constructed (e.g. a car engine), or knowledge of how

something functions (Lindberg, 2003:47). Without this knowledge and the experience of

applying at, the student may act in error that may be very serious, like chopping off fingers

or toes, damaging eyes, getting electrocuted while handling equipment, machinery or

making mistakes in standard protocol or procedures.

Lindberg found that the level of knowledge varied from vocation to vocation. For example,

within Vehicle Engineering and some areas of Industrial Engineering, the mechanic often

only followed the instructions in the service book. But within Construction, Electrical

Engineering, and Hotel, Restaurant and Catering vocations, workers often met situations

when they had to select materials (or parts) and they had to know what they could use to

replace the material in question (Lindberg, 2003: 48).

Other studies support such an approach to contextual teaching and learning. In an US

study, Chadd and Drage (2006), for example, specified a unique interlink between

contextual teaching and learning pedagogy. They claimed that, contextual teaching and

learning was both a philosophy of education and a continuum of pedagogical strategies.

The teacher was responsible for his/her students to find meaning in education by

connecting classroom learning with applications to their everyday lives. This strategy

enabled students to reinforce, expand, and apply academic knowledge and skills in a

variety of settings to solve situated and real problems (Chadd & Drage, 2006: 83-84). In

the process, students tended to develop their abilities in VET in a similar way to that

described by Lindberg.

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3.3.2 Abilities to be developed through VET

Lindberg’s (2003) study further elaborated two different areas for the construction of

student learning based on the abilities which teachers wanted their students to learn:

preparation for the vocation and preparation for further learning (Lindberg, 2003:51). The

first aspect deals with preparing students for their vocation and how this preparation takes

place at the school level. Lindberg’s interviews with teachers revealed that students not

only needed to learn the accepted or conventional ways of thinking, talking and working

within their vocation in order to participate in discussions with co-workers and customers,

but also the appropriate abilities to use and choose the correct tools (physical tools, models,

concepts, machines, handbooks, working instructions), materials, methods and techniques).

In addition, they had to be able to adjust their work according to the situation and be able

to assess the overall situation (Lindberg, 2003: 52). The students need to be able to have

discussions with others so that they solve problems by cooperating and communicating

with one another while training or while working together on a vocation (Lindberg, 2003:

52).

Lindberg’s (2003) second finding showed that teachers were talking about different

abilities when they were thinking of students’ future learning. Thus, three aspects of such

issues emerged from that discussion. While most teachers implied that learning is part of

life after school, they had various opinions. Some of the teachers had reservations as to

whether most of their students would ever get jobs in their specialist field. For example, it

was revealed that the teachers’ primary interest was that students develop the

understanding needed in order to follow the development of knowledge within the

vocation. But not all students would find employment within the vocation they were being

educated for. For those staying within the vocation, it would be necessary to keep up with

the development within the vocation (Lindberg, 2003: 56). For the others, however, it was

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important to be flexible enough to adapt to demands of a different vocation and to know

how to transfer appropriate skills.

Keeping up with developments within the vocation is an interesting distinction that is

opposed to those shifting responsibilities. It is about a learner developing his or her

expertise and competence as a result of knowing and working in a field of study or a

vocation. Expertise in a vocation is required to keep oneself up-to-date with the changes

that are taking place in the product, machinery, methods and techniques, research, policy-

making, marketing techniques, and so forth. A student has to be informed of the current

changes in world product prices, advanced technological development and innovations.

Without such knowledge ongoing knowledge and understanding, a student would not

continue to be productive and could lack the vocational skills and capacity to engage in

marketing the product (Lindberg, 2003: 56).

Where the teachers were having reservations about the job markets available to match

students’ specializations in various vocations, they looked to providing mixed modes of

vocational training with core subjects which would allow students to be more flexible in

looking for employment or further training pathways (Lindberg, 2003:56). Vocational

education was thus seen as having a broader responsibility than just preparing young

people for a particular vocation. Rather, it was better to create multiple pathways so that

students could choose what was best for them and their future (Lindberg, 2003: 57).

3.3.3 The role of mentors

According to Billett (1994), when ‘engaging in authentic activities’, learners must

undertake real activities associated with the occupation; being able to observe both the

process and the product -learners must be able to develop a conceptual understanding of

activities they are engaged in and relate this to the overall activities of the occupation,

enterprise or industry; opportunities for self-initiation and self-regulation. However, this

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needs to be done under the oversight of a mentor. A focus in learning arrangements should

be on maximising opportunities for learners to initiate action, consider consequences and

assess performance. Rather than being told, learners should be asked to determine what

they think and, having made an approximation, be guided by an expert mentor (Billett,

1994: 10).

These experts ought to provide the modelling, coaching and scaffolding which students

need to engage in authentic tasks in a gradual way, usually from carrying out more

peripheral tasks to those tasks which are more crucial. The expert needs to develop

learners' understanding of occupational activities through an interactive process that

encourages self-monitoring and self-regulation, rather than a directive approach of an

expert simply telling the learner (Billett, 1994: 11).

Billett maintains that, the expert's role is to make what is tacit explicit to novices –

meaning that, verbal descriptions of a process, drawing a diagram to show how something,

which cannot be seen, works, or undertaking tasks which demonstrate what experts

perform so learners can set useful goals and strategies for developing their conceptual

understanding (Billett, 1994:11). Working closely with the learner, the mentor is able to

determine progress and maintain appropriate provisions of assistance to learners as they

confront different experiences (Billet, 1994:12). Such student-centred constructivist

pedagogy works well unlike the traditional teacher-centred pedagogy (Sanaa, 2006: 1).

3.4 SUMMARY

Understanding how constructivist and situated learning perspectives can be applied to VET

is important in the context of this study because these perspectives illustrate effective ways

for equipping young people, especially students at the secondary (and post-secondary)

school level(s) with tools that assist them to find work or further education. Such

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vocational education re-orients students towards life-skills and attributes needed to face the

world of work that is challenging and at times uncertain.

A constructivist VET perspective introduced into classroom curriculum and learning would

enable young people, not only to become carpenters, mechanics, farmers, IT specialists,

artists, entrepreneurs, office administrators, fishermen/women, engineers, pilots, medical

personnel, geologists, miners, surveyors, construction workers, or hotel staff, (to name a

few), but also to become better learners in most other general academic subjects. Similarly,

situated learning is considered important for this study because it shows how learning can

be set in real-world contexts of work. It not only makes academic learning more accessible

to many students but also increases their engagement in schooling. School activities help

reinforce and extend the learning that occurs at the worksite, while students develop

attitudes, knowledge, and skills from both work and school experiences and are able to

connect learning with real-life work activities (Chadd & Anderson, 2005: 28).

The constructivist and situated learning perspectives would shape educational practice in

PNG. These perspectives call for action, not only in an assimilated or virtual classroom,

but also out on the field learning the skills of a tradesman. These concepts form a unique

combination for developing the total person, subsequently encouraging and developing a

genuine integral human development. It would be considered vital to incorporate the

elements of these learning perspectives into the PNG education system because they will

provide and important basis to construct a New VET Model for PNG. Chapter Four

explores the key learning elements for Three Models of VET Provision.

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CHAPTER FOUR

KEY LEARNING ELEMENTS AND THREE MODELS OF VET PROVISION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This Chapter focuses on how the two conceptual learning frameworks explained in Chapter

Three have been put into practice in Australia and the US in the provision of VET

programs. It begins by identifying what the researcher considers to be the key learning

elements derived from the two frameworks. These are discussed in relation to their

appropriateness to VET programs and their effect on students’ learning. The three models

of VET provision at the secondary school level – VET in Schools, TAFE Model (that is the

secondary school VET model and the Integrated VET Model are explained. These

provisions are compared with the current and planned arrangements for VET in PNG

secondary schools.

4.2 KEY ELEMENTS FROM THE LEARNING

FRAMEWORKS

Constructivism and situated learning frameworks have had much appeal for teachers who

are trying to prepare students with skills that enable them to succeed in a workplace that is

characterised by diversity, competition, quality management practices, and teamwork

(Chadd & Anderson, 2005). They support the value of collaboration, personal autonomy,

reflection, active engagement, individual determination, relevance and pluralism (Savery &

Duffy, 1995 cited Lankard, 1998). Table 5 provides a summary of what can be considered

as the key elements of that learning framework in relation to VET. Their significance is

discussed in the sections that follow.

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Table 5 Key learning elements for VET

4.2.1 Learner-centred

The goal of the learner-centred teaching is to empower the learner. This places the teacher

in the role of facilitator - one who assists students in their knowledge and skill

development by modelling (demonstrating, scaffolding, (supporting), fading (gradually

decreasing assistance) and coaching (suggesting, challenging) the learner (Brill, Kim &

Galloway, 2007: 6-8; Lankard, 1998: 33).

In relation to VET, the idea of apprenticeship stresses an interplay between observation,

scaffolding and increased independence of learners. This process helps learners in the

development of self-monitoring and self-correction skills; and integrating skills and

conceptual knowledge required for expertise (Billett, 1994). Billett cites Collins, Brown &

Newman (1989) on the importance of modelling, coaching, scaffolding and fading:

First, ‘modeling’ involves an expert executing a task so that learners can

observe and build a conceptual model of the processes required to

successfully accomplishing tasks. This requires the externalization of internal

Elements of constructivist learning approaches relevant to VET

Learners become active learners as participants in the construction of knowledge in real situations Teachers provide learners with opportunities to learn, thus learners construct meaning Teachers have dialogues with their students, helping students construct their own knowledge, teachers’ role is interactive, rooted in negotiation, teacher facilitates learning, pursuit of student questions and interests is valued by instructors/mentors Elements of situated learning approaches relevant to VET Work-based skills integrated with classroom context, school activities reinforce learning that occurs at work site; modelling, scaffolding, coaching, exploration, articulation , building on what already known based on previous experience Problem-solving within a particular community of practice Socially constructed and communicated, conveying meaning to others, learning is interactive. School community links Learning collaboratively with industry/community Assessment/authentic including student works, observation, opinions and tests

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(cognitive) procedures that experts deploy when utilizing their procedural

and conceptual knowledge. (Billett, 1994: 7)

Second, ‘coaching’ consists of a process of observation and monitoring as learners carry

out activities. Experts provides hints, feedback, clues and tricks of the trade to assist

learners achieve desired outcomes. Coaching may also involve repeated demonstrations of

a task, or part of the task. The provision of supportive comments is also part of the

coaching phase. Coaching focuses on the enactment and integration of skills in the service

of a well-understood goal through suggestions and highly interactive and situated

feedback. The content of the coaching interaction is immediately related to specific events

or problems that arise as learners attempt to achieve the target task. The desired outcome of

the coaching process is to guide learners' performance to become closer to that of the

expert (Billett, 1994: 7).

Third, ‘scaffolding’, refers to the support that experts provide for learners, albeit at a

greater distance. This support can take the form of providing learners with opportunities to

acquire knowledge and skills that are within the scope of learner’s ability. Scaffolding may

require the expert to carry out part of the overall task that the student cannot yet manage.

Scaffolding requires a co-operative problem-solving effort between the expert and the

learner in which the express intention is for the learner to take as much of the task

responsibility as possible (Billett, 1994: 8).

Finally, ‘fading’ consists of gradual removal of support until learners are able to conduct

the task autonomously. This more distant support might lead to decisions about providing

opportunities to engage in a range of more complex tasks. This model of learning has a

wider application than developing skills for trade work with which it is historically

associated. Its general utility resides in its ability to develop the range of knowledge and

attributes required of skilled workers (Billett, 1994: 8).

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Billett further cites a Japanese study by Dore and Sako (1989) that learning is being valued

and seen as an every-day part of work practice and not something that is reserved for and

restricted to a training room. This view of skill development is reported as being standard

practice in high-performing Japanese corporations. Thus, the role of the mentor is a

significant element in the learning process. Billett gives a practical example of a recent

study into the acquisition of skills in coal mines. He cautions that if learners do not view

the mentor to be an expert, the guidance and advice may be treated superficially (Billett,

1994:9).

A learner-centred environment grows out of in-class strategies which encourage students'

interaction with the content, with one another and the teacher, and with the learning

process. This method encourages students' reflection, dialogue, and engagement, and

requires a reliable assessment of their content mastery. Learner-centred pedagogy would

question the assumptions, given differences in how students learn. The emergence of

learner-centred instruction arises from the quest to have all students achieve more success

in their educational enterprise (Anderson, 2006: 1).

Moreover, O’Neill and McMahon (2005) defined learner-centred approach in an

interesting way. They cited Kember (1997) whose work described two broad teaching

methods: the teacher centred/content-oriented conception and the student centred/learning-

oriented conceptions. The knowledge is constructed by students and the teacher becomes a

facilitator of learning. Also, the authors cited Rogers’ (1983) study that identified student-

centred learning as important because students relate to their own work and the works of

others as they share their knowledge and skills based on their experiences (O’Neill &

McMahon cited in Rogers, 1983: 188).

This new approach to pedagogy reflects a movement from the traditional teacher-centred

classroom to learner-directed approach that integrates collaborative, participatory, and

continuous learning environment. The self-directed learner is neither independent nor

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dependent but interdependent, forming new understandings through dialogue, feedback

and reflection with fellow learners and facilitators (Kerka, 1994: 2 cited in Lankard,

1998:83). This small group activity leads students to develop new understandings of work

in a given occupational area by engaging in dialogue about past experiences, obtaining

feedback about the value and meaning of those experiences, and reflecting about their

learning and the learning process (Lankard, 1998: 83).

A similar concept discussed by Hiemstra (1994) relates to self-directed learning. This self-

directed learning approach involves various activities and resources, such as self-guided

reading, participation in study groups, internships, electronic dialogues, and reflective

writing activities. Effective roles for teachers in self-directed learning are possible, such as

dialogue with learners, securing resources, evaluating outcomes, and promoting critical

thinking (Hiemstra, 1994).

As the term suggests, self-directed learning views learners as responsible owners and

managers of their own learning process. Self-directed learning integrates self-management

(management of the context, including the social setting, resources, and actions) with self-

monitoring (the process whereby the learners monitor, evaluate and regulate their cognitive

learning strategies (Abdullah, 2001).

To establish the habit of self-monitoring, teachers need to encourage learners to reflect on

what they have done and to revise attempted work (Corno, 1992 in Abdullah, 2001).

Keeping journals is one way of maintaining a record of the learning process. Since self-

directed learning stresses meaningful learning, Abdullah (2001) also cites Temple and

Rodero (1995) who advocate a situated learning approach, in which teachers bring real-life

problems into the classroom for learners to work on. Learners should also be allowed to

collaborate with the teacher in determining deadlines and other regulations. Self-directed

learning includes the learner initiating the learning, making the decisions about what

training and development experiences will occur and how. The learner selects and carries

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out their own learning goals, objectives, methods and means to verifying that the goals

were met (McNamara, 2008: 1).

4.2.2 Context-based approach

From a constructivist approach, contextual learning is a strategy applied for helping

students to construct knowledge and meaning from new information through the complex

interactions of teaching methods, content, situation, and timing (Hung, 2009; Thomas,

2000; Lankard, 1998). In context-based learning, knowledge is socially shared, thinking is

shaped by engagement with tools, learning is engaged with objects and events, and

learning is situation specific (Weinbaum and Rogers, 1995:5 cited in Lankard, 1998).

Contextual teaching and learning is defined by Shamsid-Deen and Smith (2006) as an

approach that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations. Further,

the authors cited Berns and Erickson (2001) who explained contextual teaching and

learning as an innovative instructional process that helps students connect the content they

are learning to the life contexts in which that content could be used (Shamsid-Deen &

Smith, 2006: 14). The authors cited Sears and Hersh’s (1998) view that such teaching is

anchored in students’ diverse life-contexts, and the use of a variety of contexts such as

home, community, and work sites (Shamsid-Dean & Smith, 2006: 14).

Context-based learning assists students to understand content by applying knowledge to

their current and future lives as family members, citizens, and workers. Effective

contextual teaching and learning emphasizes problem-solving; recognizes the need for

teaching and learning to occur in multiple contexts; teaches students to become self-

regulated learners; anchors teaching in students’ diverse life contexts; encourages students

to learn from each other in interdependent groups; and employs authentic assessment

(Clifford and Wilson, 2000: 2).

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Learning which is connected to the family, community, and the workplaces is very much

characteristic of the Australian VET in schools model (to be discussed later). The emphasis

is on application of knowledge and skills in the context of real-life experiences, problems

and events. Teaching emphasizes high order thinking, real-world application of

knowledge, and the collection, analysis and synthesis of information from multiple sources

(Brand, 2003: 36).

Situated learning applied to VET, involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills in the

work situation in which they will be used (Velde, 2009; Lindberg, 2003). Lankard cites

Stein’s (1998) analysis of this approach and identifies four major tenets associated with

situated learning: learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations (cognition);

learning is acquired situationally and transfers to similar situations (contexts). (Lindberg,

2003); learning is the result of social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving,

problem-solving and interaction; learning is not separated from the world of action, but

exists in complex social environments made-up of actors, actions and situations (Lankard,

1998: 37).

Work-based learning is a contextual teaching and learning approach in which the

workplace provides a practical setting for structured work-based learning experiences.

Students’ coursework prepares them for continued learning at workplace (Chadd and

Anderson, 2005:25). Initiatives involving work-based learning include: apprenticeships,

internships, cooperative education, service learning, volunteer work, school-based

enterprises, and visits to employers. A similar notion of learning is mentioned by Thomas

(2000). It is about project-based learning, a model that organises learning around projects

where students get engaged in design, problem-solving, decision-making and investigative

activities. This model gives the students the opportunity to work relatively autonomously

over extended periods of time; and culminates in realistic products or presentations

(Thomas, 2000: 1).

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These work-based learning and competency developments been discussed lately by

Sandberg, Billett, Velde, and Simons and Harris, in Velde (2009). Sandberg’s study

unlocks what constitutes competence and how it is developed and learned over time as one

engages in work. Similarly, Billett also unravels the significance of workplace

competence; hence the need to accommodate the diversity of situational factors that shape

and mould an individual’s workplace competence (Billett cited in Velde, 2009: 33). The

idea of competence development in the workplace has also been stressed by Simons and

Harris. They argued that competence in the workplace can be more rigorous and effective

as the worker/learner learns the structures, specific tasks and skills embedded in the work

(Simons & Harris cited in Velde, 2009: 125).

School-to-career initiatives have focused on connecting school-based and work-based

learning, articulating high school and college courses, and providing workplace

experiences (Urquiola, et al. 1997 cited in Ryken, 2006: 50). As explained in several

studies (Belfiore et al. 2004; Bailey et al. 2004; Hughes et al. 2001), rather than focusing

on academic areas of study, recent educational reform and workplace development

initiatives have emphasised learning in context or teaching skills in the environments in

which they will be used. Work-based learning initiatives have contributed to youth

development by providing opportunities for students to learn about themselves and their

interests, and encouraging students to think in new ways not generally available to them in

school classrooms. The students define problems, work in groups, and access the physical

and social resources for the workplace (Ryken, 2006: 51).

Similarly, Westberg and Jason (1996) looked at work-based learning which takes place at,

through, and in the working environment (Westberg and Jason, 1996: 4). Work-based

learning is promoted as a way of: applying learning immediately to real issues/tasks,

bringing learning to the fore in enterprises, encouraging learners to take responsibility for

their own learning, learning through doing, with support and expert input at appropriate

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times, transferring learning to a range of situations, enhancing the development of

transferable generic skills - those learning, work and life-skills that include critical

thinking, communication, team-work, problem-solving, organising and managing

(Westberg & Jason, 1996: 5).

Billett (1994) describes an interesting conceptual model that could have wider application.

He analyses the nature of learning in workplaces using outcomes of a study of skilled

workers, highlighting six key elements of situated learning models. These six elements

include: qualities of skilled vocational practitioners, workplace as a learning setting,

apprenticeships as guided learning and instructional methodology, some principles of

apprenticeship learning, organising experiences for the learner and mentoring role of the

expert. The elements of this study is summarised in order to put into perspective the way

apprenticeship programs at the school level can play an important role in developing

employment knowledge, skills and attributes.

The author surveyed approximately 300 skilled workers in the Australian context. The

results indicated strong support for the acquisition of a variety of skills, knowledge and

attributes through workplace learning. Billett considers this a significant response as these

abilities are usually claimed as the contribution of formal learning processes. The workers

he interviewed stressed the importance of access to experts and being able to participate in

hands-on learning experiences (Billett, 1994: 4). The respondents frequently suggested an

`ideal model' of skill development that should integrate practical experience with ways of

acquiring theoretical knowledge. The study, however, showed that such ideal

apprenticeship model of trade training, with its integration of college and work experiences

during those times had not been available for many industry sectors. Nevertheless, recent

empirical studies suggest that workplace learning has the potential to provide the

development of knowledge types and attributes required of skilled workers (Billett, 1994:

4).

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Billett notes that learning on the job is differentiated from formal teaching and learning,

with the latter, requiring attendance at a technical college or training centre. The on-the-job

mode of skill development is commonly practised within a wide range of processing,

production and service industries. This mode of learning is characterised by employees

gaining skills on-the-job, usually in a highly informal way (Billett, 1994: 5).

Billett referred to his 1993 study on workplace learning model as guided apprenticeship

learning. The experiences that can be accessed by learners in workplaces include guided

learning by experts and a focussing of learning activities upon authentic tasks conducted in

workplace settings. Access to these types of experiences is strongly supported in studies of

how workers acquired their skills (Billett, 1994: 5).

Billett further cites studies by Collins, Brown & Newman (1989) that the goal of

apprenticeships as situated learning methodology, has been to assist learners acquire and

integrate the knowledge and attributes for skilled vocational practice. Such model of

learning was based on assumptions that the acquisition and use of knowledge and attributes

depended crucially on interaction between individuals' current knowledge and beliefs and

the social and physical environment in which the learners work and confront problems

(Billett, 1994: 6).

4.2.3 Problem-based approach

Problem-based learning (PBL) approach is considered to be one of the important

exemplars of a constructivist learning environment (Savery & Duffy, 1995, cited in

Lankard, 1998:31). It supports collaboration, personal autonomy, reflection, active

involvement, and personal relevance. Learning activities involve simulation, progressive

problem-solving, anchored instruction and action research (Pierce & Jones, 1998 cited in

Lankard, 1998:31).

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The problematic situation opens the investigation, with the problem being ill-structured,

and lacking critical information at the outset. Students are, therefore, problem-solvers who

generate solutions. Students own the problem, they engage in observation, enquiry and

investigation of a hypothesis, they have major responsibility for shaping their own thinking

and formulating solutions; assessment is used as a structure for reflection and the

assessments focus on the complexity of both the reasoning process and the subject matter

concepts (Lankard, 1998: 35).

As far as teaching is concerned, using ill-structured problems that have no one right

solution is an instructional strategy used to promote critical thinking and problem-solving

within the context of real world application. By thinking though ill-structured problems,

students are able to expand and refine their knowledge through self-directed searches for

information, active discourse with others, analysis of conflicting ideas and appeals, and

decision making. Problem-based learning is a real cognitive apprenticeship model for

learning (Stephen & Gallagher, 1993 cited in Lankard, 1998:26).

Billett (1996) considers that, problem-solving, when seen from a psychological

perspective, has two functions - ‘routine’ and ‘non-routine’. The routine problem-solving

occurs in everyday activities and is usually set within a particular community of practice

and embeds thinking and acting in the context in which the knowledge is sourced. It is

developed over time and reinforces knowledge (Billet, 1996: 8). In the non-routine

problem-solving situation, existing knowledge is retrieved and manipulated to resolve

problems that have not being encountered before. Through this process, new knowledge is

appropriated through solving the problem (Billett, 1996: 8).

An important study on problem-based learning that is considered useful for application in

PNG has been described by Hung (2009). The 3C3R PBL problem design model consists

of two classes of components: core components and processing components. Core

components are content, context, and connection; these three C's relate to the

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content/concepts learning focus in PBL. Processing components – the three R's comprise

researching, reasoning, and reflecting, which support the cognitive processes of problem

solving skills and self-directed learning. The core components of the 3C3R model are

concerned with structuring content knowledge, contextualizing domain knowledge, and

building a conceptual framework around the topic under study. Hung’s problem based

design model is perhaps one of the clearest and most innovative instructional methods

devised in recent times (Hung, 2009: 118). This is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: 3C3R PBL problem design model

Source: Hung (2009:118)

The 3C3R model aims to enhance students’ application of knowledge, problem-solving

skills, higher-order thinking skills, and self-directed learning skills. The advocates of PBL

maintained this model to be more effective than traditional methods in alleviating students’

problems of knowledge acquisition, as well as enhancing students’ problem-solving and

self-directed learning skills (Hung, 2009: 118).

Hung notes that PBL takes a distinctive approach to facilitating students’ learning. Instead

of initiating the learning process by presenting learning content for the students to

memorise and comprehend as in traditional behavioural models, PBL mimics the natural

human learning process. That is, learning is initiated when a problem is encountered. In

seeking solutions to the problem, the person learns the skills as well as the knowledge that

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revolves around the problem and the environment (contextual knowledge) in which the

problem takes place (Hung, 2009: 119).

Incorporating a reflection component as part of the problem-solving task can help cultivate

learners’ self-directed learning skills and habits. The design of the reflecting component

should focus on (1) acquisition of all the necessary knowledge; (2) adequate depth of

study; (3) effective and efficient research methods; (4) logical and effective reasoning

processes; (5) conceptual integration of knowledge; and (6) effective problem-solving

strategies (Hung, 2009: 128). Furthermore, the reflecting component can be one of two

types: formative and summative. A formative reflective process should occur throughout

the PBL course along with the processes of researching and reasoning. This helps learners

engage in self-reflecting processes as well as receive feedback from the instructor to guide

self-assessment (Hung, 2009: 28).

4.2.4 School and community linked approach

Another key element in the learning frameworks involves school and community linkages.

Applying classroom skills to solve real problems of the social community is a critical

feature of experiential learning. When reflection is added to the learning process and

community service activities are fully integrated into the curriculum, the process is referred

to as service learning. Service learning places students in decision-making roles that give

them a sense of ownership in the problem and in service roles that move them from passive

receivers of service promoted through constructivist based service learning activities

(Boston, 2005: 33; Lankard, 1998). Although the purpose of a service learning activity is

to enhance student learning through community service, activities must also forge an

authentic connection between the school and community. This connection is realised

through engaging students in real-life roles that expand their knowledge and skills, and

increase their understanding of community issues, problems, and populations.

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4.2.5 Collaborative learning approach

In moving from school to work, the skill of working with others is vital to success. Many

companies are embracing the teamwork approach to management and production as part of

total quality improvement. Collaboration and teamwork, however, cannot be learned

through reading, listening and memorization. Students must be involved in collaborative

experiences to gain a comprehension of the intricacies of personal interactions, group

dynamics, and respect for the views of others. This activity involves students in the active

construction of knowledge by having them work collaboratively with others to investigate

a problem, negotiate solutions and justify their recommendations (Lankard, 1998: 73).

As a teaching strategy, small group activity has many advantages: it encourages critical

thinking, teamwork, and problem-solving; it enhances students’ self-esteem by helping

them realise they have much to offer other group members as a result of their experiences.

In addition, it broadens the expertise of group members and helps them to meet the diverse

and complex needs of learners. By easing the distinction between teachers and learners, it

also helps to create an environment that is less hierarchical than traditional environments

(Imel et al. 1994 cited in Lankard 1998: 83).

Collaborative learning leads to knowing how to work with others and to building upon the

knowledge and experiences of diverse groups of people. Such experience helps to develop

two skills crucial to students’ academic and career development - creative thinking and

problem-solving. Students can learn to establish patterns for creative thinking which they

can draw upon to solve problems in all aspects of their lives, both in school and out of

school. Students are also involved in shared responsibility for investigating a problem or

hypothesis. Working in teams, students pursue various approaches to thinking about a

problem and share with each other their multiple perspectives on ways to approach it. Such

collaborative learning has been directly and indirectly applied in Australian VET practice

(Lankard, 1998: 73).

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In addition, Leberman, McDonald and Doyle (2006), add other characteristics of

collaborative learning, including a commitment to the personal growth and development of

the individual through the process of group dynamics; an adventure component which need

not necessarily be physical, involving some degree of uncertainty and risk-taking, some

challenge and reflection, a cooperative group environment and consensual decision-

making, as well as unique problem-solving initiatives; and array of tools of the trade,

including games, initiatives and activities (Leberman, McDonald and Doyle, 2006: 46).

These elements of the learning process have not often been used in PNG schools and

colleges.

4.2.6 Authentic assessment

Authentic assessment reflects not only the influence of the constructivist learning

framework, but also the traditional vocational education requirements for knowledge and

skill demonstration through performance. Such assessment engages students in applying

knowledge and skills in the same way as they are used in the real world outside of school.

They are performance-based and require students to demonstrate knowledge and

understanding through a product, performance, or exhibition. Authentic assessments lead

to in-depth understanding and knowledge construction that becomes meaningful to the

learner (Lankard, 1998: 40). Lankard identifies four assessment practices, such as journal

writing, the scoring rubric, portfolios and observational checklists, which are particularly

useful.

First, reflective journal writing is an effective tool for self-assessment in that it engages

students in thinking about certain ideas and experiences and envisioning new ways of

responding to them. It provides students with an opportunity to record what is happening in

their lives and clarify their feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and values so as to develop self-

knowledge and inspire self-directed learning. The teacher’s role in promoting reflective

journal writing is that of coach and mentor, helping students to focus on what is happening

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at the moment and using that information to guide future participation in life events

(Lankard, 1998: 98).

The scoring rubric applies to students who are required to demonstrate in-depth knowledge

of a concept and an ability to apply that knowledge in real-world situations and practices.

A performance-based rubric is used as a tool for authentic assessment, helping students to

evaluate how well they have met the criteria for acceptance, to determine where they are in

the learning process, and what they need to do to move forward (Lankard, 1998: 98). The

scoring rubric also aids the assessment process by providing to students at the onset of a

learning activity clearly defined performance targets for reaching agreed-upon standards.

A scoring rubric consists of fixed scales related to a list of criteria describing performance.

Each scale is composed of anchors that describe the various levels of performance

complexity. Assigned weights, which give the relative value of each criterion, are used in

the process of scoring to ascertain whether the standards have been met (Allenspach, et al.

1996: 10, cited in Lankard, 1998:98). Rubrics are designed to aid in evaluating the quality

of a student’s work, not the quantity of work performed. The scoring rubric is a strategy for

connecting all aspects of the learning process – instruction, performance and assessment.

Assessments from a constructivist perspective focus on generally defined outcomes that

are constructed by teachers and students as they advance through the process of learning.

For example, students can use the presentation of a portfolio as a tool by which to

construct meaning. It engages students in the compilation and selection of items to include

in the portfolio. Because the portfolio represents activities of learning over time, it is a

record of learning itself. Meaning is individually constructed by students through review

and analysis of its varied contents and purposes for inclusion (Lankard, 1998: 102).

It should also be made clear that portfolios represent a new model for assessment in which

the student is a full stakeholder in the process. They offer the teacher a strategy for helping

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students to determine their own purposes for various demonstrations of learning and a

resource from which to make informed instructional decisions that are consistent with

student needs. Because they can be used to promote student-teacher collaboration in

developing criteria and standards for work evaluation, portfolios represent a total learning

environment, forging a connection between instruction and assessment (Lankard, 1998:

102).

Observation is a significant way to learn what is happening – what the classroom is like,

what students are doing, and what learning is taking place. Observation checklists provide

a tool for self-reflection and self-assessment. This activity involves students in the

development of the checklist based on observable criteria which they can use to determine

what skills they have acquired, as well as the extent to which they have mastered the skill,

and then engage in planning for improvement (Lankard, 1998: 105).

These key elements from the two conceptual learning frameworks can be seen to underlie

the three models of VET provision in schools. It is important to describe how these three

VET models were designed and determine whether any elements would help to design a

relevant VET model for PNG.

4.3 THREE MODELS OF VET PROVISION IN

SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Australia and the US were among the developing countries that began to introduce VET

programs into secondary schools through the 1990s. This development was in response to

industry and commerce demands for more qualified and better trained workers, as well as

the need for curriculum appropriate to the interests of young people compelled to remain at

school. Studies conducted by Porter (2006) and Lamb and Vickers (2006) appear to

complement each other in explaining how VET systems are based on the key learning

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elements. The three models of VET for secondary school provision selected for discussion

in relation to their relevance to the PNG context are:

� VET in schools model

� TAFE model

� Integrated VET model

These VET models are to be found in secondary schools in Australia and the US, but they

are arranged and practiced in various ways. In the Australian context, the first two systems

operate concurrently, while the integrated academic VET curriculum model has been most

fully developed in the US at secondary school level. These two countries have based their

teaching and learning at secondary level on constructivist and situated learning approaches.

4.3.1 The VET in schools model

The VET in Schools model (VETiS) has been seen as an important hallmark for student

retention, further education and employment creation for a range of Australian students.

The VETiS model has been introduced to secondary schools in Australia under various

names, such as industry approved Australian Qualifications Training Framework (AQF)

accredited subjects; school new apprenticeships, industry-workplace linkages, industry and

secondary school relationships and their emphasis on teacher training.

This sort of approach has been made possible because of the existence of the AQF and its

all embracing role. The AQF links together all the formal educational qualifications

offered in Australia. It is a national system of quality assurance and education recognition

that also promotes lifelong learning and training system. School, work-based and academic

qualifications are integrated into a single system of qualifications, allowing maximum

flexibility in career planning and continuous learning. The AQF incorporates qualifications

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issued in the senior secondary school sector, the vocational education and training (VET)

sector, and the higher education sector (Australian Qualifications Framework, 1998: 1).

The Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) Report by Lamb and Vickers

(2006) identified the main issues in relation to the types of VET provision at the secondary

school level in Australia. This report stated that accredited VET required the use of

competency-based assessments, which were difficult to integrate into academic

frameworks that were designed to deliver finely-graded assessments suited to the needs of

tertiary entrance (Lamb and Vickers, 2006: vii). This difficulty could be one of the reasons

to arrange for VET and academic subjects to be taught and accredited separately.

The VETiS model requires schools to select new industry approved and AQF accredited

subjects that count towards the Year 12 Certificate. This has been described as the school

model for the provision of VETiS, because it incorporates VET subjects into the existing

Year 12 curriculum structure. It represents a form of dual accreditation, since these VET

subjects count towards senior secondary qualifications and tertiary admission, while at the

same time, leading to accredited VET certificates (Lamb and Vickers, 2006: vii). This

model not only adds value to both academic and VET subjects but also provides a wider

opportunity and flexibility for students to take up whatever pathway they feel important for

their lives. National agreements have been reached on industry-specific training packages

that comprised nationally-endorsed units of competency-based training aligned to AQF

qualifications (ACER, 2008).

While the TAFE and stand-alone VET provisions appear to make some sense, the VETiS

provision could have advantages in the PNG situation. In most cases, the level of impact

on student learning using the VET in School approach has been promising for the

Australian context. The VET curriculum in schools in the NSW context, for example, has

clearly increased the opportunities for high levels of achievements by the full range of

students (Evans, 2005: 4).

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The VETiS program has had a major impact since student retention from Year 10 through

Years 11-12 became compulsory. The VETiS students have reported positively that their

High School Certificate (HSC) helped them a lot to understand the world of work and their

employers value the employability skills gained by students (Evans, 2005:). The VETiS

framework takes into consideration all curriculum elements and the NSW government’s

support for the development of VETiS programs was overwhelming.

Student outcomes as a result of VETiS provision included improved self-esteem and self-

confidence (Dumbrell cited in Kilpatrick and Falk, 2000; Misko, 1999); increased

vocational, team working and communication skills; and greater chances of obtaining

employment (Misko, 1999; Kilpatrick et al. 2000). A study of three Tasmanian rural

schools identified a number of initial outcomes of the VETiS programs for schools and

communities, including increased school retention rates, more positive attitudes towards

education and learning within the community, and demand for the provision of lifelong

learning opportunities. Evidence has emerged that as schools and their communities work

together to develop VETiS programs they are building new networks within the

community which are important in increasing community social capital (Kilpatrick et al.

2000; Figgis, 1998; Falk & Kilpatrick 2001: 1).

The NSW model of VETiS has made the inclusion of work placement mandatory in

Industry Curriculum Framework (ICF) courses. Students are required to develop and

practice industry competencies through a minimum of 70 hours of work in a real or

simulated workplace setting. After more industry support was extended to students, about

81% of VETiS enrolments included a work placement, with the Board of VET providing

financial support for such program. As a result, the VETiS students in NSW had access to

equitable workplace support through a network of 51 incorporated Local Community

Partnerships across Australia (Evans, 2005: 14).

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Some schools in Queensland have a stand-alone VET subjects within the VETiS program.

In such cases, there is the delivery of one or more units of competency from a nationally

recognised training package that occurs independently to course curriculum delivery.

Stand-alone VET subjects are available at the school but the subjects do not count towards

the Year 12 certificate. Rather, they are organised around industry training packages, and

aligned with the AQF.

Schools can also offer national training package qualifications or accredited VET courses

outside the embedded subjects in year level programs. In this case no level of subject

achievement is awarded to the student. Instead, a VET Certificate or Statement of

Attainment is awarded for the competencies achieved. Such training package qualifications

cover a wide variety of industry areas and have proved particularly useful in targeting

skills shortage and employment growth areas.

In some schools in Queensland, it is mutually beneficial for schools and other Registered

Training Organizations (RTOs) to share the delivery of a VET course, particularly where

the school does not have the necessary scope of registration for a particular qualification.

This may be due to a school being unable to meet either the human resource or physical

resource requirements. Generally speaking a formal partnership arrangement is entered

into to ensure all parties understand their responsibilities.

The VETiS model is considered useful for its possible relevance to PNG. The academic

and VET subjects are fragmented in terms of integrated curriculum. This means that

courses are separated into traditional discipline areas of study. For example, subjects

within the Mathematics, Science, Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities disciplines exist as

separate entities, while selected RTO approved and AQF accredited VET subjects run

separately alongside the subjects. Another way of incorporating VET provision into the

secondary school has been referred as the TAFE model.

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4.3.2 The TAFE model

The TAFE Model enables secondary school students attend a training provider like TAFE,

or schools are organized to provide training either because they are requested by a VET

provider to do so. In the TAFE model, VET subjects are available through the secondary

school, but usually taught either by the local post-secondary TAFE College or by a

registered training organization (RTO). The successful completion of a subject is not

recorded on Year 12 certificates. Rather, a VET Certificate or Statement of Attainment is

awarded for the competencies achieved, by the RTO providing the subject. In this model,

the provision of workplace learning is a critical component of the VET subject (Lamb &

Vickers, 2006: 10). At the same time, however, within both the school model and the

TAFE model, there are variations related to the degree of emphasis on structured

workplace learning. The number of students able to participate in structured workplace

learning varies greatly from school to school, depending mainly on the opportunities

available in the surrounding community.

To complement the VETiS and the TAFE models, some schools have introduced pre-

apprenticeship programs. For instance, Western Australia’s Department of Education and

Training division is managing a school-based apprenticeship program in the State’s

secondary schools. Their intention has been to provide an introduction to the

apprenticeship opportunities within the various trades that come under the Automotive,

Building and Construction, Food, and Metals and Engineering industries (School

Apprenticeship Link, 2006: 4). All states in Australia now have apprenticeships and

traineeships.

Barnett and Ryan (2005) highlight a specific apprenticeship program involving young

people in employment under a contract of training while they continue at school on a full

or part-time basis (Barnett and Ryan, 2005:17). These programs may be undertaken by

students who have reached Year 11 in a school-based Apprenticeships program where,

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since on-the-job-training is mandatory, a proportionate wage is paid to the trainee. This

arrangement allows Year 11-12 students to undertake an apprenticeship while at school, to

participate in a combination of school and paid work, as well as on and off site training, to

make progress towards a nationally recognised qualification. In this way, they can also

work towards completing Year 12 and keeping their options open for further education and

training (Barnett and Ryan, 2005: 17).

In addition, on-the-job training is delivered in the workplace integrated with off-the-job

training delivered by a school, TAFE institute or other registered organisation. The

competencies learned are clearly specified in assessment log books and curriculum

documentation to support both on and off-the-job training in each workplace. The

workplace supervisor who has been nominated to train students in a range of competencies

is identified in the competency assessment log book. In the end, because it is accredited by

both senior secondary and Registered Vocational Training providers, the outcomes of this

on and off-the-job training can contribute to the senior secondary school certificate and an

industry recognised qualification which is aligned to the Australian Quality Training

Framework (AQTF) (Barnett & Ryan, 2005: 18). Evans (2005) considered that these

frameworks had been developed in response to both industry needs and student interests.

They covered the following areas: Business Services, Construction, Information

Technology, Metal and Engineering, Primary Industries, Retail, Hospitality, Tourism, and

Entertainment (Evans, 2005: 13).

What has been described in the Australian VETiS and TAFE models is a system of VET

provision which has proved effective in providing multiple pathways for many young

Australians. Both these models of VET provision include vocational studies in senior

school programs, involve structured workplace learning as key component of VET and

incorporate specific elements of constructivist and situated learning approaches. The next

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section describes the USA system of secondary schooling being termed as an integrated

VET model.

4.3.3 Integrated VET model

The American secondary school system has an integrated curriculum model that can be

considered useful for this study. Curriculum integration in the VET area involves the

infusion of academic content into vocational programs, with the reverse also possible.

Students engage in learning experiences that are situated in real-life contexts that assists an

in-depth understanding and development of higher order thinking skills (Pisapia and

Riggins, cited in Lankard 1998). An integrated curriculum cuts across subject-matter lines,

bringing together various aspects of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus

upon broad areas of study.

As Kate (2004) puts it, an integrated curriculum involves learning and teaching in an

interactive and holistic way that reflects the real world, a model that combines disciplines

in a manner that makes knowledge of one subject inseparable from that of another subject,

with division occurring only in the teaching of sophisticated content or vocabulary.

Integrated curriculum is frequently presented in the form of thematic approaches, which

requires project-based learning and flexible student groupings, and usually highlights

relationships among important concepts that cross disciplinary lines (Lake, 2004: 2).

In an integrated curriculum, the planned learning experiences not only provide learners

with a unified view of commonly held knowledge but also motivate learners and develop

their power to perceive new relationships (Lake, 2004: 3). The US Vocational Association

(1998) cites a more focused definition of integrated curriculum as that which entails the

blending together of concepts, principles, and content from academic disciplines (e.g.,

English, mathematics, business, marketing and management, health occupations). It

exhibits the potential to reinforce students’ acquisition of basic and higher-order academic

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skills, to enhance the rigor and completeness of occupational skill training (US Vocational

Association, cited in Roegge, Galloway & Welge, 1991: 1).

Lankard (1992) showed that the high rate of school dropouts and low literacy levels had

impacted negatively on US society. The employers criticized US schools for producing

people who lacked vital job skills, like problem-solving abilities, high order thinking skills,

communication and other employability skills that were crucial for work in a global

economy (Lankard, 1992: 2).

VET educators have been criticized for promoting too much specific training and

encouraging a dual structure that segregates vocational and academic education. Likewise,

academic teachers have suffered criticisms from the public for providing a curriculum that

lacks any participatory form of learning to connect students to the real world. Both VET

and academic educators have been facing reduced enrolments and course offerings and

increased graduation requirements with external pressures for accountability. For these

reasons, the US secondary schools have integrated vocational and academic programs

resulting in a huge opportunity that boosts the US education system (Lankard, 1992: 2).

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Figure 4: Ten levels of curricula integration model

Source: Merickel (1995: 4)

a1172507

Text Box


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Berryman et al. (1992) showed that a large number of students who might not have the

resources to go to a university but who certainly had the ability to work well at decent-

paying jobs were tracked into a general high school program that provided an integrated

curriculum (Berryman et al. 1992: 1).

The following information by Merickel (1995) from Oregon State University described ten

levels of curriculum integration methodologies and summarized the advantages and

disadvantages. It focuses on how the different content and skills can be linked within the

teaching and learning of a subject.

Merickel (1995) summarized these ten levels of curricula integration model in the

following paragraphs.

4.3.4.1 Levels of curriculum integration

Fragmented

The fragmented methodology is a traditional curriculum design which separates topics and

courses into distinct disciplines. In this model, courses are separated into traditional areas

of study: mathematics, science, humanities, social studies, art, technical arts, and etcetera.

Each area is defined as an independent course of study. At the middle, secondary and post-

secondary levels these courses are generally taught by different teachers, in different

locations or rooms, and students commonly move from classroom to classroom. Despite

the fragmentation of this methodology, integration can begin by listing and ranking topics,

concepts, and skills to systematically organise curricular priorities within each subject

(Merickel, 1995: 183).

Connected

A connected methodology focuses on the details and interconnections within an individual

discipline. It is focused on making connections (i.e., one topic to another, one skill to

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another or one concept to another) which makes this methodology a simple form of

integration. To make this an effective integration methodology, it is recommended that the

instructor assists students with connecting one day’s work, or a semester’s work and ideas,

to the next. It is important to the concept of integration that this methodology directly

relates ideas within a discipline. Teachers help students make connections by explicitly

making linkages between subject areas, skills, and concepts (Merickel, 1995: 184).

Nested

Nested integration takes advantage of natural combinations. Integration is performed by

overtly making connections or creating combinations. This could be accomplished in a

lesson on the circulatory system by having the lesson focus on both the circulatory system

and the concept of systems.

Sequenced model

Topics and units are taught independently, but they are arranged and sequenced to provide

a framework for related concepts. Teachers arrange topics so that similar units articulate.

For example, a graphing unit can coincide with data collection in a weather unit. In higher

education, the teacher could plan units so that students can study the stock market in a

math class at the same time that these same students are studying the Depression in their

history class. In order for this type of integration to take place, it is often necessary that the

teachers in both classes plan the sequence of their units so that they will be synchronized.

This may mean that the teachers will need to change the sequence of topics contained in

the course textbooks (Merickel, 1995:184).

Shared

The shared model brings two distinct disciplines together into a single focus. The shared

methodology overlaps concepts as the organiser. In this shared approach to integration, it is

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necessary that the teachers of the two disciplines plan their teaching, which will take place

in the individual classes together. The two members of this ‘partnership’ (possibly cross-

departmental) plan the unit of study by focusing on common topics, concepts and skills. As

the ‘team’ identifies these commonalities, they identify overlaps in content. The partners

should examine what concepts and skills the topics and unit(s) have in common (Merickel,

1995:185).

Webbed

Webbed curricular commonly use a thematic approach to integrate subject matter. Broad

themes such as change, culture, discovery, environments, interaction, inventions, power,

systems, time and work provide a greater opportunity for teachers of various disciplines to

find common topics, concepts and skills. Themes may be created which address different

concentrations. Webbing is a systematic process for recording brainstorming. The process

involves all the members of the integrated team, and is used to determine the topics,

concepts and skills to be addressed in the curriculum (Merickel, 1995:185).

Threaded

The threaded approach to integration is a meta-curricular approach where big ideas are

enlarged. This methodology threads thinking skills, social skills, graphic organisers,

technology and simple intelligences approach to thinking throughout all disciplines. The

threaded approach supersedes all subject matter content. Using this approach,

interdepartmental teams can focus on thinking skills to integrate with content information.

The threaded approach takes learning to a synthesis level. That is, teachers incorporate into

their strategies such techniques as inquiry and self-reflection (Merickel, 1995:186).

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Integrated

In an integrated methodology, interdisciplinary topics are arranged around overlapping

concepts and emergent patterns. This process blends the disciplines by finding overlapping

skills, concepts, and attitudes found across the disciplines. Much like the shared

methodology, integration is a result of shifting related ideas out of the subject matter

content. An important process of the integrated methodology is that teachers work together

on the topics or themes as commonalities emerge (Merickel, 1995: 187).

Immersed

Methodology requires integration taking place within learners, with little or no outside

intervention. For example, students such as doctoral candidates are generally immersed in

a field of study. These students integrate all information and data to answer a question or

interest or solve a problem. This immersed study is often undertaken in a field of intense

interest or passion. Just as most artists and writers have a passion for their field, immersed

learners continually make connections between their chosen topic of interest and subjects

(Merickel, 1995: 187).

Networked

A networked method creates multiple dimensions and directions of focus. Like

brainstorming, it provides various ideas and ways of discovering. The networked

methodology is totally student centred. It professes that only the learner can direct the

integration process. Networks are created between the learner and various information

systems, subject matter experts, and others who have an interest, experience or knowledge

of the topic or theme (Merickel, 1995: 188). His interpretation of these methodologies are

placed in Figure 4 (page 113), moving from curriculum which has no integration through

various stages to that which involves almost complete integration. Given these ten ways of

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curriculum integration, there are eight types of curricula integration used in the US

secondary education system that need to be highlighted.

4.3.4.2 Ways of organizing curriculum integration in US secondary schools

In terms of school organization of curriculum integration, Atkinson (1995) argued that, the

more unified a system, structure, or even a group of people was, the more powerful it could

become. The more intellectual the graduates, the stronger they would be in the workforce

(Atkinson, 1995:15). Today, in many secondary schools, education is like an egg with two

yolks: one academic and the other vocational. By integrating the two areas rather than have

them competing against each other, one can reinforce the other (Atkinson, 1995: 20). For

the US context, such integrated models have raised the levels of both academic and VET

content and application (Schmidt, et al. 1992: 27). There are a number of ways that

teachers can organize the integration of academic and VET courses. For example, Norton,

et al. (1991) and Grubb, et al. (1991), outlined at least eight ways that were being used by

the US high schools from which this study might draw some lesson.

Model 1: Incorporating more academic content in vocational courses

The first model calls for incorporating more academic content in vocational courses. It is

the simplest approach to integrating academic and vocational education. This incorporation

can be done informally, through the reinforcement of basic academic skills in particular

vocational classes (such as measuring with rulers and protractors in carpentry and

metalworking classes, or writing business letters in business applications classes). It also

can be done formally, through the use of specific curriculum materials for vocational

courses that incorporate academic skill components (Norton et al. 1991: 20).

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Model 2: Combining VET and academic teachers to enhance competencies

The second model calls for academic and vocational teachers to work together to improve

the academic content of vocational courses. These teachers may develop more academic

exercises, such as essay questions or mathematic applications, for use in vocational

courses. They also may team-teach applied academic courses. The academic teachers may

teach individual academic lessons in the vocational classroom or serve as in-house tutors

for students who need remedial work in academic subjects (Norton et al. 1991: 25).

Model 3: Making the academic curriculum more vocationally relevant

The third model requires the modification of the academic curriculum to make it more

vocationally relevant. Two approaches for this model are: incorporating vocational

applications in academic courses, and designing applied academic courses to be more

relevant to vocational students. Another approach is to create applied academic courses,

such as Principles of Technology, Applied Mathematics, Applied Communications, and

Applied Science. Such courses typically satisfy graduation requirements and are taught by

academic teachers who are certified in the respective field. This model may be relevant for

PNG context (Norton et al. 1991: 30).

Model 4: Curricula alignment: Modifying both vocational and academic courses

In the fourth model, both academic and vocational curricula are modified to be more

compatible with one another. Modification can be accomplished through horizontal

alignment or vertical alignment of the academic and vocational curricula. Horizontal

alignment occurs when an academic and a vocational teacher structure their courses so that

students are learning about similar subjects at the same time in both courses. ‘Vocational

courses can present problems to be solved, motivating their examination in academic

courses, which in turn provides the general competencies for successful solution of the

original problem back in the vocational courses,’ (Norton et al. 1991: 38). For example, an

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industrial arts teacher and a math teacher may align their courses so that mathematical

topics required in various forms of production--including measurement, area, volume, the

algebra associated with electricity and heat transfer, and simple trigonometry--are taught at

the same time. Vertical alignment occurs when sequences of academic and vocational

courses reinforce and build upon each other. This coordination takes place over time,

rather than occurring at the same time as their vocational applications are taught. An

example of vertical alignment would be for students interested in a technical vocational

program to take Algebra I in ninth Year, Principles of Technology in tenth Year, and then

choose a vocational area of concentration (such as electronics, machining, or drafting) at

an area vocational centre for their junior and senior years (Norton et al. 1991: 37).

Model 5: The senior project as a form of integration

The fifth model requires students to complete a project that shows mastery of several

competencies. This project involves a physical representation requiring the use of

vocational shops, a written paper, and an oral presentation. The project is usually

completed during the Senior Year. In preparation for this project, students learn various

skills during Years 9 and 10 such as working independently, receiving hands-on

experience in various vocational shops, doing research, solving problems, and presenting

findings (Norton et al. 1991: 42).

Model 6: The academy model

The sixth model requires the organization of academies, or schools within a school. Each

academy has a specific vocational focus, such as automotive, computers, agriculture,

health occupations, electronics, or business. Typically, a team of teachers from Maths,

English, Science, and the particular vocational area combine their instruction and stay with

a group of students for several years. Class size is usually small to allow for sustained

contact between students and instructors, as well as coordination between teachers.

Instruction is aligned both horizontally and vertically. Students also take some classes,

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such as history, foreign language, and other electives, outside the academy structure. The

academy structure is often recommended for students who are at risk of dropping out of

high school or who appear to be performing below their potential.

To be effective, the academy model depends upon relationships with businesses in the

same occupational area. For example, a health occupations academy needs to develop ties

with a local hospital; an electronics or computer academy needs to develop ties with high-

tech firms. The firms provide mentors to all students, send individuals to talk on particular

aspects of their operations, provide tours of their facilities, and offer summer internships

for students. Thus, there are regular contacts, both through individuals and the academy,

between firms and students, and other sources of instruction and motivation (cognitive,

behavioural, and financial) in addition to that provided by teachers. The contact with firms

makes the academies real in a sense that conventional high schools are not, providing a

context for instruction that even a well-equipped vocational program cannot offer (Norton

et al. 1991: 44).

Model 7: Occupational high schools and magnet schools

The seventh model is the development of vocational high schools or magnet schools that

are devoted to an occupational area or have an occupational focus. These schools generally

prepare students for a broad occupational area. Examples include schools for aviation,

business careers, health professions, agricultural sciences, electronics, or computers. These

schools are similar to academies, except that they exist on their own instead of being a

school within a school.

Occupational high schools often are successful in integrating vocational and academic

education. Since all academic teachers are preparing students within a single broad

occupational area, the incentives to bend academic instruction toward this particular

occupation are strong, and the resources to do so, especially the vocational teachers with

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whom examples and exercises can be developed are right at hand. Not all magnet schools

have an occupational focus, however. Those that have such a focus often develop a

curriculum that supports the occupational area with teachers emphasizing pertinent

applications (Norton et al. 1991: 49).

Model 8: Occupational clusters, career paths and majors

Occupational high schools and magnet schools generally emphasise preparation for

clusters of related occupations; there may be specialisation within the school, but still

students are prepared for a range of occupations rather than one narrowly defined job.

Occupational clusters can be within both comprehensive high schools and specialised

vocational schools in ways that facilitate the integration of vocational and academic

education (Norton et al. 1991: 52).

Most of the organizational models have been used in the secondary school system in

America. Each model or combination of two or more could be considered useful if there

were to be any integration of academic and VET curriculum at the secondary school level.

The PNG education system is now analysed in order to determine whether any attempt has

been made to include features of these previous discussed Australian or American VET

Models.

4.4 ATTEMPTS AT VET PROVISION IN PNG SCHOOLS

In contrast to Australia, there has been little research on VET models in PNG. However,

over the last four years, two Education Department reports have provided a clear view of

what has been attempted and what has been proposed for VET under the country’s

education reforms (PNG Education Department Report, 2006; 2008). The provisions

discussed appear to contain some elements of the VETiS model described for the

Australian context.

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4.4.1 Past VET in schools initiative

A VETiS model was trialled thirty years ago as part of reforms to the secondary school

curriculum under the ‘Secondary Schools Community Extension Project (SSCEP). SSCEP

was piloted at five selected secondary schools in PNG for a five-year period from 1978 -

1982 (Saunders & Vulliamy, 1983). The aim was to create an educational approach more

appropriate to a rural life in order to cater for the upcoming school leavers who needed

some form of employment, job creation and ultimate self-reliance back in their rural

communities. The SSCEP project applied practical hands-on learning skills, such as

engaging students in agriculture activities, running school canteens and engaging students

in carpentry work. The pilot project was designed to test the feasibility of a more relevant

form of rural education at the secondary school level in PNG. The students had a mixture

of academic class work and practical activities outside classrooms (Saunders & Vulliamy,

1983: 355).

This SSCEP program was successful at the start but later declined due to a number of

factors. On one level, this was due to a lack of administrative support at the national level,

and facilities at the school level, linked to the geographical isolation of most rural high

schools which made it difficult to transport school learning materials. At another level, a

shortage of appropriate trained staff, as well as low teacher morale because of lack of

resources, and a fear of lowering academic standards resulted in some teachers leaving the

trialled schools for urban schools (Saunders & Vulliamy, 1983: 360-364). The SSCEP

program might have worked better for PNG, had these problems been identified earlier and

rectified. This program did not continue because the national government in the eighties

lacked the capacity, the financial resources and the good will or commitment to carry the

project through.

The fear of lowering academic standards among teachers, as well as students and parents,

appears to have been a major factor in teacher migration to urban schools in those years.

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Working on the land and doing practical work outside of school were often seen by the

parents and the community as inappropriate, and contradictory to their view of education.

They thought learning the ways of the West in the classroom, was a way to go in order to

enter Colleges and Universities and getting white-collar jobs in towns and cities

(Papoutsaki & Rooney, 2006; Buchanan, 2000). This perception continues to be a

stumbling block for encouraging VET knowledge and skills learning and development in

rural schools today. This leads to evaluating the present VET in schools provision in PNG.

4.4.2 Present VET in schools provision

In 2006 a VETiS model, especially designed for the Lower Secondary (Grades 9 &10),

was trialled by the PNG Curriculum Division. This VETiS model allowed for a few

selected VET subjects to be taught alongside the traditional academic subjects - English,

Maths, Science and Social Sciences. The VET subjects included various units under the

title: ‘Agriculture’, and ‘Design & Technology’. The former subject included options such

as agriculture in PNG, agriculture production systems in PNG and practical projects, such

as growing crops, raising livestock, and enterprise projects. The latter subject included

practical skills, home economics, computing, and design and technology (PNG Department

of Education, 2006).

The Grade 9 units for design and technology included technical drawing, working with

wood and related options such as indoor/outdoor furniture, musical instruments, and

village technologies, like, basket weaving. The Grade 10 units included building and

construction 1 as a core, complemented with other optional subjects, including building

construction 2, welding technologies, metal technologies, concrete technologies, electrical

technologies, integrated technologies and timber technologies (PNG Department of

Education, 2006).

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The syllabus statements for these courses, however, gave no details of how the skills and

knowledge are to be taught, assessed and accredited (PNG Department of Education,

2006). At the same time, there was no mention of requiring a field work component, or

industry involvement as part of the course. Nor was there any mention of introducing a

TAFE or Apprenticeship model.

In addition, there has been no provision for extending VET subjects into the Upper

Secondary School level (Grades 11 & 12) until very recently. The only subjects that have

been available to the Grades 11 & 12 students have been the traditional or general

academic subjects that prepare students for college and university studies, such as:

Language & Literature, Mathematics A, Mathematics B, Biology, Chemistry, Physics,

Economics, Geography and History (Office of Higher Education National Selection 2006).

However, initiatives to include VET in the Upper Secondary School levels in PNG have

been included in a recent proposal.

4.4.3 VET in schools model proposed for upper secondary levels

The Upper Secondary School Framework which has been proposed recently for Papua

New Guinea provides for three pathways for the students: an academic pathway with a

science focus, an academic pathway with a humanities focus, and technical and business

pathway with a work-related focus. This third alternative allows for the inclusion of 1 or 2

modules from a TVET certificate. These pathways are shown in Figure 5:

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Figure 5: Upper secondary school curriculum framework

Source: PNG Department of Education, 2008

Although this framework seems appealing, there are a few notable gaps that need to be

pointed out. The two existing academic pathways (numbered 1 & 2) are seen as the

continuation from the existing academic pathway. The Upper Secondary Review

Committee recommended that the third pathway (numbered 3) be provided because a wide

range of stakeholders felt strongly that a third pathway not designed as pre-tertiary study

would cater for more students and give an alternative career path. The characteristics of

these pathways are described below.

a1172507

Text Box


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In the pre-tertiary pathway subjects would externally examined, approved for tertiary

entrance, used for selection purposes, and lead to tertiary entrance, employment or self-

employment. The technical and business pathway, on the other hand, would include

assessment tasks prescribed in the syllabuses have school-based assessment, rather than

external examinations. TVET modules, or Certificate 1 or 2 courses which would be

certified by TVET, could be reported on Higher School Certificate (HSC), lead to

employment, self-employment or tertiary entrance after further study. This approach has

been very much influenced by the Australian VETiS model.

The five new Grade 11 & 12 pre-tertiary tertiary subjects were introduced: Accounting,

Agriculture, Information Communication Technologies, Legal Studies and English

Studies. These subjects were categorised into learning areas along with the existing

subjects, as shown in Table.

Table 6 Grade 11 & 12 pre-tertiary subject categories

Source: Department of Education, Curriculum Division, 2008

In contrast, in order to further develop Grade 11 &12 non-pre-tertiary syllabuses as part of

the technical and business pathway, Design and Technology subjects have been included,

as shown in Table 7.

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Text Box


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Table 7 Grade 11 & 12 non-tertiary subjects in their learning area categories

Source: Department of Education, Curriculum Development Division, 2008

These subjects have been presented in a fragmented way, but can be thematically

organised. The reason for including these non-pre-tertiary subjects is because these

subjects are considered to be consistent with the National Curriculum Statement (NCS)

learning areas as well as supported by the Upper Secondary Review. The subjects

articulate with the lower secondary subjects and form the three proposed pathways and the

subjects are consistent with international directions.

Students must study a minimum of five subjects, including Personal Development, English

and Mathematics. Examples of subject choice within each pathway are given below.

� Example 1: Science Focus, includes English Studies, Mathematics A, Physics,

Chemistry, Biology and Personal Development.

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Text Box


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� Example 2: Humanities with Work-related subject focus includes Language and

Literature, Mathematics B, Geography, Economics, Tourism and Hospitality,

Personal Development.

� Example 3: Business/Technical focus includes English Studies, Mathematics B,

Design and Technology subjects, which include two TVET Certificate 1 modules,

Agriculture Studies, Music and Personal Development.

Whilst the proposal to include VET in the Upper Secondary School level in PNG was

considered an important new initiative, there were number of issues which have not been

resolved or addressed in this proposed framework as shown below in dot points:

� In the Upper Secondary School, VET subjects need to be available to all students

irrespective of students taking the academic or VET pathways. Such a flexible

academic and VET option would prepare students for multiple future pathways.

� The curriculum framework makes no mention of employability skills and personal

attributes to be learned in the VET subjects. These skills become part of the VET

system and need to be accommodated.

� There was no statement on how the VET subjects would be taught, assessed and

accredited. These areas need to be addressed before the plan can be implemented.

� There was no information available on the practical components of each subject or

how this can be provided, either within the school or outside, with community and

industry involvement.

� The possibility of an apprenticeship program either with a local industry or with the

school is not discussed.

Until these issues are taken into account, the PNG proposals lack much of the essence of

VET in secondary schools as it has been provided in Australia and the United States.

There are two other concerns about the PNG proposals for VET subjects at the Upper

Secondary level. The first relates to resources. There is no mention of how the schools will

gain the facilities and resources to make the teaching of these VET subjects effective. The

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space available in existing technical and vocational schools is very limited and could not

cope with the training of Grade 11 and 12 students. Then there is the question of how

quality staff to teach these secondary VET subjects. Presumably there will need to be an

emphasis on training teachers for these VET subjects.

Overall the PNG proposal for VET in Upper Secondary School appears to be very

expensive. It is hard to see how the National Government would be able to finance it in the

current financial down-turn. Making use of the resources of local communities and

industries may help this problem.

The second concern is the limited range of Upper Secondary Students, those in the

Technical pathway only, who will access to the VET subjects. However, the situation of

the students in the Science and Humanities pathways needs to be carefully considered.

What happens to those who do not get offered a university or college place? They have no

guarantee of employment, but then prospects would be enhanced, if they had gained some

employability skills through participation in a VET subject. Conversely, consideration

should also be given to making it possible for those in the Technical pathway to take some

academic subjects, until could provide the basis for subsequently pursuing a university

education. The current proposal lacks flexibility and discriminates against both sets of

subjects.

4.5 SUMMARY

The discussion for this chapter focussed first on the key elements of learning for VET. This

was followed by a consideration of three models of VET provision in secondary schools in

Australia and the United States. In order to understand the significance of these three

models for this study, past and present approaches to VET education in PNG were

described in some detail. Two important differences between PNG and the other countries

were apparent or have emerged from the literature.

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The first was that PNG has only just begun to include a limited number of VET subjects

within the secondary school curriculum. At the senior level, they are available to students

in only one pathway – the VET or TVET pathway and not to those in the two academic

strands. In contrast, both Australia and the United States have spent much effort over the

last twenty years or so incorporating VET programs into secondary schools in a range of

innovative ways. They are able to respond both to students’ needs and to the opportunities

and demands of local businesses and commerce. The subjects are also made available to a

range of students across the board.

The second main difference is that the US and Australian VET programs for secondary

schools appear to be based on constructivist and situated learning frameworks. In PNG the

traditional approach to teaching and learning still prevails. The teachers usually control

what is taught in classroom and how students merely become recipients of information.

There is no opportunity for students to put into practice the appropriate knowledge and

skills they have been taught. Nor is there a chance to experience a working environment

where they can evaluate for themselves the skills, the situation and the processes and

determine their application.

However, before any decisions are made to consider a relevant VET model from amongst

those described so far for the Australian, American and even the proposed PNG model, it

is important to first understand what the key stakeholders in PNG perceive about VET

programs at the secondary school level. This study anticipates that the VET models

indentified so far from the literature and the results drawn from stakeholder perceptions in

the chapters that follow would help to design an appropriate VET model for PNG. Chapter

Five outlines the research design and procedures.

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CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This Chapter described the research methodology and methods used for this study. It

describes specific research instruments used to collect the data; the selection of

respondents; the data collection process; the data analysis procedure and ethical

considerations. The instruments for this research were designed to understand the

stakeholders’ perceptions of VET at the secondary school levels in PNG.

5.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHOD

The methodology adopted for this research was partly influenced by the constructivist and

situated learning perspectives described in chapter three. The research is descriptive and

conducted using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The methodology involved

examining, interpreting and reflecting on the characteristics of VET, as well as interpreting

the perceptions expressed by the stakeholders (Colin, 2005). In order to understand what

VET was about and how the stakeholders thought about VET, a mixed method was

considered, using discourse/text analysis, questionnaires and interviews. The following

information provides the rationale for applying such methodology.

The researcher saw it useful to apply both qualitative data collection methods and analysis

or a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods) in order to

understand the stakeholders’ perceptions on VET programs. Each type of data was used to

support or expands upon the other so that it effectively deepens the research description

and analysis (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006: 3; Creswell, 2005:204). Also, Creswell (2005)

supports this method as one data collection form supplies strengths to offset the possible

weaknesses of the other form (Creswell, 2005: 514).

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Simply defined, qualitative data is represented through words, pictures, or icons analysed

using thematic exploration while quantitative data is represented through numbers and

analysed using statistics (Mackenzie & Knipe (2006: 6). The terms ‘qualitative’ and

‘quantitative’ therefore, refer to the data collection methods, analysis and reporting modes.

More recently, research approaches have become more complex in design and more

flexible in their application of methods with mixed-methods being more acceptable and

common (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006: 11). A mixed methods approach to research is one

that involves gathering both numeric (from survey instruments) as well as text information

(such as interviews) so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative

information (Creswell cited in Mackenzie & Knipe cite 2003: 20). Furthermore, combined

or mixed methods research has been identified as a key element in the improvement of

social science, including education research. Although, it requires a greater level of skill, it

can lead to less waste of potentially useful information, creates researchers with an

increased ability to make appropriate criticisms of all types of research and often has

greater impact (Mackenzie & Knipe cite Gorard, 2004: 7).

Authorities on mixed methods research such as Creswell (2005); Creswell and Plano-

Clark, (2007); Mertens (2005) and Tashakkorri and Teddlie (1998), all identify the three

most common mixed methods designs as triangulation, explanatory and exploratory

designs which focus on the collection, analysis and interpretation of separate but

complementary quantitative and qualitative data (Dovona-Ope, 2008: 60). As far as

triangulation method goes, it focuses on collecting, analysing, and mixing both quantitative

and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies. Its central premise is that the use

of qualitative and quantitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding

of a research problem than either approach alone (Dovona-Ope, 2008: 60).

This study adopted the mixed/triangulation method because the quantitative data provides

the opportunity to gather data from a larger number of people and generalize results, while

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qualitative permits an in-depth exploration of a few individuals (Creswell, 2005:518). The

three possible sequences suggested by Creswell are collecting both quantitative and

qualitative data at the same time; or collecting quantitative first, followed by the qualitative

data, or the qualitative data first, followed by quantitative data (Creswell, 2005: 518). For

this research, the first sequence was applied where the researcher collected quantitative and

qualitative data at the same time.

How can a VET model address the current student transition problem at the secondary

school level in PNG? To answer this research question, the four subsidiary research

questions formulated were:

� What do PNG students derive from VET at the present moment? What should PNG


� How do PNG school teachers presently regard VET? How should PNG school

teachers regard VET? How should school teachers co-operate with the business and

industry sectors to achieve an effective VET program in PNG?

� How do business and industry sectors regard VET? How have they participated and need to participate in VET?

� How do Education policy-makers and school principals regard VET in PNG? How could they contribute to VET?

These four research questions were designed to explore the experiences and perceptions of

students, teachers, business/industry personnel, education officials and school principals on

VET program models that might address the under-skilled student transition problem at the

secondary school level in PNG. The next section describes the selection and sampling

procedures.

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5.3 SELECTION AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

5.3.1 Research site

The city of Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea was selected for this study for a number of

reasons: First, Port Moresby is a microcosm of the rest of PNG. It is PNG’s capital city and

houses most key government Departments, such as the National Department of Education,

Department of Mining and Petroleum and Department of Agriculture and Livestock, to

mention a few. Second, most business/industries and their Head Offices are located in Port

Moresby. Port Moresby is the commercial and political hub of PNG. Port Moresby was

also considered an important location for this field of research because most education

officials who would be able to provide valuable information are stationed there with the

National Department of Education. All Education Department’s divisions, such as,

National Research Council Secretariat, Curriculum Development Unit and TVET offices

are centralized in Port Moresby.

5.3.2 Sampling selection technique

The researcher decided to apply the purposive and quota sampling techniques, sometimes

referred as ‘judgment sampling’ technique (Creswell, 2005: 149; Doherty, 1994: 22;

StatPac Inc, 2009). ‘Judgment sampling’ here refers to a common non-probability method.

This is usually an extension of ‘convenience sampling’ where participants who are willing

and available to be studied represent some of the characteristics which the researcher seeks

to study (Creswell, 2005: 149). For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire

sample from one ‘representative’ city, even though the target population includes other

cities.

When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly

representative of the entire population (Statpac Inc, 2009: 1). However, due to lack of time

and logistics to visit other towns in PNG, the researcher decided to collect data Port

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Moresby city. One main reason for considering Port Moresby as the ideal site for this

research was because people from all over PNG, and non-Papua New Guineans live and

work or do business and that most would provide useful information on the topic. At the

same time, all secondary schools throughout PNG follow a standard national curriculum

and the views on VET expressed by the stakeholders in Port Moresby might be reflective

of other urban stakeholders in PNG.

The researcher used ‘quota sampling’, a non-probability sampling technique to identify the

stratums and their proportions as they were represented in the population. In this case, the

schools and various student Grade levels became the strata. Purposive sampling was then

used to select the subjects based on a specified proportion or stratum (Doherty, 1994: 2).

The reason for using this method was that the instruments were designed to collect the

opinions of the stakeholders. This procedure was applied in selecting the schools, students,

teachers, industry personnel and policy-makers/school principals.

5.3.3 Selection of schools and students

Based on Doherty’s (1994) purposive sampling technique, the researcher selected five of

the largest secondary schools within the metropolitan area of Port Moresby City. From

these identified schools, 200 students from Grades 9-12 were selected which required 40

students to be chosen from each school, which is representative of a normal class size in

PNG schools. To select 40 students in one school, the researcher selected 10 Grade 9

students, 10 Grade 10 students, 10 Grade 11 students and 10 Grade 12 students regardless

of sex, subject and class specifications. The reason for selecting only five schools and 200

students was purely based on amount of similar research work scheduled for teachers,

business/industry and policy-makers/school principals.

In order to carry out this selection procedure, the class lists were used to select students.

For example, if Grade 12 students had five classes with a maximum class size of 40

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students, at least two names were identified from each Grade 12 class. The 10 students

required from Grade 12 were selected using this procedure. The same method was applied

to select 10 students from each of the other Grade levels. The respective class teachers

were asked to call out the names of participating students and arrangements were made

during the afternoon school parade time for these students to fill out the questionnaires.

As described in 5.7 regarding ethical issues, permission to conduct this research was

granted by the National Department of Education Research Committee chaired by the

Assistant Secretary for Education in Port Moresby. Subsequent request letters were

approved by the selected schools to carry out research on students and teachers and there

was no need to seek permission from parents.

The researcher administered the questionnaires in two schools and requested that the

Principals or Deputy Principals arrange for the respective class teachers to administer the

questionnaires in the remaining three schools. The following procedure applied. The duty

teacher in liaison with the Principal or Deputy Principal arranged for a classroom and

requested all 40 selected students to go to the room, while the others were cleaning the

school. At the two schools where the researcher was present, he was introduced by the duty

teacher who explained why he was there and what the students needed to do. After the duty

teacher left, the researcher administered the questionnaire. For the teacher-administered

questionnaires, at least a couple of days were allowed to collect the students’ completed

questionnaires from the school.

5.3.4 Selection of school teachers

For the survey questionnaire, the researcher requested that at least 16 teachers in each

school (a total of 80 teachers) would be required to respond to the survey questionnaire

irrespective of gender. The researcher discussed this with the Principals and Deputy

Principals as to how the questionnaires were to be completed. It was agreed during the

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meeting that due to busy teaching loads, teachers would complete the questionnaires in

their own spare times and collected in five days later. Four school principals collaborated

well in this effort to collect the required data. However, one school principal appeared to

have too much responsibility in his shoulder. The researcher made four trips to that school

without much success.

5.3.5 Selection of industry/business sector

The researcher realized that, to apply the stratified and random selection methods for the

business/industry data appeared to be problematic, since some business/industries are

large, whilst others are not. Therefore, specific criteria in line with the ‘purposeful

sampling technique’ were adopted (Creswell, 2005). This criteria sampling method

involved studying various industries that meet some pre-set criterion of importance, such

as the following:

� Size of business/industry – large and well-established local and multi-national

/business/industries

� Location of business/industry – most industries confined to PNG’s capital city –

Port Moresby

� Business/industries that engage in VET-related activities, including

training/apprenticeships

� Business/industries that have established contact details – including emails,

fax/phone numbers

In order to apply the purposeful sampling method, it was considered useful to go though

the ‘PNG Business Directory’ and select the various entries from the 1, 261 entries

grouped under 30 headings (Papua New Guinea Business Directory, 2008). Yet, many of

these were not included in the Business Directory. Those business/industry sectors

identified have been grouped under 30 entries in the directory.

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The total business/industry sector nationwide included in the directory was 1,261 only. Of

the identified business/industries entered in the directory, 772 were centred in Port

Moresby. This counts for over 60% the total business/industry sector nationwide operating

in Port Moresby alone. The remaining 489, close to 40% of the business/industry sector

were operating elsewhere in PNG.

From this list of 30 business/industry groupings, 250 business/industry entries were

purposely selected. The figures on the nationwide business/industries under each heading

and those chosen for this study are given in Table 8:

Table 8 Number of listings under 30 business/industry groupings and numbers chosen for study

No Name of Business Industries Sector Entries found nationwide

Entries found in Port Moresby City alone

Industries selected in Port Moresby City only

1 Accounting, Management and Legal Services 94 80 7

2 Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Industry 38 11 10

3 Associations And Societies 17 14 6 4 Automotive Suppliers & Services 57 39 10 5 Aviation & Air Services 26 15 4 6 Banking, Finance and Insurance 51 51 10 7 Chambers of Commerce 11 5 5

8 Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Suppliers 34 24 5

9 Computers & Telecommunication 55 43 10 10 Construction Suppliers & Services 231 155 30 11 Educational & Training Services 20 19 0

12 Embassies, Consulates & Trade Commissions 15 15 10

13 Entertainment, Amusement & Recreational Services 18 14 4

14 Food and Beverages Industry 62 29 10

15 Forestry, Logging, and Timber Products 19 11 10

16 Freighting, Customs & Transportation 56 23 10

17 Garment, Textile and Fashion 16 12 10 18 General Engineering 60 35 10 19 General Importers and Exporters 16 9 5

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20 General Wholesale and Retailing 50 24 10

21 Government Departments & Organisations 5 5 3

22 Hospitality, Hotel and Tourism 82 22 10

23 Marine & Shipping Suppliers & Services 47 28 10

24 Marketing, Advertising and Signage 40 28 10 25 Mining and Petroleum Industry 50 32 10 26 Non-Government Organisations 2 2 O

27 Office Equipment, Supplies and Services 27 17 8

28 Real Estate, Auctioneers, and Properties 30 22 10

29 Security, Protection and Safety Services 23 16 7

30 Semi-government & Statutory Organisations 9 9 6

Total Entries 1,261 772 250

The questionnaire, together with a cover letter, was addressed to the Director, Manager and

Coordinator of each of the selected business/industry organisations. There were 250

business/industry survey questionnaires hand-delivered to business houses in Port

Moresby. From these, 56 business/industry personnel responded the survey. A few of these

responded surveys were collected after one to two follow-up visits and phone calls were

made.

The frequencies of /business/industry personnel and their various positions held were

recorded in Microsoft Office Excel 2007 and transferred to Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS) software which converted the data into frequencies and

percentages. There was no strict grouping to indicate how many Managers or HR

Coordinators had responded in their specific categories. There were combinations of

people who held various key positions in some well-to-do industries responded to the

survey questionnaire.

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5.3.6 The selection of policy-makers and school principals

Initially, ten people were purposely selected for the interview. Of these, five were key

people in the Education Department and the other five were Secondary School Principals

from the five selected secondary schools. In order to recruit these people, letters were

hand-delivered at different times. The letters were followed up three times in person and

through telephone. Out of the ten people, three Education Officers at the policy-making

level agreed to take part in the audio-taped interview schedule. Two of these people were

from the National Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) division

while the third was from the National Curriculum Planning Unit. Second, out of the five

secondary school principals that were asked to take part in the recorded interview, only

two responded positively. In the event, both Principals sent their Deputies to the interview,

as their substitutes. So, for the qualitative semi-structured interview, there were a total of

five officers (three from the Education Department’s central administration and two

Deputy School Principals). The next section details the various research instruments

consulted for this study.

5.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

5.4.1 Quantitative instruments

The three survey questionnaires – one for students; one for teachers; one for

business/industry personnel; and one for policy-makers and school principals were

designed.

The survey instruments (included in 5.43 – 5.5) were designed in the form of between

three to five questions, using the Likert scale for rating statements, with scale points

numbered 1-5 or 1-4 for easy scoring (Smith & Katz, 2005). The number of school

subjects selected for this study included 9 academic and 17 VET subjects, a total of 26.

Another question in all three surveys asked respondents to rate 8 employability skills and

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13 personal attributes seen as desirable outcomes of VET courses. Most questions were

attitudinal and behavioural ones designed to obtain the opinions and expressions of the

various stakeholders (Creswell, 2005: 363). These instruments are placed in Appendix E;

and they (instruments) were considered to be answering the four research questions for this

study.

5.4.2 Reliability and validity of the instruments

Creswell (2005) refers to reliability as ensuring that scores from an instrument are stable,

consistent and when applied, the results should be about the same. Even though the

respondents answer the questionnaire in different ways, the answers need to be consistent

(Creswell, 2005:162). For this research, the responses were likely to vary because of

cultural and contextual differences, especially in PNG where these instruments were used.

There are a number of tests which can be carried out to determine the consistency of the

instruments, such as:

� Administering an instrument twice at different time intervals so that each

participant in the study completes the study twice to see whether responses are

consistent;

� Administering two instruments, each using different versions of the same concepts

or variables, and every participant in the study completing both instruments;

� Administering the instrument twice at different time intervals, using two different

versions of the same concepts or variables with each participant in the study

completing each instrument (Creswell, 2005: 163).

Thus, to ensure the reliability of the instruments used for this study, the researcher applied

those aspects that were appropriate. For example, three different instruments were used at

different times with different groups of respondents, but the concepts and variables

remained the same.

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Validity means that the individual’s scores from an instrument make sense, are meaningful

and enable the researcher to draw good conclusions for the sample under study (Creswell,

2005: 162). To examine the validity of the instruments, content validity has been

considered useful for this study. Content validity is the extent to which the questions on the

instrument and the scores from these questions are representative of all the possible

questions that a researcher could ask about the content or skills (Creswell, 2005: 164).

Researchers evaluate content validity by examining the plan and the procedures used in

constructing the instrument, examining information about the objectives of the instrument,

the content areas and the level of difficulty of the questions. Typically, researchers use a

panel of judges or experts to help identify whether the questions are valid (Creswell, 2005:

166). This method of testing content validity was considered useful and applied. The

researcher took the modified instruments to senior researchers to have the instruments

checked, commented on and edited before they were trialled in PNG.

5.4.3 Student questionnaire

In order to determine the perceptions of PNG students about the benefits of VET currently

and in the future, specific questions specific questions were modified from an instrument

used by Polesel et al. (2004) and Lawson (2004). This instrument was considered

appropriate for students in PNG. The students were asked to rate their views on Likert

Scale (Creswell, 2005: 169). The student questionnaire was in four parts, where Part A

dealt with students’ Grade level, their current academic and VET course participation and

the importance of their reasons for participating in VET courses. Part B focused on

students’ views about the role of VET and its influences on career, indicating their

agreement or disagreement to the statements about VET on a 4 point Likert scale. Part C

was intended to gauge student views on the importance of VET employability skills and

attributes, general academic and VET course developments, teacher effectiveness and

people influencing their study and career pathways. The final section of the instrument

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sought to get the views of students about general academic and VET course preferences

using Likert scale ratings.

5.4.4 Teacher questionnaire

The teacher questionnaire was also based on an instrument designed and applied by Polesel

et al. (2004), but modified to suit the PNG context. In terms of modification, the content of

an instrument remained, but the words and some phrases were changed using appropriate

words that PNG people could understand and interpret its meaning. Also, other instruments

that did not add meaning to the current study in PNG were dropped.

The teacher questionnaire was in three parts. Part A dealt with demographic information:

type of school and level of students they taught or were class patron of, years of experience

in their profession, their teaching of general academic and VET courses. Part B intended to

discover teachers’ involvement in course development and delivery mechanisms. Teachers

were asked to indicate which five options of general academic and VET involvement

applied to them. They were also asked to identify and rate, using the Likert scale, the

courses they had developed and delivered, The final Part C, was designed to identify

teachers’ perceptions of employability skills and attributes that were developed through

general academic and VET courses and whether they agreed with these skills.

5.4.5 Business/Industry questionnaire

The business/industry personal questionnaire was adopted and modified from the

instrument designed and applied by the Economic Development Board, Bahrain Chamber

of Commerce and Industry (http://www.education.gov.bh/pdf/edb-survey-en.pdf: accessed

11/09/2007) with added questions derived from Cleary, Flynn and Thomason (2006) and

Lawson (2004). This questionnaire was in three parts. Part A requested industry personnel

to identify their business sector and to rate the employability skills and attributes that they

would like look for in secondary or post-secondary leavers. Part B was intended to seek

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views from industry people on their intention and level of interest to take part in secondary

school training programs in PNG. Part C sought the views of industry personnel on VET

training and Apprenticeship program participation in PNG.

5.5 QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS

All the interviews with Policy-makers and School Principals were conducted using the

semi-structured, face-to-face individual approach, with the interviews audio-taped and

transcribed by the researcher (Creswell, 2005: 215). The interviews were held in each

interviewee’s office. A few questions in this qualitative research were adopted from

Polesel (2004) and Porter (2006) while others were derived from issues raised in the

literature review.

The semi-structured interview questions were also checked for consistency and accuracy of

grammar and meaning by two Supervisors and a Senior Adjunct at the School of

Education, University of Adelaide. The qualitative questions were intended to seek views

from education policy-makers and school principals and so the questions were modified

somewhat to suit the context of the two types of respondents, one based in central

administration, the other in the day to day activities of a secondary school. Two sets of

similar semi-structured interview questions were formulated, one targeting the policy-

makers at the Education Department level and the other targeting the School Principals.

The semi-structured questions for the policy-makers asked for their position in the

organisation, how they saw the student/school leaver trend and VET performance. This

was followed by asking their views on the need for accommodating employability skills

and attributes and about communities need to participate in VET programs. At the same

time, it was important to seek some views on how assessment and accreditation have been

carried out.

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The semi-structured interview questionnaire designed for School Principals were designed

to tap into their experience as implementers of government policies at the school level.

They understand students and teachers; know the specific courses needed and the problems

and success stories of their schools. Principals also become players in the decision-making

process, not only at the school level but also the national level. They are also part of the

policymaking process in the school and the community. They are the managers and

custodians of school-allocated funds and activities of the school. They are responsible for

maintaining course and teacher quality and bringing change to the school. The principals’

semi-structured interview questions incorporated ideas/information derived from Barnett

and Ryan (2005), Schneyder (2002) and Klee (2002), whose work had focused on the role

of school principals in Australian secondary schools.

The specific research questions asked were intended to draw out the school principals’

perceptions on the extent of VET subject and skills being delivered and at what level, at

their school, the teachers’ qualifications and competencies in teaching VET subjects,

whether the VET subjects and skills were meeting the needs of students, the extent of

school-industry/community collaborative learning, VET assessment, accreditation, and

teacher training. The final questions asked them to assess the strengths and weaknesses of

their school and any particular problems they were facing.

5.6 DATA ANALYSIS

5.6.1 Survey data analysis

Using Excel, each variable was assigned a number using the Likert scale. Single item

scores were first coded for the analysis and then for the data summary, the researcher

decided to apply the total average score (Creswell, 2005: 176). For the students, teachers

and industry personnel, each response was coded by assigning a number from 1-5

depending on the number of choices in the Likert scale. The coded data was transferred to

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SPSS in order to work out the frequencies. All SPSS frequency results were then manually

transferred to tables that contained the variables and the response columns. The raw score

frequencies for each variable, as well as the percentage of each score, have been included

in Appendices: A, B, & C.

5.6.2 Descriptive statistics

For this survey data, the researcher focussed on descriptive statistics which have been

described by Troohim (2008) as different from inferential statistics in that, descriptive

statistics aim to quantitatively summarise a data set as frequency distributions. Even when

a data analysis draws its main conclusions using inductive statistical analysis, descriptive

statistics are generally presented along with more statistical analyses, to give the audience

an overall sense of the data being analysed (Troohim, 2008: 1).

With descriptive statistics, the researcher is simply describing what the data shows. With

inferential statistics, judgments can be made on the probability that an observed difference

between groups in a study is dependent on certain variable or might have happened by

chance. Thus, one uses inferential statistics to make generalization from data to a wider

population; one uses descriptive statistics simply to demonstrate what the data reveals

about the respondents (Troohim, 2008: 1b).

The descriptive statistics here refers to the application of measures of the general

tendencies in the data, such as percentage, mean, median and mode, (Creswell, 2005: 181).

Because no inferential statistical procedures were used, the one sample or two sample T-

Tests on each of the data-sets have not been performed. Rather descriptive statistics was

considered appropriate and acceptable for this exploratory study.

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5.6.3 Interview data analysis

The interview data was transcribed using the qualitative data analysis guide provided by

Creswell (2005) and Lambrecht (1999). After going through the transcribed notes, the

researcher identified key themes and sub-themes under these. Each official’s interview

manuscript was analysed by jotting down key points and then summarised in a table. These

key points and summaries have been discussed under the discussion chapter. All interview

summaries have been placed in Appendix D.

5.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

5.7.1 Ethics approval prior to research

First, prior to the data gathering in Papua New Guinea, the Human Resource Ethics

Committee of the University of Adelaide approved the application for ethics clearance for

the research. The ethics clearance was approved on the understanding that there was no

clinical trial involved in this research. All survey questionnaires and interview schedules

for the students, teachers, principals, business/industry personnel and policy-makers were

given cover letters, informing the various respondents about the purpose of the research

and giving the researcher’s assurance that their identity and the views they expressed

would remain confidential. All stakeholders were given the option to participate.

In terms of children, the questionnaire did not ask about their socio-economic background,

religious affiliation, race/ethnicity, health, language, and etcetera. This applied also to

teachers, business/industry personnel and policy-makers and school principals. The five

schools were assigned numbers from 1 – 5, not to show order of importance of the schools

or for comparison purposes but for consistency relating to data coding or analysis. All

respondents were invited to participate, and could leave the study at any time.

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5.7.2 Request for permission from Education Department in Port

Moresby

In order to carry out the research in selected schools, industries and government offices in

Port Moresby, permission was sought from the Deputy Secretary Policy and Corporate

Services and the Chairperson of the Research and Evaluation Steering Committee at the

PNG National Department of Education Head Office in Port Moresby. The letter stated the

purpose of the research and the need to carry out research on students, teachers, principals,

industry personnel and policy-makers. The Adelaide University Ethics Committee

Approval letter and the letters from the Supervisors were enclosed with the request letter.

The Research and Evaluation Committee met four weeks later and approval was granted

(Letter attached in Appendix E).

Once the permission to carry out the research was granted in early June 2008, the

researcher wrote further cover letters to principals of selected schools, managers of

business/industries and government, corporate bodies, explaining the purpose of the

researcher’s visit and requesting their cooperation in filling in the attached questionnaires.

This was followed with several visits to schools and the Education Department and had

brief introductory explanation about why the researcher was there, what was required from

them and how they were supposed to distribute the questionnaires to their teachers.

During the school visits, the researcher requested two principals to have the recorded

interviews. A similar approach was applied in selecting the policy-makers for the

interviews. At the same time, many days were spent knocking on industry/business houses’

doors, leaving the questionnaires and stating that the researcher would collect them in four

to five days’ time.

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5.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The following limitations can be highlighted based on the research design:

Gender

Although, comparing male and female students is important, this study did not take gender

into account as a major variable. A couple of schools which were willing to participate

were male-only schools, the overall number of respondents would not have been

representative enough of both genders. There was a total of 44 female students (25.9%)

compared to 126 males (74.1%). Of these, 40 male students come from one male-only

school while the other 86 males and 44 females come from four government secondary

schools.

Making inferences

The results from the five selected schools in the Port Moresby area could reasonably be

used to make inferences to other urban schools in Port Moresby, as well as urban

secondary schools in other urban areas of PNG. However, there are major disparities in

context between urban and rural secondary schools which would need to be taken into

account. On the other hand, since all State and Church schools in PNG follow a centralized

or standard curriculum (apart from a few added subjects in Church or State-run schools), as

well as a common pattern of school procedures and teaching approaches, it could be

expected that the results obtained from the five urban schools could be reflective of most,

if not all rural schools in PNG. To this extent, it could be appropriate to make some general

conclusions or inferences for PNG on the results.

Research literature on PNG VET

While there was sufficient literature on VET available for other countries, there was little

research literature on VET available for the PNG context. What was available include PNG

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Education Department Reports from 2004, 2005, 2006, and PNG Country Reports from

UNESCO, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) as well as a few articles, and theses

produced by PNG academics and consultants. Most of this literature has not dealt with the

most recent developments in VET. That means that most of the research on VET readings

on VET has been heavily drawn from the Australian context and from OECD countries,

Canada, US as well as a few from Asia and Africa.

Application of descriptive statistics for the quantitative data

The researcher applied simple descriptive statistics in analysing the data collected for this

study. Only percentages have been used to convey the range and focus of the results. The

research was not about correlations between variables, but about finding out the range of

views expressed by the various PNG stakeholders on VET issues in PNG.

5.9 SUMMARY

This study applied the mixed methods design, that is quantitative and qualitative methods

were used at the same time. The students, teachers and industry personnel instruments

were quantitative in nature while the interviews with policy-makers and school principals

were qualitative in nature. All the different groups for which data were gathered were

centred in PNG’s capital city of Port Moresby. A simple application of descriptive

statistics was considered appropriate for data analysis in this study. The next Chapter

reports the responses given by the various groups of respondents.

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CHAPTER SIX

PNG SURVEY RESULTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This Chapter is presented in four headings, students’ survey results, teachers’ survey

results, business/industry survey results and policy-makers/school principals’ interview

survey results. The results were summarised and placed before the tables. The data from

policy-makers has no statistical information due to the nature of the research. This data

was manually transcribed, interpreted and results summarised. All summarised data for this

chapter were placed in the appendices section of this thesis.

6.2 STUDENTS’ SURVEY RESULTS

6.2.1 Purpose of student survey questionnaire and demographic

information

The purpose of the student survey was two-fold: first, to determine what Grade 12 to Grade

9 students in PNG currently view about VET and secondly, what students considered they

in future should derive from VET. These two subsidiary research questions were designed

with the hope that the responses from the first question would inform the second

(question).

In order to achieve this purpose, selected students from lower secondary (Grades 9 & 10)

and upper secondary (Grades 11-12) in five secondary schools in Port Moresby (PNG)

were asked to respond to seven questions in a systematic manner following the Likert

Scale. Table 8 illustrates the five schools, number of students who participated in each

school and Grade level selected of the students for the survey.

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For the five schools, 40 students, 10 in each Grade (9-12) were purposely selected using

their respective class lists regardless of sex, to give a total of 200 student responses. Of the

200 survey questionnaires administered, only 140 completed survey questionnaires were

returned. Of these, 96 responses were responded to by male students (68.6%), while 44

responded by female students (31.4%). Of the five schools, schools 1 and 2 returned all 40

questionnaires, while school 3, returned 33, school 4, returned only 7 and school 5 returned

20. Of the respondents, 40 (28.6%) were Grade 12 students, 37 (26.4%) were Grade 11

students, 29 (20.7%) were Grade 10 students and 34 (24.3%) were Grade 9 students. At the

end, the researcher received 140 (70%) of the planned 200 completed questionnaires to

analyse.

Table 9: School, gender, Grade level and background of student respondents (N =140)

Schools Frequency Percentage of total Valid Percent 1 40 28.6 28.6 2 40 28.6 28.6 3 33 23.6 23.6 4 7 5.0 5.0 5 20 14.3 14.3 Total 140 100.0 100.0 Gender Frequency Percent Valid Percent F 44 31.4 31.4 M 96 68.6 68.6 Total 140 100.0 100.0 Year level Frequency Percent Valid Percent 12 40 28.6 28.6 11 37 26.4 26.4 10 29 20.7 20.7 9 34 24.3 24.3 Total 140 100.0 100.0

Out of the five secondary schools in Port Moresby, one was a Catholic school while the

others were State-owned. It should be noted that most Church-run schools follow the PNG

national curriculum. In addition, their emphasis on religious values form part of their

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schools’ extra curricula activities. No information on extra-curricular activities was sought

from students or teachers for this research.

The following information briefly describes the result of this chapter. The seven questions

responded by Grade 12 – Grade 9 students were analysed and results placed in Tables 1 –

28 under Appendix A.

6.2.2 Question 1: Students’ academic and VET participation levels

Tables 1 to 4 in Appendix A contain Grade 12 to Grade 9 results for Question 1 regarding

students’ academic and VET subject participation. The general academic subjects were

placed first on the table, followed by the VET subjects. This was done just to maintain

consistency. Students were asked to respond to each question and variable by placing a tick

or circle on their preferred choice on a minimum of three and a maximum of five-point

Likert scale as 1 = Not participated, 2 = Participated and 3 = Now participating. As part of

consistency, column 4 has been created during data coding to show the ‘missing data

variable’.

The results from this data were summarised in two parts – one for the academic subjects

and the other for VET subjects. The results for students in Grades 12, 11, 10 showed that

most of them were taking the core general/academic courses, like: English, Math,

Chemistry, Physics, Biology or elective social sciences subjects, like: Economics or

History, Geography and Commerce courses and less on VET subjects. The results for

Grade 9 students showed that there were almost an equal number of students who had not

yet participated in either academic or VET subjects, apart from English and Math subjects.

This shows that streaming and subject choices are usually done in the upper Grades and

not in Grade 9.

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6.2.3 Question 2: Reasons for students to participate in VET

Tables 5 – 8, Appendix A contains Grade 12 to Grade 9 responses on question 2. This

question concerns the students’ reasons for deciding whether or not to take part in VET

courses. The students were asked to place their choice in a four-point Likert scale: 1 = not

important, 2 = neither important nor unimportant, 3 = important and 4 = don’t know.

It is interesting to note that amongst the reasons for taking part in VET, credit towards

University, further study and job opportunities, school advice/career guidance, a

recognised qualification, industry knowledge and practical experience and the quality of

teaching staff were rated as important by most students.

6.2.4 Question 3: Students’ views on VET

Tables 9 – 12, Appendix A, present the results for Grade 12 to Grade 9 students’ responses

for question 3. Here, the students were asked to respond whether they agree or disagree on

certain viewpoints on VET. They were asked to categorize their choices as: 1 =disagree, 2

= neither agree nor disagree, 3 = agree and 4 = don’t know.

The highlights of the results were that, most students in all Grades agreed with the

statements, except for two; ‘VET courses are designed to suit males and not females’ and

‘VET is good for people who are not suited to academic careers’. Most students agreed that

University qualifications are more highly recognised than VET qualifications. They also

agreed that VET is either an alternative subject if people are unable to find a job or a

second chance for people who want further education and that VET enhances the chances

of getting a New Apprenticeship.

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6.2.5 Question 4: The importance of employability skills and personal attributes

Tables 13 – 16, Appendix A, incorporate the results for Grade 12 to Grade 9 responses for

question 4. This question sought the students’ opinions on how important they saw the

employability skills and attributes for their future careers. The students rated their

preferences on a four-point scale: 1 = not important, 2 = slightly important, 3 = important

and 4 = very important. The first part of this question asked about the employability skills

while the last part dealt with the attributes.

The results illustrated that most students from all Grade levels viewed the employability

skills and attributes as either important or very important for their careers. Most students

perceived their future prospects of securing jobs as dependent upon how well they were

acquainted with these various employability skills and attributes.

6.2.6 Question 5: Students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness

Tables 17 – 20, Appendix A, contains results for Grade 12 to Grade 9 responses for

question 5. Question 5 asked students to rate their level of agreement on teacher

effectiveness at the secondary school level in PNG. The aim was to determine how

effective the teachers were, not only in instilling the skills and knowledge on VET and

employability skills and attributes but also to determine their level of competency and

approach in presenting their lessons in class and whether that had any bearing on student

learning.

Most students from all Grade levels had mixed feelings about statements that describe

teacher effectiveness. Although most of the respondents had high regard for their teachers’

performance, there were some who thought that teachers were not performing as well as

could be expected. For example, about 47% of Grade 12 students did not agree that

teachers were using a broad set of competencies; 35% thought teachers were not teaching

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them competencies that were relevant to the job or industry they would be performing in

future; teachers were not innovative in how to help students learn the important

employability skills; teachers were not very clear in their explanation on why it was

important for students to learn the employability skills and attributes.

Similarly, some Grade 11 students thought strongly that they were not enjoying activities

set by their teachers; or indicated that teachers ever use a broad set of employability skills

and attributes that could enhance their learning. Similarly, 37.8% of students disagreed that

teachers applied a broad set of employability skills and attributes. About 24.3% of them

disagreed that teachers were innovative enough in helping students learn the employability

skills and attributes. At least 13.5% indicated they did not enjoy activities set in class by

their teachers. In contrast, a further 13.5% indicated that their teachers were creative in

teaching the competencies that were relevant to the type job or industry they might work

in. Most other students in the group also felt that most of their teachers were good and

applied various identified skills and attributes.

For Grade 10 students, 27.6% thought teachers were using a broad set of employability

skills/attributes that would assist them to change jobs when required. Most students agreed

on most other characteristics of teaching effectiveness, including: teachers being practical

in their approach, teachers making their students to learn, and teachers being very clear in

their explanations. Similar trend is showing for the Grade 9 students. Most of them did

indicate, however, that they enjoyed the classroom activities set by their teachers and

assessment techniques applied by them.

On the contrary, about 20.7% and 17.2% of students in Grade 10 and 9 respectively

thought their teachers were not innovative in helping them learn the employability skills

and attributes and teaching those competencies that are relevant to their future industry

jobs they might wish to pursue.

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6.2.7 Question 6: People influencing students’ study and career pathways

Tables 21 – 24, Appendix A, contains results for Grade 12 to Grade 9 responses for

question 6. In order to seek views on the people influencing students’ study and career

pathways, students were asked to choose their preferences using a four-point Likert scale

again: 1 = sometimes, 2 = often, 3 = most often, 4 = don’t know.

When the students were asked to rate which people had influenced their course selections

and study/career pathways, more than half of the students in all Grades indicated they were

not sure whether their parents/guardians had influenced them in their study and career

pathways. For this variable, Grade 12 students had 50%, Grade 11s had 51%, Grade 10,

58.6%, and Grade 9s had 58.8%. On the other hand, many of the students indicated they

‘sometimes’ or ‘often’ or ‘most often’ had their parents/guardians, class teachers and peers

influenced them greatly in their career pathway choices.

6.2.8 Question 7: Students’ general academic and VET course preferences

Tables 25 to 28, Appendix A illustrate Grade 12 to Grade 9 responses for question7. This

final question seeks to identify and address the level of students’ general academic and

VET course preferences. Thus, students were asked to choose their subject preference from

a four-point Likert scale: 1 = no preference, 2 = low preference, 3 = some preference and 4

= high preference.

The results for Grade 12 and 11 students showed that most general academic subjects

received more attention from students. Students who did not participate in some academic

subjects had less preference. For the Grade 12 students, most VET subjects were rated as

‘no preference’. Some mixed reactions from Grade 10 students were noticed under the

various categories of VET subject preferences. For Grade 9 students, there was some

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mixed reaction for most academic and VET subjects. The results showed that, the higher

the Grades (12 &11), the higher the preferences of general academic subjects.

In summary, as far as the research question is concerned, the results illustrated similar

reactions from all selected Grade 12 to Grade 9 students at the five schools. There was

anticipation that low preferences were expected from the lower Grades as opposed to their

seniors. However, the highlights of a few variables showed that most students had strong

preference for academic subjects and only a few students thought VET subjects were

important. Despite such gaps that exist between academic and VET subject preferences,

most students had higher preferences for the employability skills and attributes because of

their importance for future careers. The next section analyses results for research question

two on teachers’ perceptions on VET.

6.3 TEACHERS’ SURVEY RESULTS

6.3.1 Demographic information

The second subsidiary research question asked how teachers regarded VET at present and

in the future and how they should cooperate with the business/industry sectors to achieve

effective VET programs in PNG.

Of the five schools, school number 1, was run by the Catholic Church while schools No. 2,

3, 4, & 5 were state schools. The Principals/Deputy Principals of these schools were

instructed verbally and in a cover letter how to distribute the questionnaires, who should

fill in the questionnaires and when the questionnaires were to be collected. Because the

teacher target group was 80 and there were 5 schools, each school was given 16 survey

questionnaires and Principal/Deputy Principal was asked to distribute the questionnaires

with 16 teachers (or four teachers) from each Grade. That meant that four teachers from

each Grade (Grade 9 to12) regardless of sex were asked to fill in the questionnaire in their

free time over a five day period. The Principal/Deputy Principals were asked to collect the

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questionnaires and retain them in their office until the researcher could collect them a week

later.

After receiving the responded survey questionnaires, it was found that sixteen teachers

from School 1; nine from School 2; ten from School 3; four from School 4; and thirteen

from School 5 responded the survey questionnaires. Of the 80 questionnaires given out,

only 52 (65%) teachers responded the questionnaires. Of these, 22 (42.3%) respondents

were from female teachers and 30 (57.7%) from male teachers. Therefore, the researcher

collected 52 completed survey questionnaires for the analysis. These results are shown in

Table 10:

Table 10 School and gender background of teacher respondents (N=52)

School Frequency Percent

1 2 3 4 5 Total

16 9 10 4 13 52

31.4 15.7 19.6 7.8 25.5 100

Sex Frequency Percent

F M Total

22 30 52

42.3 57.7 100

There were several visits made to each school prior to the surveys. The students and

teachers were going into the end of the second school term and were busy with school

issues, last minute tests and exams. Although most teachers were busy, some were kind

enough to spare some time to respond to the survey questionnaires. This applies to students

too.

Teachers from a range of different subject areas held various leadership positions within

schools that participated in this survey. Amongst those teachers who returned the

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questionnaires, 40 were Subject Masters (SM), 9 Heads of various Departments (HOD), 3

Deputy Principals (2 Academic and 1 Administration) and 1 Principal.

When the teachers were asked to indicate how many Grades they have been teaching, the

results showed a mix of teachers teaching different Grades within each school. Those who

were teaching a single Grade include: 5 Grade 9 teachers, 8 Grade 10 teachers, 6 Grade 11

teachers and 11 Grade 12 teachers. The others were teaching a combination of Grades and

classes. This meant that many of them assumed to have had some knowledge/skills and

experience in various curriculum content and methods.

The results suggest that the teachers were teaching more than one Grade, maybe due to

shortage of teachers in the school. Also, more teachers were available for the academic

subjects than VET subjects. The following information shows how frequently teachers

were teaching general academic and VET subjects. The results show how teachers

regarded or would regard VET at their school.

6.3.2 Teachers’ participation in general academic and VET subjects

In order to understand how teachers and school principals regard VET, the researcher felt

that this question should not be considered in isolation. Therefore, the academic subjects

were included, purposely to determine the levels of teachers’ views on both academic and

VET subject groups. Teachers were asked to indicate which general academic or VET

subject(s) they were teaching.

Taking into consideration that many teachers have been taking more than one subject,

either VET or general academic, the results showed that more teachers have been teaching

the academic subjects compared to VET subjects. Amongst the subjects taught, English

(23.1%) and Mathematics (25.0%) had the highest number of teachers, followed by

Chemistry (17.3%), Geography (15.4%), Physics (13.5%), Biology (13.5%), History

(11.5%), Economics (9.6%) and Commerce (9.6%). On the other hand, a few teachers have

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been taking the VET subjects, the most frequent being Fabricated Metal Work/non-metal

products (15.4%), Home Economics (13.5%), Dance and Music (9.6%), and only three

teachers for Woodwork and a further three teachers for Electrical/Electronics. There were

only 2 teachers taking Computer Information Studies and 1 teacher taking the Building and

Construction trade subject. Two teachers were giving some lessons, one teacher on

Forestry and the other Fisheries/Marine Resources respectively. This result is outlined on

Table 11:

Table 11 Teachers’ participation level in academic and VET subjects

General academic subjects Frequency Percent (%)

a. English 12 23.1 b. Mathematics 13 25.0 c. Chemistry 9 17.3 d. Physics 7 13.5 e. Biology 7 3.5 f. Economics 5 9.6 g. History 6 11.5 h. Geography 8 15.4 i. Commerce 5 9.6 Vocational Education and Training (VET) subject j. Home Economics 7 13.5 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 8 15.4 l. Agriculture/agro-culture - - m. Building and Construction trades 1 1.9 n. Woodwork/furniture 3 5.8 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments - - p. Electrical & Electronics 3 5.8 q. Art & Design/Media - - r. Dance & Music 5 9.6 s. Computer Information Studies 2 3.8 t. Tourism & hospitality - - u. Food/beverages processing - - v. Mining and petroleum - - w. Forestry management 1 1.9 x. Fisheries and marine resources 1 1.9 y. Small business management - - z. Textile/Clothing - -

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It seems Home economics, Fabricated Metal/non-metal products and Dance and Music

subjects had a few teachers while most other VET subjects had either one or no teacher at

all. The survey responses that follow reflect the frequency and the extent of teachers taking

part in these academic and VET subjects. Their views on VET courses can be compared to

academic subjects. These results reveal a major gap in the teaching staff between the

general academic and VET subjects at the secondary schools in Port Moresby.

The next four questions were analysed and results collated in Tables 29 to 32. These

Tables and summaries of each data are in Appendix B.

6.3.3 Type of involvement in developing general academic and VET

courses

Table 29, Appendix B, has a summary of teacher perceptions on personnel involvement in

developing general academic and VET subjects. Teachers were asked to indicate which

people (that is, course instructors from their school, curriculum developers from the

national/provincial education offices, business/industry personnel, especially those who

provide VET), have been involved in developing specified academic and VET courses.

The purpose for asking this question was twofold: first, to find out whether there has been

any collaboration in designing the academic or VET curriculum materials between various

organisations, especially academic and VET teachers from the school level, educators from

the Curriculum Unit of the National Department of Education and industry personnel from

Registered Training Organizations (RTO).

The results for the academic subjects showed more groups of educators from the National

Curriculum Division engaged in designing the academic curriculum. Similarly, many

individual course instructors were involved in designing some academic subjects. Further

research needs to be carried out to prove the validity of this statement. There is a reflection

of some efforts of curriculum development initiated by some academics at the school level.

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In contrast, not a great deal of effort was put into designing the academic curriculum by

educators with industry support. Neither was there much collaborative effort between

educators and industry support or input in designing the academic curriculum. So, results

indicate that the industries had little engagement in curriculum design.

6.3.4 Teachers’ observations of VET course development and

delivery

Table 30, Appendix B, has the results of teachers’ observations on VET course

development and delivery mechanisms. Teachers were asked to provide information on

how or what methods were being used to develop VET courses and delivered at the school

level. The reason for asking this question was to understand the various methods being

applied to teach VET subjects and skills/attributes at the school level. Teachers, of course,

were asked to mark various preferences using the Likert Scale.

The first preference represents VET courses in schools with workplace learning, which is

to find out whether there is an integrated curriculum being designed with a school-based

apprenticeship program in partnerships with business/industry. The second preference

asked for teachers to indicate whether a stand-alone VET course at the school level has

been in existence. That question seeks to know whether school-based VET (if it existed)

was accredited towards a Senior School Certificate. The third choice asked the teachers to

indicate whether VET has been delivered at their secondary schools without any workplace

learning attachment. Then, the fourth choice asked teachers for their opinion on whether a

VET course had been delivered only at post-secondary school level with work attachments.

The final preference asked teachers to indicate whether VET was not taught at their school.

The results indicate that VET courses have not been taught as revealed by most teachers.

Also, there was a high number of missing values topping the list of preferences. For those

teachers that responded on the first three scale categories, the first category of teacher

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responses on ‘VET course in schools with workplace learning and an integrated curriculum

with school-based apprenticeships in partnership with business/industry’, received a few

positive results.

6.3.5 Teachers’ views about employability skills and personal

attributes included in general academic and VET courses

Table 31, Appendix B contains the results of teachers’ responses on the level of

employability skills/attributes included in academic and VET subjects. Teachers were

asked to think about the major course (s) they were teaching and indicate using a Likert

Scale from 1 – 4 the employability skills and attributes that are included in the general

academic and VET courses they were teaching. As usual, 1 = not included, 2 = slightly

included, 3 = mostly included, and 4 = fully included. A missing data section was also

created.

The outcome of this survey illustrated that there was not much difference between the

teachers’ perception on the inclusion of employability skills and personal attributes on the

general academic and VET courses they were teaching. However, when looking at the

mean values carefully, there was a slight difference with regard to the attributes compared

to the employability skills.

6.3.6 Teachers’ views about VET employability skills and attributes

Table 32, Appendix B, shows the results of teachers’ data on the level of agreement on

employability skills and attributes. Teachers were asked to choose from a Likert scale of 1

– 4 to indicate their level of agreement on various statements relating to VET

employability skills and attributes. Accordingly, 1 =strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 =

agree and 4 = strongly agree.

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This question is an important one as it calls for disclosing teachers’ views on employability

skills and attributes. In order to determine this, teachers have been asked to respond to

seven statements. The level of agreement ranged from, strongly disagree, disagree, agree

and strongly agree on a Likert Scale. The seven statements include:

I believe I am very clear in explaining why it is important to learn employability skills and

attributes; students understand how the assessment is being used to test their knowledge in

VET courses and VET employability skills and attributes; students should learn specific

employability skills and attributes that they believe are relevant to the job or industry they

want to work in; students should learn a broad set of employability skills and attributes that

will allow them to change jobs or industries; our school training package clearly describes

the general academic and VET employability skills and attributes; our school training

package is helping to produce graduates who are highly employable in a range of jobs in

different industries; and there are guidelines in our school training package that help me

assess employability skills and attributes development in my students.

The first statement was either agreed or strongly agreed by 34.6% and 28.8% respectively

while 5.8% and 9.6% strongly disagreed or just disagreed on this statement. It is hard to

believe such self assessing statements but most teachers thought they were clear in

explaining why it was necessary for students to learn the employability skills and

attributes. Similarly, the second statement indicates about 28.8% and 11.5% of teachers

agreed or strongly agreed with the statement while 28.8% and 3.8% disagreed or strongly

disagreed with this second statement. For the third statement, out of the 52 teachers, 53.8%

strongly agreed and 21.2% agreed that, ‘students should learn specific employability skills

and attributes that they believe are relevant to the job or industry they want to work in’. For

some reason, only 5.8% and 5.8% disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement.

Similarly, the fourth statement was favoured by 38.5% and 34.6% of teachers respectively.

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The teachers are of the view that the students should learn a broad set of employability

skills and attributes. For some reason, only 7 teachers disagreed with this statement.

The fifth statement has been ‘strongly disagreed’ and ‘disagreed’ by 11.5% and 26.9% of

teachers respectively. But 28.8% of teachers agreed and 7.7% strongly agreed with this

statement. This statement received mixed feelings from teachers that their school has a

clearly prescribed academic and VET or employability skills/attributes curriculum

package. About 25 percent of the teachers were unsure whether their school has such

embedded academic and VET training packages. If this is the sort of response coming from

the teachers, then one may assume that there was little inclusion of the employability skills

and attributes within their school curriculum. This result would also contradict with their

previous responses that their courses have skills/attributes embedded.

For the six statement 17.3% strongly disagreed and 28.8% disagreed that their school

training package has helped to produce graduates who are highly employable in a range of

jobs in various industries. In contrast, 28.5% agreed with the statement. Regardless of

those who agreed with this statement, it appears that most schools have not produced

graduates who could be employable. Some 23.1% of teachers have not responded to this

statement. The general impression drawn from these results indicate that most schools in

PNG at the moment are not teaching employability skills and attributes.

The final statement has been responded by 21.2% and 25% respectively as strongly

disagreed or disagreed while 23.1% and 3.8% respectively agreed or strongly agreed with

this statement. At least 26.9% of teachers did not respond to this statement. This result

indicates that there were very few guidelines in the school training packages that help

teachers assess employability skill and attribute development in their students.

In summary, having analysed the survey results for students and teachers, the results

showed that more students thought that while the VET subjects and its embedded

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employability skills and attributes are important, they tended to lean more on the general

academic subjects then VET subjects. For the teachers, although not many of them were

taking VET subjects at the school level, they thought the employability skills and attributes

were important that need to be included in the curriculum. The next section analyses

results from business/industry personnel on their perceptions and participation levels in

VET and how they regard VET programs in PNG.

6.4 BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL SURVEY

RESULTS

6.4.1 Industry questions

The third subsidiary research question sought to know how business and industry

personnel would consider VET and what they needed to contribute if an effective VET

were to address the current student transition problem in Papua New Guinea. In order to

understand where business and industry personnel in PNG positioned themselves in terms

of engaging in VET training and youth employment, four main questions were designed.

The first question aimed to seek their views on the importance of employability skills and

personal attributes when recruiting new secondary school graduates in their organisations.

The second question sought views on how business/industry personnel would view and

agree on who would possess most employability skills and attributes from amongst

secondary and post-secondary school graduates. The aim was to determine whether such

graduate qualification judgment had any bearing on their level of employment and training.

The third question intended to draw business/ industry personnel’s opinions on whether

their companies were engaging in any form of training for their new employees. The aim

was to determine the level of business/industry involvement in VET development and

participation at the secondary and post-secondary school levels in PNG. The final question

tried to understand whether the business/industries have participated or intend to

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participate in VET and if they did or do, then under what Grade levels have they

participated or would they be interested in participating.

The results showed that almost all industry personnel that responded to the questionnaire

had high esteem for the employability skills and attributes. They indicated that the

employability skills and attributes were either important or very important in their search

for new secondary school graduates. The collective mean or average for the employability

skills and attributes showed 22% of industry people considering the employability skills as

important while 28.6% considered the employability skills as very important. Similarly,

about 20.7% considered the attributes as important while 31.2% thought the attributes as

very important. Only a mean of 4.5% and 3.3% respectively thought these employability

skills and attributes as not important.

6.4.2 Business/industry personnel’s views about employability skills

and personal attributes

Table 33, Appendix C, illustrated business/industry perceptions on the importance of

employability skills and personal attributes. The industry/business personnel were asked to

indicate their degree of importance on employability skills and personal attributes they

would seek from new secondary school graduates. They have been asked to rate their

preference by using the Likert Scale: 1 = Not so important; 2 = Important; 3 = Very

important; and 4 = Not applicable. The reason for asking this question was not only to

identify the importance of employability skills and attributes school graduates possess but

also to find out whether employers would recruit new secondary school graduates

regardless of any skills and attributes.

The results clearly showed that the majority of the industry/business personnel had a high

regard for employability skills and attributes. They thought that the employability skills

and personal attributes would be considered either ‘important’ or ‘very important’ in their

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search for new school graduates. Such results would reflect the business/industry position

when seeking new secondary (or post-secondary) graduates in PNG.

The implication is that, if people in business/industry only seek to employ young graduates

who have the employability skills and attributes, it would mean schools need to prepare

students with appropriate employability skills and attributes that would enable the students

to further their study and find employment.

6.4.3 Industry/business personnel’s views about employability skills

and attributes in VET training programs

Table 34, Appendix C, illustrates business/industry personnel’s degree of agreement on

employability skills and attributes possessed by secondary/post-secondary school students.

The industry personnel were asked to express their degree of agreement on three

statements regarding employability skills and attributes and VET programs.

The aim of this survey question was to identify their position in employing graduates from

various levels of educational institutions in PNG. The question asked the extent to which

they agree with either high school graduates, post-secondary school graduates or

TAFE/tertiary school graduates. As usual, the Likert Scale was used, thus: 1 = Strongly

disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree and 4 = Strongly agree. These statements are:

� High school graduates generally have the appropriate employability skills/

attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for;

� Post-secondary graduates generally have the appropriate employability

skills/attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for; and

� Other TAFE/Tertiary graduates have generally the appropriate employability

skills/attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

The responses to these statements are very crucial in the sense that they reveal the

feelings/opinions of the industry personnel towards the secondary, post-secondary and

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college/university graduates who may possess the appropriate level of employability skills

and attributes and VET training programs.

Surprisingly, about 21% and a huge 51.8% of industry personnel strongly disagreed or just

disagreed with the first statement while just 23.2% and 3.6% respectively agreed or

strongly agreed with this statement. This is clearly an indication that high school graduates

generally do not possess the appropriate employability skills/attributes to be effective in

the position that they could apply for.

The second statement has positively been accorded with the highest ratings of 69.6% in

agreement while 3.6% strongly agreed. On the other hand, a good 23.2% and at least one

personnel disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. On the whole, the result for

this statement shows that most industry personnel are in favour of graduates coming out of

post-secondary schools while just a few of them preferred the high school graduates.

Similarly, 57.1% and 25% of industry personnel either agreed or strongly agreed that other

TAFE/tertiary graduates generally possess the appropriate employability skills/attributes to

be effective for the positions that they are hired for. Only, 8.9% and 3.6% respectively

disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement.

6.4.4 Industry/business personnel’s views about employability skills

training programs for new employees

Table 35, Appendix C, contains the results for business/industry personnel’s opinions on

the provision of employability skills training being engaged by their organisations. This

question was asked in order to determine whether business/industries in Port Moresby

engage in providing any form of skills training. It requires a yes/no response but if they

choose NO, then they were asked to indicate the reasons for not having such training

programs within their organisations. Also, if any business organisation had a training

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program, the next question that followed was asked in order to find out what type of people

(skilled professional trainers) were engaged in providing the training.

The question was responded by 57.1% indicating their organisation has been providing

certain employability skills training for their new employees. In contrast, 35.7% indicated

their organisation did not offer any skills training for their new employees. But those

organisations that provided skills training for their new employees, 44.6% of personnel

indicated they have trainers on hand to coordinate and assess their organisation’s training

needs for their new employees. Only 17.9% admitted they have not specialised trainers in

their organisations to provide such employability skills training for their new recruits.

Those organisations that have no employability skills training program were asked to

indicate why their organisation not offering any employability skills training program for

new employees. The reasons have been placed on a Likert Scale from: 1 = Lack of time or

resources to conduct training; 2 = New employees are skilled already; 3 = Number of new

employees is small; 4 = Training is done in other PNG VET/Technical colleges or

universities; 5 = Not applicable.

In responding to these scales, about 16.1% thought there was a lack of time or resources to

conduct such training for their new employees while only 5.4% thought new employees are

skilled already. Then about 17.9% indicated the number of employees that they recruit has

been small while 8.9% admitted that training is done in PNG VET/technical colleges or

universities. Surprisingly, 50% of industry personnel did not respond this question for

unknown reasons. Further research is needed to find out why this is happening.

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6.4.5 Business/industry personnel’s views about VET training/apprenticeship program participation at different education levels

Table 36, Appendix C, indicates results for business/industry perceptions on

VET/Apprenticeship program participation by education levels in PNG. This question

aimed to draw the employers’ views on the level of interest to participate or not to

participate in VET and engaging in apprenticeship programs in various educational levels

in PNG. They were asked to choose from a five-point Likert scale on statements that

correspond to their industry sector that they would be interested in participating. If for

some reason that their organisation had no intention to participate in any VET or

apprenticeship program, they were asked to choose the ‘Not applicable’ column. The

year/institutional level of interest to participate in VET/apprenticeship program as shown

on the Likert scale include: 1 = Grades 9 -10 level only; 2 = Grades 11 – 12 level only; 3 =

All Grades 9 – 12 levels; 4 = Post-secondary/college/University levels; and finally, 5 = Not

applicable.

The outcome of this survey question seemed to lie towards one side where most personnel

either responded as ‘not applicable’ or ‘not responding at all’. A large number of missing

data were identified as well as most of them responded ‘not applicable’. However, those

who could respond, the results indicated an uneven spread between the Grade levels in

which certain VET training and apprenticeship programs ought to be performed, most

leaning towards post-secondary/college/University levels, followed by ‘All Grades from

Grade 9 – 12’ and then ‘Grades 11 and 12 levels only’. The Grades 9 – 10 levels had few

responses only.

VET subjects that were viewed to be participated at various educational levels, include

subjects like: accounting/management, banking/finance, insurance, chemical,

pharmaceutical/medical supplies, computer information, telecommunication studies, health

educational training, general engineering, general wholesale and retailing, marketing and

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advertising and mining and petroleum industry training. These subjects were considered by

most employers to be taught and participated at the post-secondary

school/college/university level only.

Whereas, for ‘All Grades 9-12 levels, subjects like: agriculture/livestock/fisheries, some

automotive suppliers and services, computers, electronics, construction suppliers and

services, food and beverages industries, forestry, logging/timber,

freighting/customs/transport, general wholesaling and retailing, security/protection/safety,

to mention a few, have been considered to be taught/participated at the Grade 9 – 12 level.

The reason behind most choosing ‘not applicable’ and not having to respond to most

variables indicates that most of the VET subjects identified have not been part of their

programs or not known to them. However, for those responded to the other educational

levels, the results showed some good indication of having some of the selected VET

programs/apprenticeship programs at ‘All Grades from Grade 9-12 levels only, while

others suggested Grades 11-12 levels only. Whatever, the outcome, providing some

relevant VET/apprenticeship programs at all levels from Grades 9-12 seems appropriate.

In summary, most industry personnel indicated that their VET training at various

educational levels as either not applicable, meaning their organisation had nothing to do

with any training or they just ignored responding to most of the questionnaire choices.

However, those that did respond showed some positive results, illustrating that some

relevant VET/apprenticeships programs would be taught at all levels of the lower and

upper secondary school levels. Others thought that some of the relevant VET subjects

could be taught at only Grades 11 and 12 levels.

The general perception for industry personnel was that post-secondary school graduates

had the required VET skills and attributes in content to those coming out from secondary

schools. The final section seeks to show results from the qualitative data obtained from

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policy-makers (Education Officials and Secondary School Principals). The results are

placed in Appendix D.

6.5 POLICY-MAKER/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ SURVEY

RESULTS

In order to seek views from the policy-makers, especially the three education officials and

two secondary school principals, the following subsidiary research questions were asked:

How do policy-makers regard VET in PNG? How would they contribute to VET?

The purpose of these interview questions have been to seek the education policy-makers

and school principals’ views on how they view and think about VET and how they would

contribute to VET development in PNG.

To achieve these objectives, semi-structured questions for the policy-makers have been

asked: their position in the organisation, how they see the student/school leaver trend and

VET performance, their views on the need for accommodating employability skills and

attributes and the community’s need to participate in VET programs. At the same time, it

was important to seek some views on how assessment and accreditation have been carried

out as well as teacher training.

The interview analysis has two parts: one on policy-makers’ views and the second on two

secondary school Principals’ views.

Responses from three Education Officers

All responses are in Appendix D. The three policy-makers from the Education Department

were interviewed using seven topics: school enrolment/leaver trend in PNG; current VET

performance at the school level and number of students entering passing out of the

secondary school system; VET program meeting employability skills needs;

school/community/industry VET participation; assessment and accreditation of VET

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skills/attributes; VET teacher training and level of teaching (Year level of Teaching TVET

courses); and achievements and difficulties.

As all the responses showed, the heavy TVET courses are not taught at the secondary

school level, as this would be very expensive. The heavy TVET courses are only b taught

at Technical colleges. But the problem is there are only few technical colleges and that

means that thousands of students will still miss out on their chances of getting their VET

skills. Having only a selected not so heavy VET courses at the secondary school level

would limit the opportunity for potential students who might wish to build their career in

TVET. Parents, guardians and students themselves need to change their views on VET.

They currently tend to put less emphasis on VET and more on academic subjects and

university education.

It appeared this perception to upgrade VET was reflected on the minds of policy-makers

and many other stake-holders, such as students and parents/guardians. This was clearly

shown in the way VET courses at the secondary school were discriminated against. The

policy-makers put more emphasis on less heavy VET courses for the secondary school

while the heavier VET courses were to be taught at Technical colleges. Consequently,

these heavy VET courses would be enjoyed by only a handful of students.

Responses from two Deputy School Principals

As above, all responses from the two School Principals are placed on Appendix D. The

school principals have responded to ten (10) interview topics: inclusion of VET subjects in

current curriculum; Grade levels in which VET subjects were taught; teacher qualities:

VET teachers and their qualifications and teaching effectiveness; extent to which VET

subjects sufficiently meet employment needs of students; apprenticeship programs;

collaborative learning with school/industry and successes; VET assessment and

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accreditation; VET teacher training and recruitment; problems of VET management/ how

resolved; and need to add relevant industry program to the current VET program.

The two Principals expressed some serious VET policy and implementation issues that needed

close attention by all stakeholders in PNG. The following results were revealed for VET teaching

and learning within the school level: There was a lack of school facilities and equipment to teach

available VET subjects efficiently; students were still competing for academic courses and less

attention was paid to VET subjects; there was lack of industry collaboration in VET training, to

state a few.

6.6 SUMMARY

The following information summarizes the results of this research. In other words, there

are four paragraphs to this summary and each summary clearly answers the research

question for each stakeholder.

The students generally thought the academic subjects and VET employability skills and

attributes were important. Although, some VET subjects and the employability

skills/attributes were considered important, these were not being effectively taught. Most

students were taking the academic subjects instead. As a result, the students derived more

learning from the academic subjects and broadly less from VET subjects.

Most teachers were teaching the academic subjects and only a few taught VET subjects.

Most VET subjects contained little content knowledge on hard VET subjects and their

related employability skills and attributes. They were just teaching what was prescribed to

them by the Education Department. Despite this, teachers generally thought the VET

subjects and employability skills/attributes were important for their students’ learning and

knowledge acquisition.

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Business/industry personnel also indicated VET and employability skills and attributes

were very important. Many of them had indicated little interest in participating in VET

programs at secondary schools for reasons known to them. Also, most were of the view

that post-secondary school graduates have the required skills to become employable but

not the secondary school graduates.

The three education officials and two Principals indicated some changes were taking place

at the policy level. One of these changes was the integration of state and private

VET/academic courses into a single national accreditation system. The Principals also

indicated the need to collaborate with other stakeholders and training institutions to

participate in VET programs. Many Education Officials and Principals expressed the need

to improve the system of education that PNG was producing with additional need for

funding, resourcing of institutional facilities and quality teaching. Such lack of facilities

has affected students’ academic and VET course choices and learning, thus resulting in

most students competing for academic pathways and less attention being paid to VET

subjects.

Whilst VET and its related skills and attributes were considered by most stakeholders to be

useful for their future careers or employment, may had a tendency to view academic

subjects are more important. This result illustrated an unbalanced system of secondary

education where more students would continue to favour academic subjects than VET

subjects. These results point to the need for a more integrated approach to VET in PNG.

Chapter 7 elaborates on some of the key issues as they emerged from the results.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of a VET model at the

secondary school level which might address the current student transition problem and its

associated socio-economic issues facing the young people of Papua New Guinea. In order

to seek an answer to this problem, the following sources of information were consulted:

literature that dealt with the education system in PNG, international literature that dealt

with factors as drivers for revitalising VET/ TVET, the theoretical paradigms that underpin

VET and the various ways in which VET has been taught internationally, especially in

Australia and America. The employability skills and attributes and VET models and the

theories underpinning the VET models were reviewed.

The main research question was: How can a VET model minimise the current transition

problem at the secondary school level in Papua New Guinea? To answer this theme

question, four subsidiary research questions were designed:

The first question was designed to determine what PNG students acquire from VET

currently and what they should derive from VET. The second question aimed to determine

how teachers and principals in PNG at present regard VET, how they should regard VET

and whether they have been co-operating and should co-operate with business/industry

sectors to achieve an effective VET program in PNG.

Similarly, Question Three aimed to identify the perceptions of personnel in

business/industry sectors about how they regard VET and whether they had participated

either currently or in the future in VET in PNG. The final question was directed to the

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education policy-makers, including school Principals to identify their perceptions and

contributions to VET in PNG.

Data was collected from 140 selected secondary school students and 52 teachers in Port

Moresby. A total of 56 business/industry managers located also in Port Moresby responded

to the survey questionnaire and five policy-makers (3 from the National Department of

Education and 2 Secondary School Principals) took part in the interview. A total of 253

people willingly accepted the invitation to participate in the study. The results are

discussed under the research questions.

7.2 STUDENTS’ RESULTS

What do PNG students derive from VET at the present moment? What should PNG


In order to answer these two questions, eight related questions were asked. These questions

were strategically designed to determine: the extent to which students participated in

general/academic and VET subjects; how they view the importance of the reasons for their

participation in VET courses; the students’ perceived levels of agreement on VET; how

they value the importance of employability skills and personal attributes that are required

by students for their future careers; their levels of agreement on teacher effectiveness;

people influencing students’ study and career pathways and students’ levels of general

academic and VET course preferences.

7.2.1 Students’ views about general/academic and VET subject

participation

The results showed that most Grade 12 to Grade 9 students, one way or another, had higher

esteem for the academic subjects than VET subjects. For the Grade 12 and Grade 11

students, their participation level in the VET subjects dropped substantially while their

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participation in academic subjects increased. This has resulted in creating a huge gap. A

similar trend occurs for Grade 10 and Grade 9 students.

This result clearly confirms the claims made in articles by Kukari (2004) and Anderson

(1997) that PNG students interpreted syllabuses in ways which promote a competitive,

exam-oriented academic curriculum that may not be related to activities that school leavers

would find it useful when they are back in their villages or communities. This result also

confirms Buchanan’s (2000) assumption that conforming to the Western system of

education and lifestyle would only come about as a result of an academic education. This

result correlates with views held by Hill and Bablis (2006) that parents, students and

teachers have been focusing more on achieving better results in academic subjects through

a competitive examination system than developing/concentrating on VET skills.

These results portray a view that academic subjects are still considered more important

than VET. Although a few selected VET subjects have been taken by some students, most

other students participated in academic subjects. This result showed that academic subjects

were highly favoured by students than VET subjects. It would be appropriate to adopt a

policy that promotes the image and value of VET that would balance and bridge the gap

between academic and VET subjects.

7.2.2 Importance of the reasons to participate in VET

While more students participated in more academic subjects to VET, the students at a

deeper level were conscious of the importance of taking VET subjects. Most of the

students thought that VET would provide multiple pathways to further education, training

or employment. Such results were consistent with previous findings indicating that VET at

the secondary school level does assist in creating multiple school-to-work pathways,

including further education and training, employment and improvement of life (Barabasch

& Lakes, 2005). Students tended to view that lack of VET skills at the school level will

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result in unemployment (Looker & Thessen, 2008) or an under-skilled transition at the

various levels will affect their ability to find employment once they go out of the

secondary school (Hardy, 2000). It would be devastating for the students, especially those

graduating to go out into the world with only the academic course knowledge and not the

VET skills and knowledge (The National, Monday September 22, 2008).

The results appear to show that majority of students had a desire to enhance their transition

to a broad range of post-school options and pathways. The students wanted their

qualification recognised to the extent that it would lead them to places of training and work

(Spring and Syrmas, 2002). There is recognition that VET and its embedded skills should

become part of a value-added education (Harvey, 2004) model in PNG. The students were

aware of the important role that VET plays in shaping their lives (Mark, 2006; Porter,

2006).

The need is that, provided that students are now aware of the important role that VET plays

in society and especially in their lives, more emphasis needs to be placed on VET. At the

same time, students need to be encouraged to take VET subjects and collaborate with the

wider community (Porter, 2006).

7.2.3 Students’ perceptions about VET

Most students had a tendency to believe that VET courses are not as highly recognised as

those of the university-bound academic courses. The VET courses are, however,

considered alternatives for people who are unable to find jobs with their academic

qualifications and reserved for people who are not suited for academic education and

careers (Lawson, 2004). VET has been considered a second chance for people who want

further education (Klee, 2002). The only exception has been that some students agreed that

VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship.

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This result confirmed earlier views on the low profile that VET suffers from in PNG that

gives rise to promoting the academic subjects in the PNG Education system (Rushbrook

and Wanigasekera, 2004). The students here are expressing a popular view of the place of

VET in the PNG education system (PNG National Education Assessment Report, 2000)

and PNG Education Plan 2005 -2014 (2004). Thus, VET is for those students who do not

make it to Grade 10, Grade 12 or University.

The students expressed a common/popular view that in order to enter college or university,

they must perform better in the academic subjects. At the same time, most students who

took the academic pathway considered VET to be provided for those who are not interested

in academic careers, or it becomes an alternative subject if they do not meet the criteria for

university entrance.

For the Dalley-Trim, Alloway and Walker (2008) study, VET was considered as the

domain of the non-academic students who perform physical and under-valued work while,

in contrast, non-VET subjects were for the doers of valued and mentally rigorous work.

For some students VET was seen to be the ‘dumping ground’ for ‘trouble-makers’. There

were indications that some teachers also devalued VET and were assumed to have

encouraged some students not to take VET subjects and this appears to be directly

correlated with the findings of Dalley-Trim, Alloway and Walker (2008: 65). VET

qualifications are judged by some employers and university tutors as inferior (Young,

1993).

Some Australian students viewed VET with open suspicion in relation to its place within

the curriculum, and more specifically in relation to tertiary-bound pathways. One student

suggested that she does not think it wise to mix academic and VET subjects as the latter

(VET) is viewed to be of little value, if not potentially dangerous to the tertiary-bound

student (Dalley-Trim, Alloway & Walker, 2008: 67).

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Such findings may have some bearing on the results shown for the PNG students in the

current study. There needs to be a change of perception on secondary school education as a

stepping stone for university education only. There are other pathways that VET provides

that students need to consider given that there are not enough places at Universities.

7.2.4 Importance of employability skills and personal attributes

required by students for their future careers

This question constitutes students’ opinions on how they see the employability skills and

attributes as important for their future careers. It was amazing to note most students at all

levels viewing the employability skills and attributes either as important or very important.

First, their preferred employability skills and attributes in descending order include:

communication, self-management, planning and organising, teamwork, information

technology, ongoing learning, problem-solving and initiative and enterprise.

For the attributes, students rated commitment as important, followed by honesty and

integrity, balanced attitude to work and home-life, ability to deal with pressure, common

sense, adaptability, positive self esteem, reliability, personal presentation, and loyalty.

One finds that although there have been some debates on the need to have VET in PNG

(World Bank Report, 2007; Asian Development Bank Report, 2008), they do not

emphasise the importance of these employability skills and attributes that the students

viewed as important or very important for them. The results showed that although most

students do not have any work experience as yet, they think that certain employability

skills and attributes are necessary for them to start their future career and life. They think

that whatever their future holds for them, they can only face it by acquiring appropriate

employability skills and attributes (Lawson, 2004). One would, therefore, think students

would find a hands-on or a constructivist/situated learning approach more appealing

(Chadd & Anderson, 2005).

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These results are consistent with Hawke & Chapell, 2008) to consider designing a skilled-

based education (Hawke & Chapell, 2008). These skills and attributes have been included

in some African secondary school systems (Anamuah & Dennis, 2007). Employers would

look for these skills and attributes (DEST, 2002) and, without these skills most students

may not get jobs. Their Year 10 or 12 certificates would be considered valueless (ADB,

2006).

The results, therefore, imply that these employability skills and attributes need to be

included in the PNG secondary school curriculum. These skills need to be taught and

learned in a constructivist manner at school (Lankard, 1998). While a few of these skills

and attributes could have been integrated and taught in the education system in PNG, one

considers that more needs to be done to integrate these skills and attributes in the

secondary school curriculum. Students need to learn these skills and attributes prior to their

transition in post-secondary/tertiary institutions or return to their communities.

7.2.5 Students’ perceptions of teacher effectiveness

Question 5 constitutes the level of agreement on teacher effectiveness at the secondary

school level in PNG. The aim of this question was to determine how effective the teachers

were, not only in instilling the knowledge and skills of VET in students but also in

determining their level of competency and the approaches they applied in presenting their

lessons in class that may have positively impacted on student learning.

These results are indicative of classroom-teachers focusing more on behavioural pedagogy

(Education Broadcasting Corporation, 2004) rather than on a cognitive or constructivist/

situated learning approach that this study advocates (Lankard, 1998; Billett, 1994; Hein,

1991). The result shows that the process of learning/teaching in PNG may depend on

textbooks and little room is provided for student interaction (Brand, 2003).

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The result for this question may derive from teachers teaching other academic subjects

than the VET subjects. These results contrast with results found for the Australian study

where the approaches applied by teachers in teaching VET subjects boosted student morale

(Porter, 2006). Whatever the case, students have not yet experienced job placements or

practical activities outside their schools.

Therefore, while most students spoke in favour of their teachers, it is not clear whether the

knowledge being acquired has been taught using the constructivist and situated learning

approaches (Lankard, 1998; Armstrong, 1994) and whether this knowledge and these skills

have been sourced from the academic curriculum or the VET curriculum at the school. The

question remains whether the approaches used by the teachers had any influence on student

learning in the academic or the VET courses.

7.2.6 People influencing students’ study and career pathways

In order to seek views on the people influencing students’ study and career pathways,

students were asked to choose their preferences using a four-point Likert scale. This

question is important in the sense that, in the PNG context, students usually choose specific

pathway courses for various reasons. In most cases parents play a crucial role in

influencing their children’s education. At the same time, fellow students and teachers are

expected to play a major role in a student’s decision to take a particular course pathway.

The results showed that most Grade 12 to Grade 9 students indicated that their friends and

peers have most often influenced them, followed by their class teachers. Some Grade 12

students indicated that career advisors/ counsellors or their class teachers most often

influence their study and career pathways.

Most students in all Grades had very little idea whether their parents/guardians had

influenced them with their study and career pathways. This is a surprising result, especially

to see parents and guardians doing very little to encourage their children about their study

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and career pathways. For the lower Grades, some class teachers played little role in

influencing their students on study and career pathways. There was a lack of knowledge on

the future job market in PNG by most parents.

Parents/guardians have a primary duty to play in advising their children on specific skills

that are required for their children’s future careers (Porter, 2006). The students need to be

advised to consider other VET options rather than just lumping all into a few academic-

oriented subjects that may lead most of them nowhere. Since the school leavers may need

to teach further training opportunities, they require greater awareness of the relevant skills

(Billett, 1994; National Education Plan 2005-2014, 2004). Students need an integrated

skilled-based education that may enhance their learning and the chance of giving them

some hope for their future (Galloway & Welge, 1991).

In addition, students need to be informed that an improved quality of schooling will create

the platform for VET to do its distinctive and value-adding work in skills training, while

stronger employer commitment to training would make greater use of the workplace as a

site for skills development (NCVER, 2008). Students need to know that an integrated

academic/VET curriculum would assist them to not only acquire different job skills and

attributes but also would provide a better opportunity for employment, further education

and training (Armstrong, 1994:1; Sue, 1992). Influencing students to decide for their future

careers is not just telling them about studying hard in order to get into a university or

college or get employment. It is about informing them about the acquisition of the

employability skills and the knowledge of a trade or competencies that Sandberg, Billett,

Simons and Harris, in Velde (2009) advocated and how to get there.

The results imply that the school is the place to begin providing the required information to

students about job opportunities, what is needed to get into a job, further training and what

students need to learn prior to leaving secondary school.

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The results indicate that there is some advice on career choices but this advice could be

one-sided, especially regarding white-collar careers based on academic excellence and less

on VET. This study would aim to provide a balanced VET model by harnessing the

opportunities that derive from both academic and VET.

7.2.7 Students’ levels of general academic and VET course

preferences

The final question seeks to identify the level of students’ general academic and VET

course preferences. The results indicate that students favoured most academic subjects and

some preference for VET subjects. The VET subjects received mixed results, ranging from

‘no preference’, ‘low preference’, ‘some preference’ and a few ‘high preference’. The VET

courses, although considered important, became marginalised as most students competed

for the academic subjects.

For the academic subjects, the results fall into two categories. On one hand, there are

students pursuing Arts and Social Sciences pathway, and those students striving to follow

the Science pathway. Those students who are majoring in the Science pathway seem to

indicate ‘no preference’ or ‘low preference’ for the Arts and Social Sciences subjects and

vice-versa. However, both groups seem to show some favour for the VET subjects.

The results on academic and VET course preferences indicate that a discriminative system

of subject choice has been in place, by which students have been allowed to choose

whichever subjects they like. Thus, most students prefer the academic subjects more than

the VET subjects. Despite such differences, it is good to note that there was some

realization of the VETiS program that Australian schools have (Lamb & Vickers, 2006).

The results are that very little allowance was made to accommodate academic and VET by

the PNG Education system when compared to the Australian system (ACER, 2008). It is

hard at this stage for students to realise the benefits that VET brings to their lives in terms

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of acquiring employability skills/attributes that industries prefer from secondary school

graduates (Evans, 2005).

It appears most of the employability skills and attributes that are supposed to be embedded

in VET appear to be absent from the current PNG curriculum. What the students have

learned so far is believed to be minimal. A need now is to consider a flexible integrated

model (Kate, 2004; Roegge, Galloway & Weige, 1991) based on the constructivist/situated

learning approach (Lankard, 1998; Kerka, 1998).

The implications are that the students in PNG have not yet come to terms with engaging

employment-based programs as in the Australian system (Barnett and Ryan, 2005; School

Apprenticeship Link, 2006). The knowledge and engagement of the industry /workplace

program that Australia advocated (Evans, 2005) is yet to be realised in PNG. The students

still think that the only way to success in life is through an academic curriculum that takes

them to university.

This perception is a reflection of the underlying ideology that becoming a ‘big man’ in

PNG is through a Westernized academic education system (Buchanan, 2000). Getting a

University education is the way to go in acquiring full status in the community (Papoutsaki

and Rooney, 2006) in PNG society. Such a mentality has prevented people from venturing

into VET and this needs to be avoided by providing an integrated system of education that

gives equal weight to both academic and VET subjects.

In summary, the results for this question indicate that most students in PNG are still at the

cross-road, not knowing which direction they should head. The only real option available

to them has been the academic pathway which most wishes to take, while VET is reserved

for a minority group of not so talented students. The wider academic pathway never

favours most of the students. There are selected VET subjects included in the curriculum,

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most of which are restricted to the Lower Secondary School level while a selected few are

taken up by the Upper Secondary School level.

Therefore, the need now is to realign these academic and VET subjects in such a way that

they all become meaningful to students in PNG. The next question discusses how PNG

teachers/principals at present regard VET and how they co-operate with business/industry

to meet their students’ employability needs.

7.3 TEACHERS’ RESULTS

How do PNG school teachers presently regard VET? How should PNG school teachers

regard VET? How should school teachers co-operate with the business and industry

sectors to achieve an effective VET program in PNG?

In order to answer these questions, the teachers were asked to respond to five questions:

general academic and VET subjects they have been teaching, personnel involvement in

developing the academic and VET courses, VET course development and delivery

mechanisms, teacher perceptions on employability skills and attributes (Flynn and

Thomason, 2006) included in academic and VET courses and teachers’ views on VET

employability skills and attributes. 52 teachers (22 females and 30 males) have responded

to the teacher questionnaire.

7.3.1 General academic and VET subjects taught by teachers

In order to determine how teachers regard the academic and VET subjects, teachers have

been asked to outline general academic and VET subjects they have been teaching. The

results showed that some teachers were taking more than one subject. When compared,

more teachers were teaching academic subjects and only a few taking VET subjects.

The average number of academic subjects taught by teachers was very high compared to

VET subjects. This has left a big gap allowing academic subjects to be taught by more

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teachers while VET was taught by a few teachers. This result again confirms the argument

that secondary schools in PNG interpret syllabuses in ways which promote a competitive

exam-oriented academic curriculum (Kukari, 2004). A picture emerges from this result that

the teachers were maintaining the status quo of the education policy that puts more

emphasis on the core academic subjects and less on VET (Buchanan, 2000), thereby

satisfying high level manpower needs in PNG (Papoutsaki and Rooney, 2006). Other

research has shown that VET should not be perceived as a dumping ground for academic

failures and delivered as such by staff, with little or no rapport with students involved

(Klee, 2002).

This study would challenge such views that while a general academic-oriented education

would supply the manpower needs of PNG, it would also abandon thousands of students

who would apparently become unemployed in PNG. Such has been the case in PNG in that

thousands of students go through the formal education system with a focus on the general

academic subjects (Asian Development Bank Report, 2006). This system, obviously,

would not create jobs for the bulk of the population living in rural areas in PNG

(McMurray, 2002).

The results indicate that most teachers are currently teaching general academic subjects

while only a few teachers are handling a few selected VET subjects. The need now is to

train and engage more VET teachers in order to maintain a balanced manpower that takes

on both academic and VET courses hand in hand.

7.3.2 Personnel involvement in general academic and VET course

development

Teachers have been asked to indicate which people (course instructors from their school,

curriculum developers from the National/Provincial Education offices, business/industry

personnel, especially those who provide VET) have been involved in developing specified

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courses. The purpose for asking this question has been twofold: first, to find out whether

there has been any collaboration going on in designing the academic and VET curriculum

between various organisations and second, to determine the extent to which these

stakeholders participated in these subjects.

In response, more teachers reported that the academic and VET courses have been

developed exclusively by individual course instructors as well as groups of educators from

the Curriculum Division in PNG. In contrast, there was very little input from the industry

or other VET training organisations in the country. The national academic and VET

curriculum have been developed by the Education Department with individual/groups of

specialists or curriculum designers.

The academic and VET specialists have been engaged in designing the PNG secondary

school and post-secondary school curriculum and syllabuses with little input from the

industry or business sector. This result contrasts with industry and other registered VET

training organisations in Australia and elsewhere (Cleary, Flynn & Thomason, 2006;

Partee & Halperin, 2006; Lerner & Brand, 2006; Association for the Development of

Education in Africa, 2008).

While one assumes curriculum specialists from the National Department of Education

(NDE), with some assistance from teachers, designed the secondary school academic and

VET curriculum, it is not known whether the curriculum content and methods applied any

of the elements of the constructivist/situated learning approaches (Lindberg, 2003;

Lankard, 1998; Billett, 1994) that has relevance for PNG.

The results showed more curriculum design initiated by the Education Department but

some efforts of innovation have been initiated by some academics at the school level. In

contrast, not a great deal of effort was put into designing the academic curriculum by

educators with industry support.

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Therefore, the need now is to establish a link between the schools, the Education

Department and the business/industry sector in deciding the relevancy of VET subject

developments and skills (Bradley and Nield, 2002). There is also a need to focus on the

importance of networking and group collaboration between VET providers and training

institutions (Harris, Simons and Moore, 2005) which become critical for PNG.

7.3.3 VET course development and delivery mechanisms

This question sought views from teachers regarding what methods were used to develop

VET courses and how the VET courses were delivered at the school level. The purpose

was to understand the various models applied in teaching VET subjects and skills/attributes

in PNG.

The results indicate very little VET being taught with workplace learning and very little

stand-alone VET. However, a few selected VET courses without workplace learning were

taught as non-core subjects at the school level. Most other VET subjects have not been

taught at the school level. All these results contrast with VET programs in the Australian

secondary school level that Porter (2006) and many others identified. The results indicate

that there was very little significant expansion in a range of VET programs for secondary

school students with opportunities that link study at school with the community and the

workplace as compared with the Australian VET program (Kilvert, 2002).

The results imply that any industry-based training program, VET assessment and

accreditation mechanisms with industry-recognised qualification awarded to students at the

end of their training as reported for the Australian context (Schneyder, 2002) have been

absent in the PNG case. There was very little mention of curriculum options and delivery.

The results also indicate that the chances of success and use of human resources, the

strength and diversity of community partnerships and strategies for school promotion have

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been overlooked by the PNG education system as opposed to those reported by Schneyder

(2002) in the Australian case.

The results showed that very little was contributed by teachers in developing VET skills

and attributes. This result is quite the opposite to principals and teachers in the Australian

context who have played important roles in embracing VET and developing VET programs

in their schools (Barnett & Ryan, 2005).The Australian VET framework, including on-the-

job training delivered in the workplace, integrated with off-the-job training delivered by a

school, technical and further education (TAFE) institute or other registered organisation

and skills/attributes (Lawson, 2004) clearly specified in assessment books and curriculum

documentation to support both on- and off-the-job training in each workplace (Barnett &

Ryan, 2005: 18), may be a way to go in the PNG case.

Therefore, the VET subjects that have received more attention by teachers in this study

need to be given a significant place in the PNG secondary school curriculum. Such

courses, include: Agriculture, Business Studies/Commerce, Building construction,

Information Technology, and a few other important VET subjects like Tourism and

Hospitality, Forestry Development, Fisheries, Mining, Manufacturing.

7.3.4 Teachers’ perceptions about employability skills and attributes

included in general academic and VET courses

This question was asked with the view that teachers would express what they have

experienced while teaching the employability skills and personal attributes of academic

and VET subjects. The employability skills include: Communication, Teamwork, Problem-

solving, Initiative and Enterprise, Planning and organising, Self management, Ongoing

Learning, and Information Technology. The personal attributes include: Loyalty,

Commitment, Honesty and integrity, Enthusiasm, Reliability, Balanced attitude to work

and home life, Motivation, Personal presentation, Common sense, Positive self-esteem,

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Sense of humour, Ability to deal with pressure and Adaptability. Teachers have been asked

to rate these employability skills and attributes as ‘not included’, ‘slightly included’,

‘mostly included’, or ‘fully included’.

Although the results seem to very encouraging, assurance is needed as to whether the type

of employability skills and attributes highlighted had ever been embedded in the PNG

academic or VET curriculum. This result contradicts the previous view that most VET

subjects have not been taught and questions whether the ones that have been taught do

have these skills and attributes embedded in the curriculum content. Smooth transition

from school to work or further study with the knowledge of these skills and attributes are

important (Robinson, 2000). These skills and attributes are needed in order to provide

greater flexibility within the education system as compared to the Australian system

(Karmel, 2008).

Teachers should know the elements of a high performance model, including teamwork,

decentralisation of authority, increase knowledge-sharing, flexibility in job content, and

additional training provision (NCVER, 2008). Teachers should know that young people

need to receive the best education possible to prepare them for life – to be able to possess

the entrepreneurial skills, commitment and initiative to contribute to the social, economic

and environmental well-being of their communities (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006).

Therefore, teachers in PNG have an important role to play in encouraging students and in

showing that they care for them, as this motivates students to learn the skills to move from

school into the workplace with greater self-confidence and a more positive outlook on life

(Klee cites Dumbrell, 2000). These skills and attributes have to be integrated into their

courses and utilised wherever possible in a more constructive way. That is what is needed

in PNG.

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7.3.5 The level of agreement about employability skills and attributes

as perceived by teachers

The results showed contrasting answers as to what the teachers were teaching and their

perceptions of general academic and VET course development, delivery mechanisms and

how the teachers viewed the employability skills and attributes. This meant that there were

some teachers who either strongly agreed or just agreed while other teachers strongly

disagreed or disagreed with some of the statements. The results indicate that more teachers

were explaining the importance of employability skills and attributes. It was also

convincing to note that most students did not understand how the assessment has been used

to test their level of knowledge in VET courses and their skills and attributes. However,

there was some agreement on why students should learn the employability skills and

attributes.

The results generally showed that there was little sign of connecting course content with its

context in education that is considered vital for bringing meaning to the learning process

(Chadd and Anderson, 2005). However, the teachers were convinced that a well-skilled

future depends on the productive capacity of the national workforce whose VET

knowledge and skills remain a vital part of that productive capacity (Richardson & Teese,

2006). The challenge for the PNG teachers is that VET becomes an important vehicle for

provision of employment-based training and qualifications.

Teachers should learn from the Australian system where students taking part in VET

programs have increased dramatically, with well over 90% of senior secondary schools

delivering VET subjects (Lamb and Vickers, 2006). This statistic reveals an important

correlation with secondary school VET and further training and employment. VET at the

secondary school level helps to create students and graduates with multiple school-to-work

transitional pathways, including further education, training, employment and improvement

of life in society (Barabasch & Lakes, 2005: 3).

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The results to this question show that PNG students were not benefiting much in terms of

skills development compared to those reported for the Queensland and New South Wales

study by Porter (2006). It is noted that transition can be affected by the unemployment, as

well as by the chronic under-employment which primarily affects younger and less

qualified individuals (Hardy, 2000).

To summarise, the general trend that emerged from this question indicated that most of

these schools have not been fully resourced with employability skills and attributes training

packages. It is, therefore, assumed that there are very few training packages available in

PNG now. As a result, the students have not been sufficiently taught the employability

skills and attributes. Whatever teaching resources the teachers have at their disposal, they

are doing all they can to pass on the skills. The teachers do realise the importance of these

employability skills and attributes and, therefore, most of them wished that these skills and

attributes should be included in their school curriculum so that their students can benefit

from them.

The next question focuses on business/industry personnel data on how they regard VET

and have contributed or participated in VET in PNG.

7.4 BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL RESULTS

How do business and industry sectors regard VET? How have they participated and

need to participate in VET?

Industry personnel have been asked to respond to four questions using the Likert scale. The

first question related to the importance of employability skills and personal attributes when

recruiting new secondary school graduates to their organisations; the second question seeks

to know how business/industry personnel would view and agree on who would possess

most employability skills and attributes from amongst secondary and post-secondary

school graduates. The aim has been to determine whether such graduate qualification

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information had any bearing on their level of employment and training; the third question

was intended to get business/ industry people to respond whether their companies have

been engaging in any form of training for their new employees. The aim was to determine

the level of business/industry involvement in VET development and participation at the

secondary and post-secondary school levels in PNG; and the final question relates to

whether the business/industries have participated or intend to participate in VET and, if

they did or do, under what Grade level(s) have they or would they be interested in

participating.

7.4.1 The importance of employability skills and personal attributes

as expressed by business/industry personnel

The industry personnel have been asked to indicate how important they consider the

employability skills and personal attributes they would seek from new secondary school

graduates. Employability skills include: Communication Teamwork, Problem-solving,

Initiative and Enterprise, Planning and organising, Self management, Ongoing Learning

and Information Technology. Personal attributes include: Loyalty, Commitment, Honesty

and integrity, Enthusiasm, Reliability, Balanced attitude to work and home life,

Motivation, Personal presentation, Common sense, Positive self-esteem, Sense of humour,

Ability to deal with pressure and Adaptability.

The results for this question confirm why there have been low labour demands and high

unemployment rates developing in PNG (ADB Report, 2005). The results indicate that the

industry personnel would be interested in recruiting only those secondary or post-

secondary school graduates who have proper qualifications with employability skills and

attributes (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006). It appears that student transition can be affected by

unemployment and under-employment which primarily affects younger and even less

qualified individuals (Hardy, 2000). Thus, it is important for students to become aware of

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those occupational choices and employability skills and attributes that would prepare them

for vocational and career planning at an earlier age (Sanstead, 2004).

Unless the students were given sufficient training in some of the employability skills and

attributes, there is no guarantee of employment for the majority of secondary school

graduates in PNG. Students should acquire these employability skills and attributes at the

secondary school level so that it would assist their smooth transition from school to further

education/training and employment (Woods, 2007). Secondary school students without

VET knowledge and skills would only face repercussions. These repercussions would not

only affect school leavers, but also the society (Looker & Thessen, 2008).

The industry data illustrated that VET is important because it not only improves the

employability skills and attributes of young people but also equips them to value their area

of work, and assists them to find employment and further training (Department of

Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2008). The results for the industry

question reveals that, employability skills and attributes should become an inherent part of

all components of training packages and units of competency. Their inclusion highlights

what these skills are in the context of particular job roles (Cleary, Flynn and Thomason

(2006).

Therefore, as far as the industry personnel are concerned, secondary school graduates

could only become employable if they possess the VET knowledge and employability

skills and attributes.

7.4.2 Industry/business personnel perceptions about employability

skills/attributes and VET training programs


statements regarding employability skills and attributes and VET programs. The aim of

this question was to identify the industry personnel’s position in employing graduates from

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various levels of educational institutions in PNG. The statements seek to gauge the extent

to which industry personnel agree with either high school graduates, post-secondary school

graduates or TAFE/tertiary school graduates.

Most industry/business personnel had a very strong view that only the post-secondary

school graduates and TAFE/tertiary graduates, as against young secondary school

graduates, had the appropriate employability skills and attributes to effectively perform

tasks that they have been hired or employed to do. If such has been the views of employers

in PNG, then it would mean that the secondary school graduates have a lesser, if not no

chance of getting employed in business/industry sectors in PNG. The reason appears to be

that the secondary school graduates have no proper employability skills and attributes to

perform the type of job that the employers are looking for.

If one can take the results as they stand, there has been a general perception that the

industry personnel were of the view that they would give priority to the graduates from

post-secondary and tertiary institutions only, rather than from secondary schools. No

wonder this sort of perception, dominating business/industry personnel, has prevented

them from hiring young secondary school graduates in PNG for a long time. No wonder

PNG has more secondary school graduates roaming the streets of towns and cities in the

country without work (PNG National Assessment Report, 2005; Asian Development Bank

Report: 2005). No wonder the unemployment rate for the school leaver has increased over

the years to unprecedented levels (ADB Report, 2005; PNG National Assessment Report,

2005; The National Newspaper, 17th February, 2009; The National, Monday, September

22, 2008). No wonder why the current employment trend in PNG is not good, and future

employment prospects look gloomy (Asian Development Bank Report, 2006) compared to

those observed by McMurray (2002). No wonder the business/industries in PNG may not

have the capacity to recruit most school leavers - including post-secondary school

graduates.

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In order to attract industry personnel and to make the secondary school students

employable, certain drastic decisions have to be made to include or engage VET at the

secondary school level. There has to be a change of attitudes and perception and it is high

time that education in the PNG system accommodates skills development for nation

building (Post-Courier, Wednesday 25th February, 2009). This failure has been realised

recently and the Department of Education has been spear-heading some form of VET

program at the secondary school level in PNG (PNG Department of Education Report,

2008; Department of Education Inspection Manual, 2005).

The industry people should also realise that the bulk of the students come out of secondary

schools and they need to be employed, just as the post-secondary and tertiary graduates

(Lamb & Vickers, 2006). There have been disparities being traced back to the type of

schooling people receive in the Australian context, suggesting that schools have a

significant role in shaping aspirations and preparing young people for post-compulsory

education and employment (NCVER, 2008). When compared to the Australian context, it

became apparent that employers, when employing apprentices, considered a different mix

of attributes, employability skills, and technical skills than those they considered when

employing qualified trades people (Lawson, 2004: 44).

Therefore, having realised that secondary school graduates are considered by the industry

personnel to be unequipped with the necessary employability skills and attributes,

compared to those graduates from post-secondary or tertiary institutions, one should

consider providing VET skills for students in PNG.

7.4.3 Employability skills training programs for new employees as

perceived by business/industry personnel

This question has been asked to gauge views whether business/industries in Port Moresby

have engaged in providing any form of skills training. The question required a yes/no

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response. However, where the answer was ‘no’, further reasons were required for not

having such training programs within their organisations. If, however, any business

organisation had a training program, the question that followed asked whether or not the

type of people (skilled professional trainers) have been engaged.

The results indicated that there were some organisations in Port Moresby that have been

providing employability skills training for their new employees. Some of these

organisations have training personnel involved in programs while others do not have such

training programs. These people indicated the following: their organisations lack time and

resources to conduct any training; the number of their employees are usually small; most of

their new employees are expected to have obtained their skills training at VET/technical

colleges or universities, and the new employees are considered to be skilled people.

While the results showed some industries engaging in employability skills training

programs for their new recruits, there are others that could not provide such training for

various reasons. Some of these include: lack of time, lack of training facilities and training

personnel, numbers of recruits are small, and employees/recruits already possess certain

employability skills and attributes. However, those that provide the required training

expected skills to be related to the area of work. That would mean training and skills

development may be restricted to certain areas only while other areas may require further

exploration.

It is uncertain whether these training packages contain the information that is required in

today’s culture. Whatever training programs industries are using, they should apply the

holistic/integrated approach to training consistent with UNESCO-UNEVOC’s values

(2006a). This means focusing more on: knowledge, skills and attitudes for social

sustainability that can develop all the powers and faculties of the individual – cognitive,

affective and behavioural - from which can flow such work values and attitudes as

creativity and adaptability, productivity, quality and efficiency, patience and perseverance,

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loyalty and commitment, freedom and responsibility, accountability, the spirit of service, a

futures orientation, and a genuine love for work (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2006b). If for any

reason these important skills and attributes have been missing in the training programs,

industries should seriously consider accommodating them.

When compared to the Australian context, most stakeholders have expectations for the

VET system, at whatever level, to produce students who are better informed of tasks and

requirements of the various trades. For example, studies conducted by NCVER (2004)

revealed that government, industry, enterprises and the community have great expectations

of the VET system and, therefore, VET providers need to be more actively involved in

bringing these changes into their training organisations (NCVER, 2004: 4). Industries in

PNG need to collaborate with schools to design training materials that contain cognitive

(compiling, analysing, coordinating), interactive (serving, supervising, mentoring) and

motor (handling, driving, precision working) skills (Billett, 1994).

PNG industries should be made aware of the roles that Australian organisations play in

embarking on teamwork, knowledge-sharing and additional training provision (NCVER,

2008:4). Some employers indicated that the school-based VET program was producing

young people who could think for themselves in a work situation, and who had the right

attitudes as well as maturity (Porter 2006: 20).

In the PNG situation, however, industries should collaborate with schools to shape

aspirations and prepare young people for post-compulsory education and employment

similar to those experienced in Australia (NCVER, 2008: 5). The result from this question

showed that some industries in PNG are doing their own training while others do not

provide any training at all. The extent of such training is uncertain and more research is

needed to confirm such a claim.

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7.4.4 Business/industry personnel perceptions of VET

Training/apprenticeship program participation in PNG

The final industry/business question aimed to draw from employers their views on the

level of interest in participating in VET and being involved in apprenticeship programs at

various educational levels in PNG.

The main message that surfaced from this question is that most industry personnel are in

favour of conducting some VET training programs/apprenticeship program at the post-

secondary and college/tertiary levels. In contrast, a few of them would be interested in

providing VET training/apprenticeship programs at the Years 9-12 levels. Most industry

personnel in this study were of the view that VET/apprenticeship, should be only restricted

to post-secondary/college level. This view contrasts with other developed countries’ views

where VET needs to be taught and developed at the secondary school level (Dore & Sako,

1989: 9). Most of the industry personnel’s perceptions on the levels of

training/apprenticeship programs appear to reflect or correlate to the PNG Education Plan

for 2005-2014 (2004: 4) where VET and apprenticeship training programs are restricted to

the post-secondary school and college levels.

It can be argued that any form of acquiring knowledge and skills should derive from within

the contexts in which the students are placed, irrespective of Year levels. This concept

derives from the constructivist/situated learning paradigms in which any form of learning

is grounded in the actions of everyday situations and acquired situationally by transfers to

similar situations (Velde, 2009; Lindberg, 2003; Lankard, 1998). Other elements include:

cognitive apprenticeships, service learning and work-based learning (Billett, 1994: 5), most

of which begin at the secondary school level.

Business/industries in PNG need to know that the contextual teaching and learning

approach provides a practical setting for structured work-based learning experiences

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(Chadd & Anderson, 2005: 25). Similarly, industries need to know that a project-based

learning model organises learning around projects in which students became engaged in

the design, problem-solving, decision-making and investigative activities, giving them the

opportunity to work over extended periods of time (Thomas, 2000: 1). These are vital

policy implications that PNG the Government needs to know and act upon to endow its

young population with employability skills at an early secondary school stage rather than

wait until only a few get into post-secondary schools.

In addition, the results showed that most industry personnel in PNG have been

misinformed on the current practice in VET whereby the emphasis is on work-based

learning that focuses on: apprenticeships, internships, cooperative education, service

learning, volunteer work, school-based enterprises. Most of industry was ill-informed on

school-to-career initiatives that focus on connecting school-based and work-based learning,

articulating high school and college courses, and providing workplace experiences (Ryken,

2006: 50).

The industry personnel (and other stakeholders) in PNG should understand that work-

based learning enhances the development of transferable generic skills such as work and

life-skills, critical thinking, communication, team-work, problem-solving, organising and

managing (Westberg & Jason, 1996: 5a). Thus, by interacting with workers on-the-job,

students are able to obtain relevant, up-to-date information to help them expand their

thinking about the workplace and their preparation for work (Westberg & Jason, 1996: 5).

Finally, those industry personnel who provided VET and apprenticeship training to

students at Grades 9-12 levels or only Grades 11-12 levels had reasons to think that way.

Such a desire to provide VET and apprenticeship programs at the secondary school level

would not only add value to both academic and VET subject development but also provide

a wider opportunity and flexibility for students to take up various pathways they feel

important for their lives (ACER, 2008). Such an arrangement has been included in the

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Australian context where industry-specific training packages have been designed and

included, nationally-endorsed units of competency-based training aligned to AQF

qualifications (Lamb & Vickers, 2006: 10).

Therefore, the level of impact on student learning using the VETiS approach seems to be

attractive. The VET curriculum in schools has clearly increased the opportunities for high

levels of achievements by a full range of students. Thus, the VETiS program had a major

impact on retention from Year 10 through Years 11 and 12. The VETiS program resulted

in most students reporting positively that their High School Certificate (HSC) helped them

a lot to understand the world of work, and their employers value the employability skills

gained by students (Evans, 2005: 4).

In summary, training in VET in PNG needs to start at the secondary school level and

extend into post-secondary or tertiary levels. VET needs to be implemented, first at the

secondary school level because that is where the bulk of the student population determines

their future pathways. This is like a central bus/train station where passengers decide which

bus or train to board for their desired destinations. It is important for students to start their

academic and VET programs with work-related learning skills at the secondary school

level. The final question discusses results from the five Education Officers: three from the

National Education Department and two School Principals.

7.5 POLICY-MAKERS/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS’ RESULTS

How do Education policy-makers and school principals regard VET in PNG? How

could they contribute to VET?

The purpose of this question was to know how policy-makers and school principals regard

VET and how they would contribute to VET in PNG. These questions have been answered

by three Education Officials and two secondary school Principals in Port Moresby. The

Education officials and the school principals have been considered very important for this

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study for two reasons. First, the Education Officials could reveal VET policy issues that

affect how they would contribute to developing VET. Second, the school principals should

have a fair idea as to whether VET was performing to expectations at the school level and

whether they faced or would face difficulties in implementing VET programs. They also

would express views about their students’ level of interest in VET at their schools. The

results from the Education Officials have been discussed first, followed by the two Deputy

Schools Principals.

7.5.1 Education officials’ perceptions of VET

The first question relates to school enrolment and the school leaver trend in PNG. All

respondents described a competitive student selection system based on examination results.

Only one third of the students are usually selected based on academic results. Out of these,

Universities are given the preference to select the best students for their programs while

two thirds are expected to attend TVET institutions, Teachers Colleges, Nursing Schools,

other colleges or find employment.

There was no assurance as to whether the two thirds of students leaving the school system

would find employment and some form of good living. One of the officers stated that many

provinces have opened up new secondary schools, thus the number of student enrolments

are increasing every year. At the same time, many students are becoming school dropouts,

most of them unable to get jobs.

This result is consistent with previous reports of mass student input and output without

serious consideration about employment (PNG National Assessment Report, 2005) and

more school dropouts and minimal employment opportunities that do not meet the equation

(Asian Development Bank Report: 2005 and 2006). Unemployment results in poverty and

inequality (Storey, 2006) and steady deterioration in the living standards for most people in

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PNG (New Zealand Agency for International Development Report, 2008; Government of

PNG Country Report 2008-2018, 2008).

The current Universal Basic Education plan for PNG (PNG National Newspaper, Tuesday

22nd June, 2009) will fuel the already weak system of education. The diploma disease

phenomenon and its impacts on society, alluded to earlier, tends to become a reality for

PNG. This trend is correlated to Fredericks’ (2001) argument that

…the current system of schooling is based on a model that assists with the

job selection process, as well as a view that education becomes a means to an

end, the end being job attainment that apparently serves to fuel the

qualification escalation phenomenon, resulting in detrimental effects on

employment, especially in developing countries (Fredericks, 2001).

PNG is no exception. The policy-makers are predicting a massive school leaver problem

and unemployment as a result of a system of education that is selective in promoting a few

students while the majority are leaving the system into an unknown future. Therefore, an

effective system of education is needed that would provide a flexible pathway for the

majority. Those students who do not secure a place at University/college can still find

some meaningful ways of taking up further study or finding employment.

7.5.2 VET performance and student transition rates

The provision of VETiS is often tolerated as the soft option for those students greatly

challenged by the traditional academic offering (Klee, 2002). There is a need for a policy

to recruit a skilled-labor force and a need to revitalize VET at the secondary school level

where students are encouraged to acquire the skilled training programs (OECD, 1999).

The results also show that currently there is a major need for qualified VET teachers. A

VET teacher has an important role to play in encouraging students to learn the skills that

assist students to move from school into the workplace with recognized skills, greater self-

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confidence and a more positive outlook on life (Klee cites Dumbrell, 2000). There is no

evidence that a student-centred learning is taking place that emphasizes this learning

process (O’Neill & McMahon cited Cobb, 1999; Bredo, 1999).

The results further showed that there is no application of self-directed learning taking place

that involves various activities and resources. There was no evidence to show whether

activities like self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships, electronic

dialogues, and reflective writing activities are taking place (Hiemstra, R. 1994b; Abdullah,

2001).

The results for this question indicate that students, teachers and policy-makers alike had no

clear understanding on VET that plays an important role in society - including the creation

of employment and improvement of socio-economic and environmental conditions

(UNESCO, 2006). One assumes that a minimal VET performance is currently occurring at

the secondary school level in PNG. Students’ transitions into various TVET colleges and

possibly into universities are also minimal as a result of the financial and other transition

problems that need to be addressed.

7.5.3 VET programs and employability skills needs

For this question, the results showed that there was limited opportunity for secondary

school leavers to find employment because of the lack of employability skills. If most

students wanted to get employed or find some form of employment, they should get some

training in VET/TVET courses. Also, in order to be employable or enter further education

and training, a student at the secondary school needs to get training both in academic and

VET subjects. It appears that being trained in one area and not in another may result in

‘sitting on the fence’, as the saying goes. Taking up an academic and VET course with

practicals is a very good combination that may result in a higher chance of being employed

or entering further training.

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PNG should learn from Australia and her leaders who advocate VET and skill

development as Australia’s future development goal. As Rudd and Smith (2007) advocate,

Australia needs to lift the number of students who complete senior secondary school and to

increase the number of people with vocational and skill trade qualifications. In order to

address the economic challenge of an increasing demand for skills, Australia must widen

the range of opportunities available to students in the secondary school system. They added

that the number of young people undertaking post-school training and education is entirely

dependent on how many students complete senior schooling (Rudd and Smith, 2007: 2).

Students need to develop, at secondary school, their cognitive, affective and psychomotor

skills like: computational skills, problem-solving, communication skills, literacy, logical

thinking, innovation, creativity, academic competence and adaptability that are necessary

for the student to be employable or go on in further education and training (Anamuah,

Asabere & Dennis, 2007). Similarly, students need to develop their affective skills, such

as: humility, punctuality, self-discipline, moral integrity, interest, self-confidence,

commitment, honesty and team-work that are considered vital for a person to be productive

in a working environment.

Students do not need to wait until they enter TVET colleges or universities to learn these

skills. Students need to learn the psychomotor or manual skills, including: practical skills,

job-centred skills and typing or information technology skills at the secondary school level.

A warning is that, if students fail to learn these skills at secondary school level, they would

face an uncertain future (Anamuah, Asabere & Dennis, 2007).

VET and skills development at the secondary school system has been a crucial step

forward in meeting the current economic and skilled labour trend. This is because most

students at secondary or post-secondary schools have the opportunity to learn theory, as

well as work-related skills that equip them to find employment while at school and out of

school (NCVER Report, 2003-2006). This is an important distinction compared to

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unemployment as a determining factor for VET discussed earlier. So, VET is seen as a

‘stepping stone’ or a ‘bridge’ for social and economic development and societal

transformation.

Most other countries recognise that an investment in high-level, low-level and intermediate

VET skills development results in: effective contribution to productivity; reduction in

social inequalities and addresses unemployment (Karmel, 2008). For example, there is

research evidence from Europe, India and China that they have developed their skilled

labour force. In particular, China has a VET system that became the backbone of economic

growth and prosperity as the result of enrolling one third of all secondary school students

in TVET institutions (Diallo, 2005).

For this study, the results indicate that, although exact figures are not provided, one officer

reported that TVET courses could lead to most graduates finding some form of

employment. However, the question still remains that there are not enough TVET colleges

that would currently cater for potential students. Limited TVET colleges would mean

limited space to accommodate a limited number of students.

7.5.4 School/community/industry participation in VET

Community-school collaboration is needed, where a school is in reach of a business

activity, such as commercial crop production like coffee, or cocoa. The students should be

given the opportunity to do some practical work with the industry/business so that once

students leave school can use that practical knowledge and skills in useful ways in their

own communities. A similar idea can be applied to students who attend schools in towns

and cities. Students can link up with business/ industrial activities, such as building and

construction, mining activities, agricultural activities, to name a few. Some of the TVET

courses have ‘on-the-job training packages’ to get students engaged in practical work with

industries but there is little such activity going on at present in PNG.

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The TVET section has been raising awareness of the importance of schools participating in

industry activities and making connections with existing industries. The provincial and

local level governments have been asked to raise such awareness. This awareness raising is

carried out not so much with established Technical colleges but vocational schools because

these schools are in local communities, where they know the needs of the community, such

as agriculture, carpentry, mechanical need, putting in a pipeline or whatever the people in

the community can get involved in. Secondary schools have very few facilities to get

students involved with industry. They, however, focus more on academic courses and less

on VET and industry programs.

This program is consistent with the Australian system where school to industry programs

encourage young people to gain practical experience of the workplace and learn industry

and workplace skills as part of their studies; programs allow employers to help young

people understand the workplace, as well as careers and job opportunities and directions in

industry; workplace learning programs are available to students from Years 9 to 12 (NSW

Department of Education and Training, 2005). Furthermore, such programs support a wide

range of experiences tailored to: the type of work students may be planning to do after

completing their studies; direct experience of a workplace helps students learn quickly and

powerfully about the changing nature of work and workplace; helping young people better

plan their transition through school, and from school, to a more fulfilling working life

(Evans, 2005).

The collaborative industry-related curriculum framework that these policy-makers are

suggesting is an important one that needs to be considered. One realizes that collaboration

and teamwork cannot be learned just through reading, listening and memorization of

concepts in the classroom. Students must be involved in collaborative experiences to gain a

comprehension of the intricacies of personal interactions, group dynamics, and respect for

the views of others. This activity involves students in the active construction of knowledge

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by having them work collaboratively with others to investigate a problem, negotiate

solutions through ‘whole brain’ involvement, and justify their recommendations (Lankard,

1998).

Such practical engagement has been the case for a number of schools in the Australian

context where student outcomes include improved self-esteem and self-confidence

(Kilpatrick & Falk cited in Dumbrell 2000; Misko 1999); increased vocational, team

working and communication skills; and greater chances of obtaining employment (Misko,

1999; Kilpatrick, et al. 2000). A study of three Tasmanian rural schools identifies a number

of initial outcomes of VETiS programs for schools and communities, including increased

school retention rates, more positive attitudes towards education and learning within the

community, and the provision of lifelong learning opportunities. Evidence from research

indicates that, as schools and their communities work together to develop VETiS programs

they build new networks in the process within the community (Figgis, 1998; Kilpatrick et

al. 2000). These new networks are important in building community social capital (Falk &

Kilpatrick, 2001).

Therefore, the implications are that the schools in PNG at the moment are not doing

enough to build that community relationship that allows the impartation of VET skills and

attributes to students that in turn, would prepare students to find success in their future

endeavors. Providing an effective VET program within the community may become a

stepping stone for employment and further education.

Yet, very little such activity is taking place in PNG. The results indicate that community

participation is needed so that when students complete school and return to their

communities, they can utilize the skills in business/agriculture and other entrepreneurship

activities in order to make a useful living in their communities. Some TVET courses have

field-work components that could meet such goals but little is seen to be happening at

present.

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7.5.5 Assessment and accreditation of VET skills/attributes

This question revealed that all VET courses are approved by the National Trade Testing

Board (NATTB) based on industry needs/requirements and they at times assist in

developing the industry curriculum. However, assessment is carried out by the TVET

Division of the Education Department while the technical institutions do the teaching,

assess students and award the National certificates. So schools only carry out what is

provided for them by the Department. It appears that TVET institutes teach according to

criteria already set and approved by the Education Department with consultation of the

National Trade and Testing Board (NATTB).

The arrangement on VET course accreditation and certification under the current plan is a

good one. Certificate I and II will be offered to students at the secondary school level for

those interested. Those students who enter TVET colleges will be exempted from repeating

Certificate I and II courses. Rather they will take VET III and IV subjects. All VET

courses provided by private and State institutions will be accredited through the NQF and

single certificates awarded by TVET division. The number of TVET colleges are still

limited and do not have the capacity to cater for all students that come out of secondary

schools.

Also, the results showed that only those VET subjects that do not require

facilities/resources, like ‘Tourism and Hospitality’ have been proposed under the reform

package to be included as module subjects to be taught at the secondary school level.

These courses are going to be internally assessed and awarded certificates apart from the

core academic subjects. The core subjects like English, Math, Science and Social Science

will still dominate the secondary education curriculum.

There is no mention in the PNG study whether VET represents a form of dual

accreditation, since these VET subjects count towards senior secondary qualifications and

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tertiary admission while, at the same time, leading to accredited VET certificates (Lamb

and Vickers, 2006). The PNG model does not appear to add value to both academic and

VET subjects as in Australia. It does not seem to provide a wider opportunity and

flexibility for students to take up a range of pathways which students might feel important

for their lives, as with the Australian arrangement (ACER, 2008).

Furthermore, when compared with the Australian TAFE model, the selected subjects in the

proposed PNG model will not be recorded on Grade 12 certificates. Rather, a VET

certificate or Statement of Attainment is awarded for the competencies achieved. For the

Australian system, this VET certificate is provided by a Registered Training Organisation

(RTO) with which the schools had partnership training arrangements. In such models, the

provision of workplace learning is a critical component of the VET pedagogical framework

(Lamb & Vickers, 2006).

For the Australian model, work-based learning is structured so as to enable the

development of competencies to industry standards and it is assessed against those

competency standards and most students enrolled in VETiS participate in this program

(Lamb and Vickers, 2006). In the PNG case, none of this is reported and no arrangement is

being planned for a structured workplace learning model similar to the case for Australia

under the VETiS framework.

The arrangement to include those subjects that do not require more resources/or facilities

to be taught in module form discriminates against students’ chances to become flexible in

choosing other useful VET subjects like Engineering or Building Trade and Hardware

subjects. These subjects, however, will be restricted to Technical Colleges only and most

students will miss the opportunity to take these courses.

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7.5.6 VET teacher training and level of teaching

The result for this question indicates that all three officers had similar views regarding the

need to train VET teachers at the University of Goroka. Currently, the number of specialist

VET teachers going through the University of Goroka is not known. The officers also

questioned whether Goroka University has the capacity to accommodate all important

TVET courses and to stock all necessary hardware/tools to engage their students in specific

fields in VET. They feared that lack of such training tools and even expertise in training

institutions may result in student teachers acquiring less technical/industry knowledge and

skills.

Goroka University’s VET curriculum and training should be done in consultation with

required industries so that VET teachers get the best out of Goroka University. One also

assumes Goroka University may have the tendency to emphasise VET skills and approach

rather than getting student trainees into practical contexts with various industries around

Goroka or the Eastern Highlands or other Highlands Provinces. That needs to be

investigated. Similarly, professional development at the Education Institute needs to be

investigated in order to determine the Institute’s capacity to pass on the required skills and

practical training to teachers in the VET field.

The policy-makers are of the view that all VET teachers have to go through the University

of Goroka. This means that Goroka University needs to expand in order to cater for all Pre-

Service VET students, including existing VET teachers who might want to further their

qualifications. Professional development of existing VET teachers appear to be a need.

Also, the University of Goroka needs to be fully set up with VET facilities in order to train

VET students with theory as well as skills.

As in the Australian case, the University of Goroka’s Technical Division should be fully

stocked with hardware and machinery for such purposes (Lawson, 2004). PNG should

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learn from Australia where the key competencies have been made available in training

packages.

Although, Technical college teachers are qualified in their field, they still need to get a

Postgraduate Diploma in Secondary School Teaching before teaching in Secondary

schools. It appears that secondary school VET Teacher training at Goroka is going to be

very restricted. In order to teach VET at secondary schools, VET teachers will be restricted

to get their training in less costly VET subjects like Tourism and Hospitality, Home

Economics, and Computing. Such has been the case for Australia as reported by Evans

(2005: 15).

Most key VET courses will still be taught at the Technical colleges for which only a few

students could be accessing these TVET colleges. The majority of students will still miss

out on the basic employability skills that are needed to be taught at the secondary school

level as a result of this teacher training setback. In the Australian context, government,

industry, enterprises and the community have great expectations of the VET system, and

VET providers have been encouraged to realise the need to be more actively involved in

bringing changes into their training organisations (NCVER, 2004). Thus, quality teacher

training in PNG should help VET students in the long-term to develop the required skills

and attributes advocated in this study.

7.5.7 Achievements and difficulties

The policy-makers touched on areas that needed improvement only. One of the needs

highlighted has been to have VET inspectors inspecting VET teachers while academic

teachers can be inspected by academic inspectors. Inspectors for TVET colleges can be

called upon to inspect secondary school VET teachers under the current reform, as all

TVET subjects and certifications will come under a standardized national qualifications

framework. Certain VET courses that previously came under TVET programs will be

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taught at the secondary school level and various levels of qualifications awarded to

students in recognition for their participation. However, one needs to know the value of

these qualifications as to whether the awarding of a certificate would take the student to

further education, training and employment.

One officer noted that unemployment is a major problem in PNG and the Education

Department needs to do more than it is currently doing, especially in institutions. There is a

need to change the program. ‘We do not teach students to be employed, rather teach

students to employ themselves’. Students attending vocational schools in rural areas could

have access to more land, thus engaging in agricultural activities than students in urban

schools. Students in communities can be trained how to use the land available to plant food

and cash crops for commercial use.

TVET courses are competency-based, yet not enough facilities are in place to apply the

skills in schools. Teachers need to know that they are not teachers but facilitators.

Currently, this is not the case. Competency-based Training (CBT) is a good approach

where teachers tell/guide their students as to what to do and allow students learn at their

own pace. Teachers need to be trained now to make use of the CBT approach. The setback

is that there is not enough training infrastructure and facilities at the school level to

implement these CBT programs successfully. This idea is consistent with those expressed

by Conway (1997).

This idea is referred as ‘cognitive apprenticeship’ where Conway cites works by Collins,

Brown & Newman (1989), showing that the application of apprenticeship methods to

cognitive skills requires the externalization of processes that are usually carried out

internally. Observing the processes by which an expert listener or reader thinks and

practices these skills can teach students to learn on their own more skilfully (Conway,

1997: website: http:copland.edu/-conway/EDST666.htm, accessed: 24/01/2009). Funding

is another problem and some schools are trying their best to survive on recurrent budgets.

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Proper teacher training is required. Teachers should be trained how to become mentors,

facilitators and able to use the cognitive apprenticeship approach (Billett cites Collins,

Brown & Newman, 1989). Competency-based training would work better if proper

resources are provided and infrastructure put in place by the national government. There is

positive hope with the new NQF but one is yet to see how effective the system is going to

be. Right now, it may not be appropriate to pre-empt whether the current reform under the

NQF is going to work and therefore benefit more people in PNG.

It appears that this perception that VET is degraded is reflected in the minds of policy-

makers and many other stake-holders, such as students and parents/guardians. This is

clearly shown in the way VET courses at the secondary school have been discriminated

against the schools put more emphasis on less heavy VET courses for the secondary school

level while the heavier VET courses are to be taught at Technical colleges. These heavy

VET courses are going to be taken up by only a handful of students.

A positive development was about the NQF that would benefit everybody in the

community, as both private and public VET courses will be recognised and a standard

certificate will be awarded to every graduate. Also, students at secondary schools who

have taken TVET courses will be exempted once they enter Technical colleges. Their

courses already taken at secondary school level will be credited to their diploma course at

the Technical colleges. This, in the long run, would mean that the TVET colleges would

need to expand in order to accommodate more students coming from the secondary schools

with majors in VET.

The education officials have mixed feelings about how VET is performing, and how TVET

under the NQF would benefit students in terms of course accreditation and certification.

Similarly, the secondary school principals who actually implement education policies

should have a good idea of how VET was performing at their schools.

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7.5.8 VET Subjects within Current Curriculum

The two principals reported that a few VET courses are included within the secondary

school curriculum. Practical skills courses include: Metalwork, Woodwork, Furniture,

Home Economics, Expressive Arts, mostly music and drama, Graphic design, Model house

designs, Agriculture and Commerce. These are selected VET subjects that students need to

choose from. Technology courses include: urban technology and rural technology, referred

to as non-core subjects as opposed to VET. Practical skills include: Carpentry, Welding,

Home Economics, Tourism and Hospitality, Art and Drama, Music and Dance. Only soft

option VET courses are taught; others cannot be taught due to lack of specialists and

facilities. The school does not have the facilities or funding to have these VET courses and

others. This becomes a stumbling block for the school’s progress and performance. The

reform does not appear to work well for schools as these schools are understaffed and lack

the school facilities to cater for some of the VET programs. The national government

should do more to have the funding available to set up the required facilities to

accommodate the VET courses.

The Principals had similar opinions to those views already expressed by the three policy-

makers from the TVET and Curriculum Division of the Department of Education. The

principals realized that the soft-VET courses are taught at the school level while the hard

TVET courses are restricted to teaching at TVET colleges. The results showed there was

very little VET knowledge and skills-based training in these schools.

The inclusion of VET in the current secondary education curriculum appears to

discriminate against students. That means only a few students will take the VET option

while the majority take the academic route. To make matters worse, those students taking

VET will not fully acquire basic VET knowledge and skills in most other important VET

areas. Nor will they have the facilities at the school level to engage in the practical training

part of these courses. Whilst some students will end up in Technical colleges to further

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their VET skills development, most other students will miss out on primary VET

knowledge and any practical engagement in key TVET courses.

Therefore, there is very little strategy in place that would enable students to reinforce,

expand, and apply academic knowledge and VET skills in a variety of settings to solve

situated and real problems (Chadd & Drage, 2006: 83).

7.5.9 Level of VET subjects being taught

As mentioned earlier, practical skills courses like Metalwork, Woodwork, Furniture, Home

Economics, Expressive Arts, mostly Music and Drama, Graphic Design, Agriculture,

Commerce and Urban and Rural Technology are taught. These are selected VET subjects

that students are given the option to choose from. They are offered to Grade 9 and Grade

10 levels but Economics/Business Economics is taught at the Upper Secondary School

levels. One Principal says that Agriculture was introduced into the Lower Secondary at

KilaKila and taken all the way to Grade 11 and Grade 12. He expressed a desire to see

such programs included at the lower and upper secondary school levels. Although selected

VET subjects are offered at the lower secondary school level, there is a need to have a few

selected VET subjects such as Agriculture taught at the Upper secondary school level

along with Business Studies and Commerce.

The Principal admitted that his school has changed to a secondary school catering for

Grades 11-12 under the reform, but the school facilities currently in use are from the old

Gerehu High School. Only the name has changed but not the facilities/physical aspects of

the school. ‘Carpentry’ was taught at the previous high school and that is continued under

the current secondary school. The school should be taking Mechanical and Electrical

subjects but no specialists are available in these fields and there are no facilities and there

is a lack of funding. These courses are taught in Grade 9 to 12 level but not all students

take these courses, only a few selected students. Grade 9 students take Practical Skills and

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Home Economics but they decide which subject to take. It appears the only a few Grade 9

and maybe Grade 10 students are taking one or two VET related subjects while most others

take the traditional academic subjects.

The implications are that these schools were not doing what they were supposed to do

under the reform due to lack of resources, facilities, funding and qualified teachers. Certain

important VET courses were not being taught because of these factors.

7.5.10 VET Teacher training and teaching effectiveness

One Principal indicated that his school has two Urban Technology teachers, three Home

Economics teachers, three Agriculture teachers, and two Expressive Arts teachers. These

teachers have diplomas and those teachers who joined lately have Bachelor of Arts degrees

from the University of Goroka. They were fairly well qualified. There was one paid

contract officer taking Urban Technology.

That paid teacher was quite practical and the Principal was very happy with the skills and

knowledge that this contract officer was imparting to students. The other Principal

admitted that the teachers who were taking VET subjects in his school were not trained

VET teachers. Rather, they have been forced by the situation to teach VET subjects. This

particular school has not been doing well in this area but at least there was someone who

can take care of the VET subject.

Honestly speaking, that is what is happening. We need to have specialists

taking VET courses but at the moment for this school, we do not. We only

have two VET teachers who are not qualified VET teachers but are taking

Home Economics and Practical Skills. That is why we do not have many

students taking these courses. The other reason is that we do not have the

required resources or manpower in the field of VET.

There was lack of good teaching and learning facilities. The people who took VET courses

were not specialist or qualified but because there were no specialists, some unskilled

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teachers were just stepped in to take the VET courses. As a result, not many students were

interested in taking VET. Instead, most of them chose the academic pathway.

7.5.11 VET meeting employment needs of students

One Principal admitted that his school was doing the best it could with limited resources.

There was limited budget to meet VET pedagogical demands, and some of these VET

courses required tools and machinery to back-up teaching. The School does not have

enough land to teach Agricultural skills in the field. This has resulted in some setbacks. If

these facilities, tools and equipment were available, schools would do a very good job.

Therefore, currently, these VET courses are taught on an optional basis. The VET courses

are not compulsory for all students. With Outcome Based Education (OBE) being

introduced, most VET courses become optional and students either take it or not. This

Principal thought the VET courses should be made compulsory in Grade 9 and Grade 10.

These courses have basic skills and the students must know the basic skills in order to

survive. Therefore, selected VET courses need to be made compulsory.

The second Principal thought the students in his school need the employability skills.

However, the general trend in PNG is that the students are geared towards white-collar

jobs. Although, the interest to take VET courses is there, most students may not take a

VET pathway. The majority of the students want to take the academic pathway more than

the VET pathway.

There are some very good students in carpentry but when they go out they

will find some other jobs to do if they are lucky enough to find something

else to do, and that is the trend that we have in PNG. But if they pursue VET,

they must realize that there is a job waiting for them. Looking at what we

have in the workplace, students should be taking these courses. We just need

to change the mindset of the students, to focus on VET courses.

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The implications are that the chances of engaging the students in authentic activities

associated with occupational skills or of being able to observe both the process and the

product of being able to develop a conceptual understanding of activities they are engaged

in is guided by the expert VET teachers (Billett, 1994: 10) is yet to be seen for the PNG

case.

Although, there was need for VET and some students were even keen in taking VET

courses, the current trend in PNG would allow students to take up academic subjects. If

this is the trend, if both academic and VET subjects are important but the situation allow

students to take only academic subjects, there is a need now to integrate the two subjects at

the secondary school level. Then, the students would begin to value both academic and

VET subjects rather than to completely throw out one in order to take the other, which is

the current practice in PNG.

7.5.12 Apprenticeship programs

The result for this question indicated that there was no apprenticeship program for VET at

the current school. The reason for not having this program was that this school had no

facilities or tools or proper expertise. Such apprenticeship programs are not made available

by policy. This school has no connection with potential industries whereby such

apprenticeship program could take place.

When compared to Australia, apprenticeship programs in certain states come under the

Automotive, Building and Construction, Food, and Metals & Engineering industries

(School Apprenticeship Link, 2006:4). Students and other stakeholders in PNG should

understand that better-educated people in VET are more likely to find work, less likely to

be unemployed and enjoy higher benefits for particular skills, improved health, lower

crime rate, improved labour market search, benefits for their children and gain significant

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pay-offs for additional learning (OECD Report, 2000). Yet, that is not happening

according to this study.

The school-based New Apprenticeships comprise a specific vocational program involving

young people in employment under a contract of training while they continue at school on

a full or part-time basis (Barnett & Ryan, 2005: 17). These programs may be undertaken

by students who have reached Year 11 but who otherwise may be eligible for New

Apprenticeships. The New Apprenticeships in schools involves an employment-based

training component delivered by a registered training organization (Barnett & Ryan, 2005:

17).

These schools provide a mix of academic, vocational and technical education and training

where students get their senior secondary certificate and credits towards a vocational

qualification. This opportunity would provide students with a career path and an important

link to the job market. In other cases, such an arrangement would allow students in Years

11-12 to undertake an apprenticeship while at school, participate in a combination of

school, paid work and on-site and off-site training, progress towards a nationally

recognised qualification, and to work towards completing Year 12 Certificate and keeping

open the option of further education and training (Barnett and Ryan, 2005).

Despite the positive developments about the New Apprenticeship program in Australia,

Barnett and Ryan identified a few shortfalls in relation to its implementation. Among

others, the highlights include: low levels of awareness among businesses, employment and

training requirements, the need for support infrastructure in order to engage large

enterprises, establishing timetabling efficiencies and flexibility to reduce current burdens

on students (Barnett & Ryan, 2005: 18).

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7.5.13 Collaborative learning within school/industry

There is no formal collaborative teaching, training and employment taking place for this

school as yet. The Music students had been invited at one stage to perform and the students

found this very encouraging and stimulating. It would be a very good idea to engage

students in collaborative activities.

Collaborative effort is hampered by the workload placed upon a few teachers. Therefore,

there is no time to waste in doing extra things that the school is supposed to do. The school

does encourage people from a few industries to go there and address students. There was

just one occasion the PNG Tourism Authority team was invited to address the students.

There was also a music concert held and a team from the Media Industry was invited to

perform at the auditorium. PNG FM was also there to record and report on the Expressive

Arts students performing on stage. Many students attended the Creative Arts Faculty of the

University of PNG as a result of this. These activities are part of the learning process for

the students. However, there has not been sufficient collaborative effort between other

industries and the school. Expressive Arts appears to be alive but not other important areas

of VET for this school.

7.5.14 VET Assessment and Accreditation

The result for this question indicates that the VET subjects are not being accredited and

assessed as yet. When students complete a VET subject, a Letter of Attainment or

certificate is awarded to show that a student has satisfactorily completed a VET course.

The Principal suggested that assessment should be done based on theory as well as

experience in the field. It would be good for the students. Some selected VET courses

taken by Upper Secondary students, like the Business Studies/Commerce courses, had

some chance of getting to Higher Education institutions like the University of Technology.

The city schools have very limited space to accommodate the many students that come out

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of primary Schools. Those Secondary schools enrol only the brighter students with Credits

and Distinctions, just enough to fill the available space and the rest of the brighter students

including the dull ones are sent home to their parents. ‘It is not a matter of passes, but a

matter of spaces’.

At the beginning of every year, secondary schools in the city have an influx of parents

looking for space to enrol their children. But there is not enough space to cater for the

students, so most of them are sent back. This is a sad situation in urban schools in PNG.

There are 60 or more students in one class in the Nation’s capital. Nevertheless, the Church

schools and other private schools are successful in enrolling students in their schools. The

national government needs to build more schools or expand the existing schools to

accommodate more students in future. At the moment, the government is not doing enough

on this front.

Students who have completed the existing VET subjects are awarded a Certificate of

Recognition. These VET subjects are not being aligned to the NQF as yet. If tertiary

Institutions and industries liaise with schools to introduce certain programs, it could

provide some pathway for more students to enter into these tertiary colleges. Students are

assessed internally and externally. Grade 10s are assessed internally and Grade 12s are

assessed externally. Assessment for Music is done in collaboration with the University of

PNG’s Creative Arts Faculty. It assesses students by observing them doing auditions and

some music and drama. For Fine Arts, it sends their artistic work to Waigani for the Arts

officials there to assess them. These courses are added to the Grade 12 Certificate,

according to this Principal.

There has been some sign that this school prepares internal and external assessment, but it

is not certain whether the assessments are in line with the accreditation system under the

current reform. These views are contrary to the other Principal who indicated that VET

subjects are not assessed or accredited as yet.

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7.5.15 VET teacher training and recruitment issues

VET courses are currently taught at Port Moresby In-service College but most of the VET

teachers now get their training from the University of Goroka. They go to the University of

Goroka to get their Diploma in Secondary school teaching. There is now a need for trained

VET teachers rather than recruiting unqualified teachers. And the University of Goroka is

doing well in this area of training VET teachers. There is also a need to get TVET

graduates into the secondary school teaching system. Those who have graduated with good

grades can get their further training at Goroka University.

7.5.16 VET management problems

Most students in the middle group struggle hard to reach the top, and most of them fail to

attend school. There is a high absenteeism as a result of this situation. While some able

students continue Grade 11 to Grade 12, the parents of the not-so-able students are

complaining that their children are not selected to do Grade 11 and Grade 12. VET should

be directed at these groups of people. There should be more VET provided so that the bulk

of the students can access it.

There are no specialist VET teachers to teach VET courses. Also, there are no textbooks,

building, workshop machinery and tools required for teaching some VET courses. It is a

setback for this school. In order to solve some of these problems, it was suggested that all

stakeholders should be involved, including the parents, industry people and the

community.

7.5.17 Relevant industry programs

There is a suggestion made to consider teaching academically capable students to take on

the academic pathway from Grades 9-12 while the majority of students who fall below the

average are encouraged to take the VET subjects. We do not have to create extra classes.

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For the VET students, facilities like IT can be made available if there is enough money and

the students can make use of them. IT specialists from other industries or trained computer

literate people can be on standby to assist students. This Principal concludes: ‘I had

dreams, big dreams but they became impossible because of lack of resources and

facilities’.

Instead of discriminating against the above-average student, average student and below-

average students, a new solution is required that can be beneficial for all levels of students.

VET and academic subjects need to be integrated so that students can take only a few

subjects and the teachers can teach at least one subject that is integrated so that he/she does

not have to go around teaching so many other subjects and classes. If the facilities are

improved, and VET courses are taught by trained VET teachers, it would give students

some opportunity for employment and other training pathways.

In terms of VET qualifications at the secondary school level, the study has revealed that

Certificates I and II will be taught only in Grades 11-12 and these will cover courses like

Tourism and Hospitality, Computing and Home Economics. It will not cover heavy TVET

courses like Automotive subjects or others that require a lot of facilities and equipment and

trained instructors. To have them would be very expensive. These heavy TVET courses

will only be taught at Technical colleges. But the problem is that there are only few

technical colleges and that means that thousands of students will still miss out on their

chances of getting their VET skills. They put more emphasis on less heavy VET courses

for the secondary school level while the heavier VET courses are to be taught at Technical

colleges. These heavy VET courses are going to be enjoyed by only a handful of students.

Having only selected not so heavy VET courses at the secondary school level would limit

the opportunity for potential students who might wish to build their career in TVET.

A setback for the VETiS programs is the time for work experience. Because of the full

program, the Curriculum division has suggested that students be given three weeks or a

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maximum of 30 days work experience although that is not enough. However, the question

is whether most of the schools would have contact with industries that would engage all

that number of students in their practical work activities. In the event that such a drawback

is anticipated, it would be appropriate to engage the senior secondary school students in

such practical training activities. If not, a better alternative program should be provided at

the school level so that all senior students can take part in it.

7.6 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Most views expressed by the interviewees in this study call for a need to improve the

existing academic and VET teaching and learning in PNG. There was an emphasis on

academic subjects as important as against VET subjects. At the same time, most

interviewees showed high esteem for employability skills and attributes. The following

summary highlights a need to effect change as regards VET in PNG.

7.6.1 Students

The responses from students illustrated that most held academic subjects in high esteem

rather than VET subjects. As a result, their participation level in VET subjects dropped

substantially whilst their participation in academic subjects increased, resulting in a huge

gap. This gap can be filled by combining the academic and VET subjects into a single or

unified model.

The majority of students expressed their intention to enhance their transition to a broad

range of post-school options and pathways. They wanted their qualifications recognised to

an extent that would lead them to multiple pathways, including further training and work.

There could be opportunities to access such pathways if they had considered a better way

for mixing academic and VET courses.

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The students realised that the employability skills and attributes do play an important role

in their lives, yet they did not learn these skills. They were also aware of the important role

that VET plays in shaping their lives. What is needed now is to develop an effective

academic and VET program that would assist in balancing the academic and VET pathway

options. Students need to learn these skills and attributes prior to their transition to post-

secondary/tertiary institutions or a return to their communities.

The results indicated that most students in PNG were and are still at the cross-roads, not

knowing in which direction that they should head. The only wider option available to them

was the academic pathway which has not favoured most of them. Most became school

leavers without the required employability skills and attributes. Selected less expensive

VET subjects have been included in Lower Secondary School level while no VET subjects

were taken up by Upper Secondary School students.

Therefore, the need now is to consider a way to realign these academic and VET subjects

in such a way that they all become meaningful and useful to students in PNG.

7.6.2 Teachers

Most teachers were teaching general academic subjects while only a few unqualified

teachers were teaching less costly VET subjects. Most teachers reported that not all VET

courses have been taught at the school level due to lack of qualified teachers, lack of space

and teaching facilities.

Not much effort was put into designing the academic and VET curriculum by educators

with industry support. Although, most curriculum materials were developed at the

Education Department’s Curriculum Division Unit, a few teachers had their way in

developing some curriculum content.

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There was neither direct industry support nor collaboration taking place in designing the

academic or VET curriculum. There was also very little arrangement in place for VET in

school program with workplace learning.

The VET subjects have not been accredited towards senior school certificate. However,

some VET subjects received more attention, including: Agriculture, Business Studies,

Information Technology, Building technology, Tourism and Hospitality and maybe

Commerce.

There was very little indication of connecting course content with context in education that

is considered vital for bringing meaning to the learning process. Therefore, a balanced

teaching load is required where academic and VET courses can be taught collaboratively.

7.6.3 Business/industry personnel

The results for the industry personnel illustrated that most of them had high esteem for the

employability skills and attributes. They indicated that the employability skills and

attributes were either important or very important in their search for new secondary school

graduates. The results indicated that employability skills and attributes should become an

inherent part of all components of training packages and units of competency packages.

The industry personnel considered that secondary school graduates would become

employable if they possessed VET knowledge and employability skills and attributes.

While the results showed some industries engaging in employability skills training

programs for their new recruits, there were others that could not provide such training for

various reasons. Some of these reasons include: lack of time, lack of training facilities and

training personnel, numbers of recruits are small, and employees/recruits already possess

certain employability skills and attributes prior to joining the industries.

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Having realised that secondary school graduates were considered by industry personnel to

be ill-equipped with the necessary employability skills and attributes compared to those

graduates from post-secondary or tertiary institutions, consideration should be given to

including a value-added VET curriculum model that may be competitive and attractive at

the secondary school levels in PNG.

7.6.4 Policy-makers/School Principals

The policy-makers predicted a massive school leaver problem and subsequent

unemployment as a result of a system of education that is so selective in promoting a few

students while the majority are leaving the secondary school system to an unknown future.

Thus, an effective system of education was needed that would provide a flexible pathway

for the majority and to bridge the gap.

The heavy TVET courses will not be taught at the secondary school level. If they were, it

would be expensive. Therefore, these heavy TVET courses will be taught at Technical

Colleges. But the problem is there are only a few Technical Colleges and that means that

thousands of students will still miss out on their chances of getting their VET skills. Also,

having only selected not so heavy VET courses at the secondary school level would limit

the opportunity for potential students who might wish to build their career in TVET.

The Principals admitted that students taking VET may not fully acquire basic VET

knowledge and skills in the most important VET areas. The schools also do not have

facilities to engage students in practical training. Students entering TVET colleges would

develop VET skills but most others would miss out on the required skills. There was very

little strategy in place that enabled students to reinforce, expand, and apply academic

knowledge and VET skills in a variety of settings to solve situated and real problems.

Practical skills courses like, Woodwork, Furniture, Home Economics, Expressive Arts,

mostly Music and Drama, Graphic Design, Agriculture, Commerce and Urban and Rural

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Technology were taught by unqualified teachers. These schools were not doing what they

were supposed to do because of lack of resources, facilities, funding and qualified teachers.

As a result, not many students were interested in VET. Instead, most of them select the

academic pathway.

These results showed that VET was playing a very low role within the current education

system, thereby minimizing the chances of effective skill development, further education

and training and employment creation for the majority of school leavers in PNG.

Therefore, these results call for the consideration of an integrated academic/VET program

model for PNG.

7.6.5 Need for an Integrated Academic/VET Model for PNG

All findings illustrated a need for an Integrated Academic and VET Model at the secondary

school level in PNG. The research findings justified the need to consider an integrated

academic/VET model because they identified a major gap between the academic and VET

subjects. The academic subjects were viewed as important whilst VET and its

skills/attributes, although considered important in principle, were not being taught.

Although there was a general view from all stakeholders that the employability skills and

attributes of VET were very important to build future careers, it was not effectively

promoted at Government level. Therefore, the stakeholders, especially students were not

attracted to VET.

This result may mean that VET would continue to play a low profile in the current

education system whilst the academic pathway would continue to become attractive for

most students. Students may not realize that the academic route would only favour

academically high average students while, for the majority, this route would not be of

benefit.

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Despite some change taking place in the education system in PNG, the results point to a

more negative situation than previously thought. There are a very limited number of

tertiary and TVET institutions in PNG to cater for the annual influx of secondary school

students. Therefore, most of these students would transit without quality VET and its

employability skills/attributes, and as a consequence they would impact on employment.

The findings showed that there is little structure in VET in PNG; there are few trained

teachers; VET is not esteemed by students and staff alike; and the behavioural model is not

working in PNG. Therefore, an Integrated VET Model is needed in PNG. Such an

Integrated VET Model at the secondary school level would bridge the gap between

academic and VET subjects. This initiative would raise the level of VET to an equal

footing with the academic subjects. An Integrated VET model would use the

Constructivist/Situated Learning approach because it would provide a better opportunity

for most students to choose multiple pathways, such as further education/training and

employment.

Chapter eight describes the characteristics of an Integrated Academic VET Model and how

it would be applied in PNG.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET MODEL FOR PNG

8.1 INTRODUCTION

As indicated in the summary, this model has been informed by the results of the findings.

This Chapter is divided into three sections. It first provides the rationale for an Integrated

Academic VET Model and how it would impact on learners in PNG. Then, it describes

how the Integrated Academic VET Model would be applied in PNG. This is followed with

selected examples of Integrated Academic and VET Models.

8.2 RATIONALE FOR THE INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/

VET MODEL

8.2.1 Current changes in workplace requires an Integrated Academic/VET Model

The Integrated Academic/VET Model suggested for students at the secondary school level

in PNG was informed by research findings, including the statement by Sharan and Tan

(2008) stating that, an integrated model is one where several related disciplines provide the

basis for the topics that students are asked to study (Sharan & Tan, 2008: 57a). The broad

context of a multi-subject study program is more easily recognized as affecting the

students’ lives than the relatively narrow context inherent in the unidisciplinary course of

study. Secondary schools are the appropriate level where various academic disciplines

fused to form broad intellectual domains (Sharan & Tan, 2008: 57b).

The results revealed that VET programs do not stress mastery of the basic academic skills

and business houses have called for secondary education to first strengthen the basic

academic skills of high school students (Reeves, 1994). Since vocational education does

train students to acquire specific occupational skills, it would be beneficial to students if

academic and vocational education at the secondary school level in PNG were integrated.

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The research results showed that students have not been informed of the current changes in

employment that requires both academic and VET knowledge and skills. For example,

current educational realities provide evidence that students competing for employment in

the Twenty-first Century would truly benefit from a restructuring of academic and

vocational education. What is needed in today’s world is neither a new brand of

academicism nor a new style of vocationalism, but a fusion of the two (Reeves, 1994).

Rapid technological change in a highly competitive world economy demands a skilled

workforce that possesses the basic academic skills necessary for lifelong learning.

Academic and vocational-technical education cannot remain exclusive entities competing

for limited resources amid finite school boundaries. Rather, all students must be afforded

the opportunity to graduate from high school with marketable occupational skills as well as

those needed for post-secondary education (Reeves, 1994).

An integrated partnership supporting students’ varied learning styles is the most effective

means of achieving the academic and vocational-technical competence needed in a global

economy (Reeves, 1994). Strategies that connect academic and vocational content usually

result in content that is primarily academic with vocational elements woven throughout or

primarily vocational with academic elements woven throughout (Bell, Ivan and Robin,

2003).

The suggested Integrated Academic/VET Model for PNG would give equal value to both

academic and VET subjects. The current literature points to an integrated academic/VET

Model for PNG as an alternative route. There was a call for an integrated approach based

on constructivism that would provide a bridge between: purpose and outcome, head and

hand, academic and vocational, knowing and doing, theory and practice, time and

competence and education and training (Roberta, 1996).

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Such an Integrated Academic/VET Model would assist students in PNG to not only

acquire different job skills and attributes, but also provide a better opportunity to find

employment, further education and training and self-fulfilment in their communities. An

Integrated Academic/VET Model for PNG is considered important because of the benefits

that come with it. It is important because such a model would prevent fragmentation of

curriculum, may stimulate high level, integrated thinking processes, and help to view

complex issues from a broader perspective (Armstrong, 1994; Sue, 1992).

VET knowledge and academic learning have only been segregated in the school system for

many years. As Rocke and Cummings (1993) put it, the inventors, producers, and

managers have always dealt with theory and application as a hand-in-hand process of

getting things done. Only in the academic world does one hear of people speaking of pure

math and pure science, almost as though applying theory to practice somehow

contaminates knowledge. Educators have bought this particular line, and allowed college-

track education to become divorced from the world of industry and business, and technical

education separated from traditional academics (Rocke & Cummings, 1993).

There is strong evidence to support the claim that the integration of academic and VET

subjects into a single curriculum would cause students both vocational/technical and

academic or college-bound to be well-prepared to enter the workforce (Norton et al. 1997).

When students graduate, they do not concentrate only on Math, Science, Social Science, or

English. They live in a world that is ‘overlapping’. It takes one skill to accomplish another.

They cannot put a lawnmower together if they cannot read the directions (Atkinson, 1995).

An Integrated Academic/VET Model has the potential to: motivate students, develop

workplace linkages, facilitate equity, provide educationally rich learning, works well in a

variety of school settings, and help to produce a qualified workforce. It would offer

students identified as lacking basic academic and higher order thinking skills a meaningful

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education instead of relegation to a low track program that could compromise their future

opportunities (Berryman et al. 1992).

Integrating Academic and VET subjects may provide students with educationally rich and

problem-centred learning. Integration is an effective curricular and teaching strategy that

allows students to develop the cognitive skills needed to apply academic learning to

practical situations. Students who complete integrated education programs are most likely

to meet current and future employer needs (Berryman et al. 1992). The following

information strongly supports the integrated curriculum model for PNG.

8.2.2 Integration is how people learn in the real world

According to Sharpe (1996), integration is how people learn in the real world. In school

contexts, concepts, issues and ideas flow in many directions. Students learn more quickly

and easily if information is given in the context. Recent studies of the brain confirm what

good teachers have long suspected that it is a pattern seeker. When teachers assign isolated

skills, they deprive students of the opportunity to make the types of connections that

nourish the brain (Sharpe, 1996). The author provides the following examples to illustrate

the difference between students learning just the content and how content is applied

beyond the classroom context:

Real-World Scenario

A supervisor at a large, high-tech chemical plant asks a quality control technician to

troubleshoot a major problem with one of the storage tanks. The technician corrects the

defect by combining problem-solving skills with knowledge of high-level mathematics,

chemistry, and physics. Both technician and supervisor are pleased with the results.

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School-based Scenario

Room 230: For 50 minutes, 40 students sit through a physics lecture in which they watch

the teacher write formulas on the chalkboard.

Room 119: Twenty-five students have thirty minutes to solve 20 problems found in their

Algebra I textbooks.

Room 233: Students memorise the effects of chemicals on certain metals, because the next

exam will contain questions on these reactions.

Room V-16: Career-bound students in an industrial maintenance class are asked to repair

high-tech equipment, but they lack the proper background in chemistry, physics, and

mathematics. Most of them are enrolled in ‘general’ academic courses which do not

provide the background they need for today’s high-tech world. Both students and teachers

are frustrated by the students’ learning gap.

In rooms 230, 119, and 233, students wonder why they are being asked to ‘learn this stuff’,

and teachers wonder why so many students are ‘in the dark’.

What is wrong with this picture?

In the school-based scenarios, students are learning content unrelated to its use beyond

school walls and taught in isolation from other classes. While the supervisor in the work-

based scenario expects the technician to solve complex problems, teachers in the school-

based scenarios only expect their students to memorise facts (Sharpe, 1996).

Integrated instruction makes it possible for students to analyse and synthesize information,

hypothesise solutions, and demonstrate high-order thinking skills. Students use their

knowledge to challenge assumptions, take the initiative, and solve work-related problems.

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Integration connects what students are learning now to what they have experienced in the

past or hope to experience in the future (Sharpe, 1996).

8.2.3 Impact of Integrated Academic/VET Model on learners

An Integrated Academic/VET Model would enable teachers to move beyond lecturing by

involving students in problem-solving and projects. By using the constructivist/situated

learning approaches, it would allow students to construct new knowledge by working on

problems, projects, and products that relate academic knowledge to the work environment.

Traditional instruction rewards students who learn by listening and watching; it excludes

those who learn best by doing. Such an approach reduces the fear of failure that impedes

learning. In the process, vocational education will become more rigorous, and academic

learning will become more relevant. By working together, academic and vocational

teachers can actually motivate students to ask for applied and integrated learning in other

classes (Sharpe, 1996). An Integrated Academic and VET Model has many benefits,

including the following:

a) Cultivate a ‘yearning for learning’ among youth

An Integrated Academic/VET Model may answer the fundamental questions. ‘Why do I

need to know this?’ and ‘How will I use it?’ Physics principles are easier to learn in a

hands-on, laboratory setting than in a lecture class. Therefore, teachers who incorporate

automotive lab experiences into physics classroom make this academic field ‘real’ for

many more students. Connections in integrated learning cause students to begin thinking

about careers that require high-level communication, mathematics, science, and technology

skills. These students discover that school-based learning really does count in the world

they will enter after high school graduation (Sharpe, 1996).

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b) Improve academic achievement

Physiological evidence supports the value of coordinating academic concepts with

experiential vocational studies that minimise students’ anxiety when they are confronted

with challenging mathematical problems. Experiential learners often feel afraid, fatigued,

and hopeless in traditional classrooms. These emotions are natural enemies of learning and

can cause the brain to release hormones that inhibit new and meaningful learning. Students

who develop an aversion to mathematics before they reach high school need a new and less

threatening way to learn algebra and geometry. Integration may be these students’ key to

gaining and using knowledge (Sharpe, 1996).

Brain research also endorses integrated learning. When teachers teach concepts apart from

students’ experiences, they are setting many students up for failure and a sense of

hopelessness, producing physiological barriers to achievement. Only cognitively or

mathematically gifted students learn easily out of context and these are the students that

schools traditionally value and reward. On the contrary, however, to have more higher-

performing students, teachers need to use instructional strategies linking symbolic school-

based learning and real-life experiences (Sharpe, 1996).

An Integration of Academic/VET Model may also make learning more available and

meaningful to all students. It may allow students to achieve vocational competencies as it

fosters learning of abstract or theoretical concepts under applied conditions. It also fosters

teacher collaboration in curriculum planning and coordination of instruction and involves

the business community in the planning and implementation program (Berryman et al.

1992).

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c) Helps students to make education and career plans

Students who use academic knowledge and skills in the context of broad career fields

would begin to recognise their aptitudes and interests and to formulate tentative career

goals, for example by:

� observing and interviewing personnel, writing case studies and oral histories of

people and their work, and conducting opinion polls, students strengthen their

information-processing skills and gain new insights about themselves.

� developing scale drawings and models, making and defending cost estimates for a

variety of projects, and compiling other data, students advance their understanding

of mathematics in a variety of career fields.

� studying literature to learn about the culture and priorities of great civilizations,

students gain insights into the human condition and the foundations of social life.

� observing skilled professionals in actual work settings, students begin to project

themselves into these roles and take the tougher courses needed for these jobs

(Sharpe, 1996).

d) Promotes professionalism amongst teachers

Teachers are often subjected to top-down instructional mandates and left to implement

them in the isolation of their classrooms. In integrated learning, teachers collaborate in

developing curricula for their specific students. Acting as decision-makers rather than

conduits for pre-packaged curricula, these teachers connect with each other as members of

a professional team and with the community as they develop courses related to students’

lives (Sharpe, 1996).

e) Builds parental and community support

Parents care about their children, and employers have a vested interest in education. A

relevant curriculum offers many opportunities for parents and community leaders to

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become involved in schooling, as guest speakers, mentors, project consultants, and

evaluators of students’ products and performances. Parents and community support for

higher student performance greatly improves the schools’ chances of success in educating

young people. It also convinces students that high school experiences are important

(Sharpe, 1996).

In summary, an Integrated Academic/VET Model draws heavily on how the world works

and how most people learn. By reducing anxieties that inhibit learning, integration helps

more students become successful learners. Integrated learning can help build school and

community support for improving student teaching (Sharpe, 1996).

Students would be more likely to understand the connection between academic and VET

skills as they participate in the class and interdisciplinary activities; make informed career

decisions; improve school community relations as teachers and students reach out to the

community for collaborative community projects; and business and industry would have

employees who are better prepared for the work that secondary school graduates need to

apply (Atkinson, 1995).

Further benefits include improvement of: student academic achievement; motivation;

attendance and attentiveness; an increase course or program enrolment; and increased

student retention in a program (Roegge, et al. 1991). The next section describes an

Integrated Academic/VET Model for practice in PNG.

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8.3 APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET

MODEL FOR PNG

8.3.1 Elements of the Integrated Academic/VET Model

The broad and specific elements of the Integrated Academic/VET Model suggested for

PNG has been informed by results from the literature based on constructivist/situated

learning approaches as well as the survey results. The characteristics of VETiS model,

TAFE model, integrated VET model and results from the stakeholders (students, teachers,

industry/business personnel and policy-makers (education officials and school principals)

played a significant role in conceptualising the Integrated Academic/VET model for PNG.

The model would require a series of conscious and informed strategies used to connect

academic and vocational contents so that one becomes a platform for instruction in the

other over an extended period of time (Bell, Charner & White, 2003: 48). Broadly

speaking, an Integrated Academic/VET Model would include a combination of subjects,

emphasis on projects, sources that go beyond textbooks, relationships among concepts,

thematic units as organising principles, flexible schedules and flexible student groupings

(Lake, 2004: 4).

An Integrated Academic/VET model would connect academic and VET subjects at the

secondary school level. It would require changes to the traditional secondary school

curriculum structure in order to accommodate constructivism and situated learning

approaches that Kerka (1998), Brooks and Brooks (1993), Doolittle and Camp (1999),

Chadd and Anderson (2005), Collins (2008), Brown (1998), Billett (1994, 1996) and

others, have been advocating. This integration would require collaborative efforts from all

stakeholders, including teachers, curriculum planners/specialists. They would need to work

collaboratively to incorporate constructivist/situated learning elements in their

teaching/learning practices that would make instruction more meaningful for students. The

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elements found in VETiS, TAFE and Integrated Academic/VET Models would become

useful in designing such an Integrated Academic/VET Model.

The specific elements of an integrated academic/VET model would require the blending of

academic and vocational education content and utilising VET methods to more fully

develop the academic and occupational competencies of all segments of the student

population. Integrating Academic/VET Model would overcome some problems that

developed between secondary, post-secondary and college-bound students and those bound

for employment (Norton et al. 1997: 8).

Depending on where the school is located and the availability of school facilities and

funding, an Integrated Academic/VET Model may include:

a) a method of incorporating more academic competencies into vocational courses

and the changing of academic courses to be more applied or vocationally relevant;

b) a combination of academic and vocational education reinforced through an

applied learning process. The acquisition of vital learning skills is enhanced by

educational experiences over a wide range of applications;

c) intertwining or blending of academic and vocational components. This integration

allows students to creatively apply their learning and brings to the classroom a

relevancy to the world of work;

d) the infusion of technical courses in academic subjects, infusion of academic topics

in technical courses and new courses which address the combined academic and

technical topics. Other integration activities include career exploration, project

work and internships; and

e) the blending together of concepts, principles and content from academic

disciplines (e.g., English, Mathematics, Science) with context, applications,

and/or skills from vocational areas (e.g., industrial technology; agriculture; home

economics; business; marketing; and management; health occupations). Academic

subjects are to be reinforced in the vocational classes and academic classes will

incorporate practical examples (Norton, et al. 1997: 9).

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Curriculum integration would connect the instruction students receive from both their

academic and their vocational teachers. Therefore, integration requires a process of

blending content and methods. It should interweave academic content into vocational

courses and to integrate applied learning activities from vocational courses into academic

courses. It is the infusing of academic content into vocational courses and integration of

applied learning activities and methods into academic courses (Atkinson, 1995:18). This

integration process is considered useful for inclusion under a restructured PNG

qualifications framework.

8.3.2 The alignment of Integrated Academic/VET Model to

Qualifications Framework

The Integrated Academic/VET Model should align itself with a redesigned secondary

school qualifications framework for PNG. This secondary school qualifications framework

for PNG has been designed in contrast to the existing PNG framework as an alternative to

meet the gaps raised in this study. This value-added qualifications framework contains the

elements of the integrated academic/VET model based on constructivist/situated learning

paradigms.

The present PNG VET qualifications framework (illustrated and discussed in Chapter

Four), contains three major pathways for the Upper Secondary School level (Grades 11 &

12). It provides an academic pathway with a science focus, an academic pathway with a

humanities /social sciences focus, and technical and business pathway with a work-related

focus (which would allow for TVET certificate 1 or 2 modules).

These three pathways appear to be discriminative in nature, with VET being marginalised

again to a low level while the science and humanities/social sciences pathways were given

priority based on the assumption that more students would prefer these pathways. The

bottom-line is that, only a small number of academically high average students would

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transit to places of higher education while the majority would still miss out post-secondary

places and job opportunities. Bottoms et al., (1992) believe that maintaining the general

academic track preserves a system that fails to prepare the ‘other’ students adequately for

either work or further education; and leaving the general track intact prevents a high school

from facing the realities of an inadequate vocational program (Bottoms, et al, 1992: 161).

Most students would not have the VET skills/attributes by the time they complete their

academic courses at the Grade 12 level. Only those students that take the third pathway

would have some advantages over the academic students when it comes to further

education in TVET colleges and skilled employment thereafter.

The existing 2008 proposed framework would not favour all students. It would indirectly

maintain the status quo of the previous education system in PNG. Maintaining the status

quo of a traditional pathway has its roots in theory as Rocke and Cummings (1993) explain

that, only in the academic world does one hears of people speak of pure math and pure

science, almost as though applying theory to practice somehow contaminates knowledge.

Educators have bought this particular line, and allowed college-track education to become

divorced from the world of industry and business, and technical education separated from

traditional academics (Rocke & Cummings, 1993:15)

That view of a divorced system of education no longer favours the current technological or

socio-economic trend. Therefore, to bridge the academic and VET divide or gap, an

alternative qualifications framework that incorporates the constructivist/situated learning

approaches was required. The alternative framework for PNG contains a single unified

system that is going to be cost-effective. This framework is considered ‘unified’ because

there is no segregation of academic and vocational courses, all employability

skills/attributes embedded and placed in one basket and no longer divorced as it has been

the case in the previous system.

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8.3.3 Integrated Academic/VET Model featuring Constructivist/

Situated learning approaches

Most elements of the framework were drawn from VETiS, TAFE and integrated VET

models applied in Australia and America. The Australian model has separate tracks within

the secondary school system that leads to multiple post-secondary pathways. In contrast,

the US model has an infused system at secondary school level but has multiple post-

secondary pathways. However, both apply the Constructivist/Situated learning approaches.

The elements of constructivist/situated learning approaches described in Chapter Three and

Four and maintained throughout this study have been considered significant when

designing the value-added qualifications framework for PNG. This framework takes into

consideration students’ interests that give them more post-secondary school pathways,

including further education, training and employment.

This framework would balance the missing link (or research gap) by bringing VET to the

mainstream education in an integrated or merged/infused way. VET or TVET will not be

seen as an isolated education pathway, only reserved for the academically weak students.

Given the current need for VET in all sectors of society, it is appropriate to raise the value

of VET by integrating the once segregated system of education. The results of this study

point towards this integrated academic/VET model, all aligned to the new value-added

qualifications framework.

The Integrated Academic/VET Model would promote the search for self and social

meaning by integrating fragmented information organised by subject area and emphasizing

the interrelatedness in real world context. This concept is represented in the redesigned

PNG Qualifications Framework (PNGQF). It connects the curriculum of various subjects

so that students are able to address in a holistic manner the problems, concerns, and issues

of the environment in which they live (Perin & Boehlen, 1999; Norton, et al. 1997;

Lankard, 1998: 39). The specific elements of the Integrated Academic/VET Model were

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informed by the literature derived from VETiS, TAFE, integrated models (Norton (1997),

Atkinson (1995), Reeves (1994), Bottom, et al (1992) and Grubb, et al (1991) and the

research findings of this study. The specific elements of an Integrated Academic/VET

Model discussed by these authors were considered useful when designing the value-added

qualifications framework for PNG. Figure 6 presents this integrated academic/VET model

for PNG:

Figure 6: Integrated Academic/VET Model for PNG

Lower Secondary

Integrated Academic/VET

Areas:

1. Principles of

Technology/VET

2. Integrated Math A & B/

VET

3. Integrated Communication

A & B/VET

4. Integrated Biology &

Chemistry/VET

5. Integrated Social

Sciences/Humanities/VET

Upper Secondary

TVET Colleges: Agriculture, Fisheries, Tourism/ Hospitality Forestry, Automotive Entrepreneurship Information Technology Woodwork and Construction, etc.

Skilled employment With public/private sectors

Self-employment Improvement of communities

Teachers/ Nursing/Police, etc. colleges

University Science Engineering, Law, Business, Arts

Community Business Industry support and Teacher training

Bridging courses: Private Institutes Distance Learning/ CODE Vocational schools

Constructivist and

Situated Learning Approaches

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8.3.4 Significance of the Integrated Academic/VET Model

This Integrated Academic/VET Model illustrates a unified system that is going to be cost-

effective and manageable. The model was designed using constructivist/situated learning

approaches. It contains most elements of constructivist/situated learning approaches

outlined earlier in Chapter Four. All the five or more areas of learning derive their theories

from constructivist and situated learning approaches.

The model also contains the elements of VETiS model and TAFE model but all imbedded

in an Integrated Academic/VET Framework. Most students will have the opportunity to

participate in most areas of the integrated academic/VET subjects, including in-school

apprenticeships or practical work with an industry. Under this model, there is no

discrimination between academic and VET courses. Nor will students miss out on

opportunities as those under the current education structure.

The model illustrates how all academic and VET courses will be framed and taught in five

main areas: Principles of Technology/VET; Math A, & B/VET; Communication A &

B/VET; Biology and Chemistry/VET; and Social Sciences/Humanities/VET. All these

academic areas are integrated with VET subjects.

One is adamant that this Integrated Academic/VET Model for PNG has the potential to

offer students a solid academic foundation based on concrete, real-life applications. It

would effectively address some of the key differences in student learning styles, whilst at

the same time provide students with the lifelong competencies required to remain

competitive in a global workplace.

8.3.5 Integrated core subject area arrangement in clusters

This Integrated Academic/VET Model would comprise the following components: A Core

Subject area, Cluster Specific Courses and Occupation Specific Classes. The Core subject

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area contains the beginning level courses within the high school curriculum. Cluster

specific courses, which are offered in Grade 10, provide students with an introduction to

one of the specific occupational clusters. In the occupation specific classes, which are

offered in Grades 11-12, the students receive an intensive concentration in their major.

The occupational majors can be aligned with Universities and colleges within science and

technology, including: engineering, architecture, surveying, building and construction,

areas in biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, within humanities/social sciences areas,

such as: law, economics, commerce, language and literature, business studies, social

works, politics or any of the TVET colleges.

The Academic core subjects would address the basic skills needed to enhance the students’

employability skills and attributes. In the academic core curriculum, students would exit

with the following skills: Basic mathematics skills, applied science skills, computer skills,

interpersonal communication skills and personnel management skills, and all other

employability skills and attributes. Each integrated curriculum model will have embedded

elements of VET skills/attributes.

The actual integration of these subjects would require substantial amount of work by

experts. However, Reeves (1994) outlined four examples of Integrated Academic/VET

Models that may provide some insight into designing the type of Integrated

Academic/VET Model that this study intends to pursue. These academic groups include:

principles of technology, integrated mathematics, integrated communications and

integrated biology/chemistry. One also adds the fifth example, referred as, ‘integrated

humanities/social science courses’. This fifth example derived from the PNG Upper

Secondary School proposal (2008). The characteristics of each are highlighted through the

model.

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Example 1: Integrated Principles of Technology/VET

The key characteristics include: an applied-science (physics) course for secondary school

vocational students; it offers an integrated set of instructional materials and lab

experiences; it is based on application of physics principles in mechanical, fluid, electrical,

and thermal energy systems. It includes, various physical principles like: force, work, rate,

resistance, power, and force transformers as they relate to four energy systems –

mechanical, fluid, electrical, and thermal; and it is laboratory-concentrated with half of the

course emphasizing realistic problem-solving math labs and hands-on hardware labs and

text book materials drawn from occupations that use any of the energy systems.

Example 2: Integrated Mathematics A & B/VET

The key aspects of this course include:

An integrated sets of instructional materials that provides video instruction, work from

printed materials, hands-on laboratory experience that involves extensive measurement,

and practical problem-solving activities in agriculture, health occupations, home

economics, business and marketing, and industrial technology.

An integrated presentation of topics in: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,

probability, estimation, problem-solving and statistical process control by the use of

computer programs. This statistical information includes frequencies, means, medians,

modes and standard deviations, etc.

Practice of mathematical concepts and skills and practical, world-of-work problems – all

drawn from various work occupations.

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Example 3: Integrated Communications I & II/VET

This course has skills that teach communication, language-arts, and English skills as they

relate to the workplace. The skills include:

a) communicating with co-workers, supervisors, and clients and customers; gathering

information in the workplace, following and giving directions, evaluating

performance, starting a new job, upgrading, retraining, etc.

b) sections that are specific to one of the five occupational clusters: health

occupations, business and marketing, agriculture, technical/trade/industrial

occupations, and home economics.

c) reading, writing, listening, speaking, problem-solving, visual and nonverbal skills,

conflict resolutions, business negotiations, organising meetings, telephone

communications etc.

d) applications for agriculture, business and marketing, health occupations, home

economics, technology, trade and industry.

Example 4: Integrated Biology/Chemistry/VET

Integrated Biology/Chemistry follows the same pedagogical model as Principles of

Technology. The component of this course consists of specified units presenting scientific

fundamentals of biology/chemistry; provides foundation for courses in technology, health,

agribusiness, or home economics; integration of biology and chemistry; student activities

that relate to work and other life experiences; a focus on natural resources which can be

used alone as a science or technology course or infused into existing science classes.

Example 5: Integrated Social Sciences/Humanities/VET

Integrated and community subject categories A & B contain specific cluster areas

including: Accounting, Agriculture Studies, Business Studies, Economics, Geography,

History, Information Communication, Technologies, Legal Studies, Computer Studies,

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Computer Aided Drawing, Music, Dance and Drama, Visual Arts, Work Studies, Tourism

and Hospitality, Religious Education, Design and Technology Framework. For example:

Textiles, Food and Catering, Design in Wood, Design in Metal, Electronics, Design and

Technology with TVET Certificates 1-2 modules (Trades) and Personal Development/

Physical Education. At least three to four cluster areas of subjects can be integrated and

taught by specialist teachers.

In all subjects, the occupational majors can be aligned with universities and colleges. For

example, Grade 12 students concentrating on the integrated Technology/Sciences/VET

would aim to enter University or college to study an occupational Degree or Diploma

course in engineering, architecture, surveying, building and construction, areas in biology,

physics, chemistry or mathematics. They may choose to enter TVET colleges or

humanities/social sciences streams if they wish depending on their examination results and

tertiary/college course preferences.

8.3.6 Grade 12 Examination and pathway choices

As indicated earlier, Grade 11-12 students receive an intensive concentration in their

occupational major either in the sciences, humanities, social sciences or TVET. All

occupational areas contain the academic/VET integrated subjects. A National Grade 12

Certificate Examination is set and given while at the same time, students are given the

opportunity to choose their tertiary or college pathways. They have three or more pathway

choices: a University pathway, a college pathway and a TVET pathway.

All examinations are undertaken through the usual process in PNG and all Grades

accredited through the National PNG Qualifications Framework. That means all courses

taken and results from internal practical test results are computed together to award a

national Grade Average out of 100 percent.

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The Grade Point Average (GPA) system currently applied in PNG has discriminated

thousands of students and so that should be scraped and replaced with a fair system.

Internal marks should be calculated out of 40% while External National Exam out of 60%

to give a total of 100%. The same selection process currently applied can be used but this

time, more students would be expected to find a place in universities and colleges,

especially TVET colleges.

Those students that do not meet the entrance requirements still have the opportunity for

further education and training or find skilled or self- employment. For example, students

who do not meet the entrance requirements would be encouraged to seek skilled or self-

employment and attend bridging courses through College of Distance Education (CODE)

or Private VET institutions. They can then seek employment or attend further training in

TVET and other colleges. So, this model has something useful for every student in PNG.

8.3.7 Grade 10 or Grade 12 School Leavers

Just to note those students for one reason or another dropped out of Grades 9-11 or even 12

who wish to continue may choose other flexible training pathways as indicated in the

arrows in the framework. These institutions could be either private or public through which

the dropouts can take some courses, upgrade their Grades and skills and upon successful

completion may find work or apply for places at TVET or other tertiary education

institutions. Every effort should be made to ensure that every child is educated and given a

place in the community.

8.3.8 Community/Business/Industry Support and teacher training

Under the new Integrated Academic/VET Model, it is expected that the community,

including business/industry, any registered training institutions, Church groups, and

Government institutions should liaise with nearby schools and co-operate to provide

necessary support and training required by these schools. Such training can be organised in

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modules in the school or part-time training in whatever area of work in that community

(example, Agriculture, Forestry Management training, Health and Community work,

Marine life management, Auto-Mechanics, Building and Construction).

Teachers must be professionally trained. All teachers should have professional

qualifications to teach in PNG. Teachers in science, social sciences/humanities or TVET

who need extra professional training should be encouraged to attend either short

professional courses or further training in colleges and Universities locally or externally.

The adoption of such an Integrated Academic/VET Model would be in direct correlation to

the theoretical orientation that underpins this study. This model would directly promote

constructivism and situated learning approaches (Kerka, 1998; Chadd & Anderson, 2005)

and connect with authentic pedagogy through active learning (Lankard, 1998: 14). A few

examples have been drawn to illustrate how this Integrated Academic/VET Model would

be implemented and methods to be used to design the integrated courses.

8.4 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET

MODELS

8.4.1 Integrated academic/VET model (paralleled)

The information that follows was adopted from Atkinson (1995) who illustrated examples

of integrated academic/VET models. The first example is an Integrated Academic/VET

model based on ‘Communication Skills and Business’:

Academic Course (English) Vocational Course (Business)

writing and thinking creative tone the writer’s purpose & audience writing expository compositions speaking and listening mass media proofreading expository compositions

English: tool of communication spoken business English written business English listening and reading for business purposes using electronic communication units of compositions sentences and paragraphs

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effective diction spelling frequently confused words speaking and listening writing paragraphs using modifiers correctly

Student Activities could include:

Speeches/oral presentations; study of literature in reading and analyzing tone or purpose;

evaluation of newspapers and television programs; yearbook and journalism projects;

listening to a fable and providing the moral purpose; development of exercises

demonstrating understandings of different word meanings; research papers; location of

examples of euphemisms, slang and jargon in newspapers, magazines and books; location

of magazine or newspaper advertisements to illustrate common persuasive devices; study

in literature of comparison/contrast technique; expository writing; creative writing

projects; and creation of a commercial advertisements and presentation to class.

Student activities could include:

Preparation of personal and business letters; study of styles, envelope preparation, letters of

invitation, requests, orders; creative writing activities; recording telephone messages;

Academic Course (English) Vocational Course (Business)

Writing Business Letters and Completing Forms Speaking and listening Writing process Writing expository compositions Writing a research paper

Writing a Business message Effective message formats Personal correspondences Claims and adjustments Sales messages Oral messages The job application process Business reports – How and Why? Business reports –The preparation process Business reports –The writing process

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letters to an editor; career interviews and analysis of oral message in terms of its audience;

and preparation of a business letter which includes returning a completed form.

8.4.2 Thematic Unit Sample 1: The Study of Environment

This second sample is adopted from Gary and Jacobs High Tech: Integrated Units: A

Planning Guide for Teachers (http://www.hightech.org/accessed: 8/10/2009).

This thematic unit is integrated with the following academic/VET subjects: Environment;

English Communication, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Science, Business, Computer

Skills and Teacher Evaluation of the integrated Unit. These integrated subjects and

examples of integrated project steps are illustrated in the table below:

Example of integrated projects

Examples Tasks/project steps

Environment Organise an environmental fair with presentations and visual displays/drama; create a website that focuses on environmental issues; run a recycling campaign in the nearby places; organise general school or community clean-up day; write and produce a drama that predicts the earth’s environment in the next decade or two and the consequences of the current trend; discuss the impact of green-house effect, what causes it & how to control it; analyse the impact of specific technologies on the local environment fails; participate in an ongoing tree-planting activities; and create a data of environmental jobs for students.

English language Create presentations or brochures to teach the community about eco-friendly habits: present the information to other classes, schools and community groups; write a fictional story about the environment; write a persuasive essay on a particular or series of topics on environment; write and produce act or play that addresses environmental quality/issues; and understand the specific English language Conventions and scientific terminologies that refer to environment.

Maths Track and graph changes in pollution levels at a bio-remediation site; graph rates of hearing loss in different occupations; survey students’ attitudes toward environment issues: compile report and interpret data; and use other mathematic skills as appropriate

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Social Sciences Evaluate environmental quality of life across historical periods; hold a debate about free trade and the international call for environmental standards for developing countries; design an impact study on mining/natural resources development areas; interview parents/community representatives about their views of the environment; study and discuss the present government’s policies toward the environment: compare with past administrations; study other countries’ environmental laws; and visit and interview environmental political/NGO action groups.

Science Study: acid rain and its effects on local woodlands; climate change due to industrial pollution and airborne diseases; the impact of cyanide and other chemical pollution on waterways, and marine life and other food sources; investigate wetlands reclamation and beach preservation; interview health professionals about environmental illness; and adopt an endangered species and develop a project to protect that species.

Business Interview local industry leaders about their environmental policies; design and market

an ego-friendly product; and any other information required. Computer Studies Build a website on environmental issues; create a resource booklet and/ or website

on environmental agencies and resources; and create a spreadsheet that calculates the average temperature of the earth over the next 10, 20, 50, 100, 1000 years.

Teacher evaluation of the integrated Unit

8.4.3 Thematic Unit Sample 2: Force as a Prime Mover in an

Automobile Course

The thematic unit sample 2 illustrates how an Integrated Academic/VET Model based on

themes can be developed. According to Bottoms and Sharpe (1996) this unit involves

teachers and students from auto-technology, mathematics, science, and English classes.

Auto-technology students learn the parts and function of an automobile brake system,

diagnosed brake problems, and repaired brake systems. Students participate in a

culminating activity in which they calculate the force needed to stop a car travelling at a

certain speed and tested their answers by attempting to halt a real auto dragster. At the end

of the activity, students explained the results to teachers and other students orally and in

writing.

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By experimenting with dragsters, the unit motivated students to use sophisticated

mathematics, science, and communication skills.

English teachers supported the project by defining literary themes, including ones focusing

on the forces that affect people’s lives and the force of persuasive communication.

Students wrote technical papers about the relationship of force to an automobile.

Mathematics and science teachers identified data collection activities and calculation

methods related to the force needed to stop a car. In completing the unit, students learned a

number of mathematics and science concepts, as well as applications of these concepts

(Bottoms and Sharpe, 1996: 119-120).

8.4.4 Benefits of the Integrated Academic/VET Model

This model would benefit students, teachers and employers in the following ways. The

students receive a solid based of math, science and communication principles which builds

a foundation for post-secondary technical education and university programs; provides a

broad knowledge base that ensures adaptability in a changing workforce; and math,

science, and communications courses are more accessible and less threatening to a large

majority of learners. All courses apply the constructivist/situated learning approaches.

The teachers are able to bridge gap between academic and vocational education; academic

principles are related to the practical world of business/industry; math, science, and

communication are a more successful experience and teachers collaborate to develop the

Integrated Academic/VET Model and share teaching in the process. The employers benefit

from: recruiting workers who posses high level mathematics, science, and communications

skills; drawing upon a workforce that can be trained/retrained as the need arises; education

and a closer alliance between education and industry, the hands-on approach and students

who are able to work collaboratively in cooperative small groups. The hands-on orientation

facilitates the development of students’ decision-making skills; the expectations for tech-

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prep students are as high as those for college prep students; and students in an Integrated

Academic/VET model also develop problem-solving skills.

The employers would find secondary school graduates employable because the students

had developed proficiency in science, math, and English language skills; they have the

ability to apply academic skills to employment settings; gained desirable work

attitudes/habits such as dependability and responsibility; students acquired good

interpersonal, communication, problem-solving, and decision making skills; knowledge

about careers, and job-seeking skills; and have the ability to adapt to change.

8.5 SUMMARY

An Integrated Academic/VET model would require all academics and VET teachers and

subject specialists to collaborate in its design for specific disciplines. The two related

theories of constructivist/situated learning paradigms would become the foundation on

which this model would be built. These approaches are not just theories per se because

they call for action from the classroom to the field; from handling a pencil to a hammer; a

machine to a software pathway; learning the skills of a tradesman; to tilling the land and

managing a forest.

The model would provide something for all students despite their academic level. The

current education system benefits a few students whilst most return to their

parents/guardians. The Integrated Academic/VET Model would work effectively for PNG

because of the practical nature of the model. Chapter Nine highlights some key findings for

further research and outlines recommendations arising from the study.

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CHAPTER NINE

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

This final Chapter is divided into two sections: the first section highlights the main

findings. The second section states how the Integrated Academic/VET Model would be

implemented in Papua New Guinea, and makes recommendations for further research.

9.1 THE KEY FINDINGS AND NEED FOR ACTION

The key findings derived from the results of this study are presented as follows:

a) Only one third of the PNG students are usually selected annually based on academic

results and given places in universities, while two thirds are expected to attend TVET

institutions, and other colleges. There is no guarantee that the majority of students failing

to secure places at universities would find further training or employment. There are

already signs that many young people are currently leaving the secondary school system

without skills, further training or jobs in PNG. This confirms the ADB finding of an

unemployment problem for school dropouts (Asian Development Bank Report: 2005-

2006).

Unless employment opportunities are created, the current Universal Basic Education plan

for PNG would fuel the already unemployment-stricken PNG society. Only those students

who come from the mineral development areas may get some form of job. Many school

leavers will face an unknown future due to lack of VET skills. The qualification escalation

phenomenon without skilled jobs may result in detrimental effects on employment. The

policy-makers predicted a massive school leaver and unemployment problem as a result of

a system of education that is so selective in promoting a few students whilst the majority

leave the system without a secure prospect of for further education/training and

employment.

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Therefore, an integrated system of education would fit this gap by providing a flexible

pathway for the majority of students. Those students who do not secure a place at

University/college can still find some meaningful ways of furthering their study or find

employment. The Integrated Academic/VET Model recommended in this study would

alleviate such problems in the long-term.

b) There are few TVET or Technical Colleges in PNG that currently cater for students’

employability skills needs. One could argue that this meant limited space to accommodate

a small number of students. Whether students were completing Certificate I, II, II, IV or

Diploma level, the number of students going through these colleges is small compared to

thousands of students completing secondary education in Grade 12. In contrast, students

attending TVET institutions acquire industry knowledge and skills and they have better

chance of obtaining employment.

The policy-makers revealed that, most of the school leavers would not be able to access the

limited number of Technical colleges in PNG. These institutions charge school fees, which

most school leavers could not afford. Most students come from poor socio-economic

backgrounds which forces potential students from entering the post-secondary school and

tertiary education systems.

Therefore, given the current need for skilled workers in PNG, more TVET colleges would

be required, one in each province in PNG rather than just the current regional TVET

colleges that serve only few students. TVET division is doing all it can to create awareness

about the importance of vocational schools’ engagement in community activities in PNG.

Likewise, technical colleges need to provide industry/skilled-based courses and engage

their students in apprenticeships with business/industries.

c) Some VET teachers are currently leaving the secondary school system to look for

employment elsewhere. The reason has been that the inspectors only inspect teachers with

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content and method qualifications. Currently, most VET teachers do not have relevant

secondary school teaching qualification but are teaching VET subjects at high schools.

Most teachers may be teaching with a trade certificate or diploma obtained from TVET

Colleges.

Therefore, any teacher who has been teaching VET without appropriate qualifications

should be encouraged to attend Goroka University or any other tertiary institution to get a

qualification in secondary school teaching, and in particular VET curriculum and

methodology. It would also be advisable to recruit specialist graduates from other

Universities in PNG, and provide them appropriate training at University of Goroka or Port

Moresby In-service College.

d) Most students tend to value the academic subjects more than VET subjects because their

next level of study depends on the results of the academic subjects. Thus, it appears

teachers have placed more emphasis on academic subjects than VET subjects despite some

interests shown by Grade 11/12 students in selected VET subjects. This result is consistent

with the notion that the provision of VET in schools is often tolerated as the soft option for

those students greatly challenged by the traditional academic subject offering.

Therefore, VET teachers, student advisors and parents/guardians should be reminded that

they have an important role to play in encouraging students to embrace VET subjects and

acquire the employability skills and attributes that assist them to move from school into the

workplace or further training and ultimately improvement of their life in society.

e) The results illustrated that there were limited opportunities for secondary school leavers

to gain employment because of the lack of employability skills and attributes. Many

students perceive that the employability skills and attributes are an important part of their

training program. Most students think, they do need the skills as these would assist in

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entering employment or further training. Most students are aiming for academic subjects

only, as they think taking these subjects would lead them to universities.

Therefore, students need to be informed that once they fail to secure university places, they

should not expect to be employed automatically because they do not have employment-

related qualifications or skills. Some relevant VET subjects should be included in the

secondary school curriculum for the sake of those students who might wish to choose a

VET pathway.

f) Students need to develop their cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, such as:

computational skills, problem-solving, communication skills, literacy, logical thinking,

innovation, creativity, academic competence and adaptability at secondary school level.

These are necessary for the student to become employable or assist in further education

and training. Similarly, the affective skills include: humility, punctuality, self-discipline,

moral integrity, interest, self-confidence, commitment, honesty and team-work that are

considered vital for students to acquire in order to be productive in a working environment.

Therefore, students do not need to wait until they enter TVET colleges or Universities to

learn these skills. They need to learn the psychomotor or manual skills, including: practical

skills, job-centred skills and typing or information technology skills at the secondary

school level. Students failing to learn these skills at secondary school level would face

somewhat an uncertain future. Thus, an effective VET curriculum that integrates most of

these skills would assist students meet their employability and further training needs.

g). There is a need for school/industry awareness. For example, Hagen Technical College

in Mt Hagen, in the Western Highlands province, PNG, is attaching itself to industries

which should be known by others. There is a need now to create awareness amongst

secondary school students about the importance of schools participating in industry

activities and making connections with existing industries. The vocational schools are in

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local communities where they know the needs of the community, such as agriculture,

carpentry, mechanical need, a small business, or whatever that the people in the

community can get involved.

h) Secondary schools currently have very little facilities to get students engaged/involved

in practical training. Coupled with shortages of VET specialists in these schools, students

and teachers alike have been focusing more on academic courses and less on VET and

industry programs. Therefore, if the national government of PNG wishes to provide a

better system of education for the masses at the secondary school level, it should equip all

secondary schools with teaching and learning facilities, including the required learning

tools and hardware needed for hands-on training.

i). Collaborative teaching and learning is an important method for students to acquire

employability skills and attributes. Such programs allow employers to help young people

understand the workplace as well as careers and job opportunities and directions in

industry; and workplace learning programs are available to students from Grade 9 to Grade

12.

j) Collaboration and teamwork cannot be learned just through reading, listening and

memorization of concepts in the classroom. Students must be involved in collaborative

experiences to gain comprehension of the intricacies of personal interactions, group

dynamics, and respect for the views of others. This activity involves students in the active

construction of knowledge by having them work collaboratively with others to investigate

a problem, negotiate solutions and justify their recommendations.

The schools in PNG have done little to build such community relationships that might

allow them to impart and acquire the VET skills and attributes. Providing an effective VET

program within the community might become a stepping stone for employment and further

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education for students. Some VET courses have field or practical work components that

could meet such objectives but little is seen to be happening at present.

The industry and community should work together to develop a curriculum on the basis of

need of the community. If a school is near the reach of a business activity, such as

commercial crop production area like coffee, cocoa, or mining, building/construction,

etcetera, the students should be given the opportunity to get engaged in these activities,

using the constructivist/situated learning approaches.

Therefore, the government needs to encourage industries to open up their doors to nearby

schools to take part in their employability skills training program. School-community

participation in such activities is needed so that when students complete school and return

to their communities, they are ready to utilise their knowledge and skills in

entrepreneurship activities, agricultural projects and other community useful living in their

communities.

k) There should be other relevant VET courses, such as Agriculture, Fisheries/Marine

management, Forestry development and management, Tourism and Hospitality,

Mechanical Engineering, Information Technology, Electrical engineering, Heavy

equipment fitting, Building and construction, could be introduced. These are important

areas of learning for the students in PNG.

l) TVET institutes teach according to criteria already set and approved by the Education

Department with consultation through the National Technical Training Board (NATTB).

Such practice could restrict teachers from engaging in further research/training based on

what they know and need to know and to be able to pass on these knowledge and skills to

their students.

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Therefore, TVET teachers need to be innovative in their roles rather than solely teaching to

the TVET curriculum. They may need to collaborate with their academic colleagues to

design TVET/academic programs.

m) The arrangement about VET course accreditation and certification under the 2008

proposed plan is that Certificate I and II will be offered to students at the secondary school

level for those interested. Those students who enter TVET colleges will be exempted from

repeating Certificate I and II courses. They will take VET III and IV subjects. All VET

courses provided by private and State institutions will be accredited through the NQF and

single certificates awarded by TVET division.

It appears that only selected, less expensive VET subjects will be taught in module form

and assessed internally. In addition, there is no mention in the PNG study whether VET

represents a form of dual accreditation, since these VET subjects count towards senior

secondary qualifications and tertiary admission, while at the same time, leading to

accredited VET certificates.

The existing PNG education system does not seem to add value to both academic and VET

subjects. It does not appear to provide a wider opportunity and flexibility for students to

take up a range of pathways they might consider important for their lives - similar to the

Australian arrangement.

In addition, the selected subjects in the proposed PNG model will not be recorded on

Grade 12 certificates. Rather, a VET Certificate or Statement of Attainment is awarded for

the competencies achieved. If the arrangement to include only those subjects that do not

require more resources/or facilities to teach in module form, then this would discriminate

students’ chances to become more flexible in choosing other useful VET subjects of their

choices like Engineering or Building Trade and Hardware subjects. These subjects,

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however, will be restricted to Technical Colleges only for which most students will miss

out on taking these courses.

Therefore, it is recommended that highly demanded VET courses be included in the Upper

secondary school curriculum in PNG to be externally assessed together with the academic

core subjects so that students have a better choice in attending further education or work

when they leave school.

n) The national government and donor organisations should fund the secondary school

VET programs. The curriculum design, teacher training, school improvement with

infrastructure and modernizing these schools with facilities and hardware requires more

funding.

o) One of the alternative curriculum models considered innovative to enhance student

employability and bridge the socio-economic problems faced in PNG would be to take the

proposed Integrated Academic/VET Model as informed by the results of this study. It

would be advisable also to integrate these VET courses with academic courses in order to

raise their value and standards.

9.2 INTEGRATED ACADEMIC/VET MODEL

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The Integrated Academic/VET Model described in Chapter 8 was informed by the results

of this study. There is enormous potential in the implementation of this Model, and the

stakeholders need to collaborate to reap the benefits from it.

To implement the Integrated Academic/VET Model in PNG, the researcher recommends

the establishment of a research centre to be known as the ‘Pacific Centre for TVET

Research and Employment Training’ in Port Moresby. There is currently no such research

and training centre in PNG. This centre would be based at either one of the

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Universities/Colleges or an established government recognised public or private Registered

Training Organisation.

The Centre would be managed and staffed by qualified academics and professionals from

various educational organisations and industries, including: TVET specialists,

business/industries groups, training organisations, and curriculum designers. Specialist

professionals in the core academic and selected key TVET areas would collaborate on the

implementation of the model. Also, external consultants who are specialists in various

subject areas and TVET management would be required to take part in the design and

integration of different courses for Grades 9, 10, 11 and 12 students in PNG.

The Integrated Academic/VET Model development would probably take between three to

five years for the initial phase. The integrated model would then be pilot-tested in selected

secondary schools in various regions to evaluate the program, before it can be formally

sanctioned by the government as a reform package for PNG.

The project would be extended to post-secondary institutions and higher education levels

in future. These educational institutions will use the Integrated Academic VET model to

design their own courses and programs with collaboration from interested parties in

government and private sectors.

The Integrated Academic/VET Model would first require awareness and training in PNG.

Workshops will be organised in which the concept will be presented. The emphasis will be

on the need to adopt a new theoretical paradigm based on constructivist and situated

learning approaches. This would lead to presenting the practical dimension of the need for

an Integrated Academic/VET Model based on research findings. This Centre will be

established and managed with financial assistance from the national government, donor

agencies and other private national and international grants. If this institution works out

according to plan, it would revolutionize and transform education and learning in PNG.

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9.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This study has illustrated fundamental benefits of VET in Australia, America and

elsewhere, in contrast to the current structure in PNG. Although, there was some interest

shown in VET and its related skills and attributes by stakeholders, most were yet to come

to terms with the importance of VET and its long-term benefits. This means that there is a

lot more work to be done in developing VET at the secondary school level in PNG which

could be facilitated by the implementation of the Integrated Academic/VET Model

recommended in this study. In order to fulfil this purpose, there are four areas which need

further research is needed in the following areas:

Similar research to this study would be required on a large national scale to determine the

extent to which VET is playing its role under the education system in PNG. There is a need

to determine how VET or TVET is playing its role in the country, teacher supply and

teacher quality, management issues, etc. Research needs to be conducted to ascertain the

perceptions of stakeholders, including parents and other community/business training

organisations that engage in VET programs. A comprehensive review of the current

secondary school curriculum and policies in PNG with a view to adopting constructivist

and situated learning approaches needs to be undertaken.

9.4 CONCLUSION

This study investigated the characteristics of a relevant VET model at secondary school

level that would address the current student transition problem in PNG. The study

explored: possible socio-economic factors that influence the need for an effective VET

program at the secondary school level in PNG; the extent to which VET plays its role

under the current education system; VET programs and employability skills and attributes

in Australia and elsewhere that might assist in addressing the current student transition

problem in PNG; the extent to which stakeholders (students, principals/teachers, policy-

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makers and business/industry personnel) participated in VET programs in PNG; a VET

conceptual framework that might add value to VET development in PNG; and produced a

practical answer to the problem by proposing an Integrated Academic/VET Model for

PNG.

The results support the view that an elitist system of education has evolved in PNG. There

have been structural changes, but the underlying ideologies including the competitive

nature of the system appear to have prevailed over the years. This study agrees with the

argument in the literature and respondents in this study that the secondary schools in PNG

interpreted syllabuses in ways which promoted a competitive, exam-oriented academic

curriculum. This resulted in the majority of students vying for the academic pathway whilst

VET became a secondary option for the remainder.

Anderson (1999) in his Article, ‘Navigating the Rapids: the role of educational and careers

information and guidance in transitions between education and work’, introduces his

discussion with a very thoughtful metaphor about kayakers and what happens when they

(kayakers) venture into the white waters of an unknown river. That is:

…from cradle to grave, people are swept along on an unpredictable and often

hazardous journey, the direction and the pace of which are, to a large extent,

beyond their control…. like novice kayakers entering a white-water river,

they know there is a beginning and end-point to their journeys, but they have

little foreknowledge of, or control over, what may transpire in between, or

what perils and pleasures may confront them along the way (Anderson, 1999:

371).

The interpretation would be that, being fully equipped and having foreknowledge of the

trials and challenges that await their way in that journey would assist greatly to face it.

Anderson (1999) metaphorically illustrates the journeys people embark on during their

lifetime and the changes and challenges that take place along the way.

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Therefore, to face the future, students in Papua New Guinea need to be equipped with the

right knowledge, skills, attitudes and a sense of direction (map), so that they are not lost or

confused about their direction, and are able to meet challenges. The future generation of

students in PNG need to have access to an effective and balanced system of education,

especially at the secondary school level.

The Integrated Academic/VET Model built on Constructivist and Situated Learning

theoretical frameworks would equip students in PNG, not only with content knowledge,

but application of that knowledge in whatever occupations that students wish to pursue.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: STUDENTS’ SURVEY RESULTS

Table A1: Grade 12 students who have participated or are currently participating in general academic and VET subjects.

Table A1 presents the results of Grade 12 students who participated or currently

participating in general academic and VET subjects. The results for this data were

summarised in two parts – one for the academic subjects and the other VET subjects. For

the academic subjects, the results appear to vary in the three categories because of several

possible reasons. First, it appears that for this Grade 12 cohort, most of them are currently

participating in the core academic courses (English, Maths, Chemistry, Physics, Biology

and Economics) and many participating in History, Geography and Commerce courses.

Most students are now participating in the two compulsory subjects, English (97%) and

Mathematics (87%) respectively, followed by Economics (67%), Chemistry (50%),

Physics (40%) and Biology (35%). The results clearly illustrated that most students were

participating in English and Mathematics, followed with Science and Economics.

Secondly, the results for Grade 12 students participating in VET courses indicated

contrasting results with Grade 12 students participating in academic courses. Most

students, however, indicated that they have not participated in most VET courses, except

for ‘Home Economics’ and ‘Computer Information Studies’ being participated (50% and

40% respectively). Some 25% of students participated in Computer Information Studies

while ‘Forestry management’ was taken up by 20% of students.

Also, more than half of the students indicated they have participated in selected VET

subjects. The VET subjects being participated include: Fabricated Metal/non-metal

products (30%), Woodwork/Furniture (22.5), Electrical/Electronics (22.5% and

Dance/Media (22.5%). Students ranging from the low of 12% to the high of 30% admitted

they did not participate in most other VET courses. The question remains to investigate the

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other important but less rated VET subjects at secondary schools in Port Moresby. It

appears the gap between academic and VET course participation was huge; more attention

was focussed on academic subjects than VET subjects. The results showed that most Grade

12 students participated and currently participating in more academic subjects and less on

VET subjects as illustrated in Table A1:

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Table A1: Grade 12 students who have participated or are currently participating in general academic and VET subjects

General academic and VET subjects participated or currently participating

1= Not participated 2 = Participated

3=Now participating Missing data Total

General academic subjects

Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

a. English - - 1 2.5 39 97.5 - - 40 100 b. Mathematics 5 12.5 35 87.5 - - 40 100 c. Chemistry 4 10.0 12 30.0 20 50.0 4 10.0 40 100 d. Physics 8 20.0 11 27.5 16 40.0 5 12.5 40 100 e. Biology 12 30.0 9 22.5 14 35.0 5 12.5 40 100 f. Economics 5 12.5 4 10.0 27 67.5 4 10.0 40 100 g. History 15 37.5 14 35.0 2 5.0 9 22.5 40 100 h. Geography 12 30.0 4 10.0 18 45.0 6 15.0 40 100 i. Commerce 7 17.5 24 60.0 1 2.5 8 20.0 40 100 VET subject participation j. Home Economics 9 22.5 20 50.0 3 7.5 8 20.0 40 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 16 40.0 12 30.0 1 2.5 11 27.5 40 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 25 62.5 2 5.0 1 2.5 12 30.0 40 100 m. Building and Construction trades 25 62.5 2 5.0 1 2.5 12 30.0 40 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 19 47.5 9 22.5 2 5.0 10 25.0 40 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments 28 70.0 - - - - 12 30.0 40 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 19 47.5 9 22.5 = - 12 30.0 40 100 q. Art & Design/Media 27 67.5 1 2.5 = - 12 30.0 40 100 r. Dance & Music 17 42.5 9 22.5 3 7.5 11 27.5 40 100 s. Computer Information Studies 9 22.5 16 40.0 10 25.0 5 12.5 40 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 26 65.0 2 5.0 - - 12 30.0 40 100 u. Food/beverages processing 27 67.5 1 2.5 - - 12 30.0 40 100 v. Mining and petroleum 28 70.0 - - - - 12 30.0 40 100 w. Forestry management 14 35.0 8 20.0 8 20.0 10 25.0 40 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 28 70.0 - - - - 12 30.0 40 100 y. Small business management 28 70.0 - - - - 12 30.0 40 100 z. Textile/Clothing 27 67.5 - - - - 12 30.0 40 100

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First, of the 37 Grade 11 students who responded to the survey questionnaire, most indicated they

are currently participating in the academic subjects. Apart from the compulsory English (81%) and

Mathematics (81%) subjects that are taken by most students, there were mixed reactions on

students’ choice of subjects between the Science and Social Science subjects. A fair number of

students were not taking Chemistry (32.4%) and Physics (32.4%) subjects. On the contrary, about

18.9% to 51.4% of students were taking or are currently taking the Science subjects. At least 64.9%

of students were taking the Economics subject; and about 13.5% to 43.2% of students taking the

Social Science subjects. However, 21.6% and 24.3% of students were not taking the Social Science

subjects.

Secondly, with the exception of Computer Information studies (45.9%), results showed that most

Grade 11 students across all five schools may not have taken part in most of the VET courses. A

few students indicated they have not taken part in most of the VET subjects. However, there are

others who have participated or are participating in VET subjects. Of this, Computer Information

studies again had 45.9% of students either have participated or currently participating and ‘Forestry

management’ has been participated or currently being participated by some 27% of students.

However, one is not sure whether this ‘Forestry management’ course has been taken as a ‘block

course’ or as a ‘subject’ under the school curriculum. Some students have taken part or are taking

part in the following VET subjects: Fabricated Metal/non-metal products (32.4%);

Electronics/Electrical (24.3%); Arts/Design/Media (16.2%) and Dance and Music (21.6%) and

Woodwork/Furniture (16.2%). The results seem to show that there is a wider gap between the

academic and VET subject participation levels by Grade 11 students as represented in Table A2.

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Table A2: Grade 11 students who have participated or are currently participating in general academic and VET subjects General academic and VET subjects

participated or currently participating 1= Not participated 2 = Participated




a. English - - 7 18.9 30 81.1 - - 37 100 b. Mathematics - - 7 18.9 30 81.1 - - 37 100 c. Chemistry 12 32.4 7 18.9 14 37.8 4 10.8 37 100 d. Physics 12 32.4 9 24.3 8 21.6 8 21.6 37 100 e. Biology 3 8.1 10 27.0 19 51.4 5 13.5 37 100 f. Economics 2 5.4 7 18.9 24 64.9 4 10.8 37 100 g. History 9 24.3 5 13.5 16 43.2 7 18.9 37 100 h. Geography 5 13.5 10 27.0 16 43.2 6 16.2 37 100 i. Commerce 8 21.6 12 32.4 9 24.3 8 21.6 37 100 VET subject participation j. Home Economics 17 45.9 11 29.7 1 2.7 8 21.6 37 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 15 40.5 12 32.4 2 5.4 8 21.6 37 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 25 67.6 - - 2 5.4 10 27.0 37 100 m. Building and Construction trades 25 67.6 2 5.4 3 8.1 7 18.9 37 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 21 56.8 6 16.2 2 5.4 8 21.6 37 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments 23 62.2 5 13.5 - - 9 24.3 37 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 20 54.1 9 24.3 - - 8 21.6 37 100 q. Art & Design/Media 23 62.2 6 16.2 - - 8 21.6 37 100 r. Dance & Music 18 48.6 8 21.6 3 8.1 8 21.6 37 100 s. Computer Information Studies 11 29.7 8 21.6 17 45.9 1 2.7 37 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 27 73.0 1 2.7 - - 9 24.3 37 100 u. Food/beverages processing 27 73.0 1 2.7 - - 9 24.3 37 100 v. Mining and petroleum 25 67.6 2 5.4 1 2.7 9 24.3 37 100 w. Forestry management 10 27.0 10 27.0 10 27.0 7 18.9 37 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 28 75.7 - - - - 9 24.3 37 100 y. Small business management 28 75.7 - - - - 9 24.3 37 100 z. Textile/Clothing 28 75.7 - - - - 9 24.3 37 100

280

Table A3: Grade 10 students who have participated or are currently participating in general academic and VET subjects.

The Grade 10 results showed that of the 37 students who took part in the survey, most

students are participating in English (79.3%) and Mathematics (79.3%). Followed with

27% and 69% either has taken part or taking part in Commerce. However, most of the

students have not taken part or are taking part in the academic subjects. The students not

participating in academic subjects appears to be higher than those taking part or have taken

part.

Similarly, the result showed that more students have not yet taken part in VET subjects.

Only 48.3% are currently taking part in ‘Home economics’ followed by subject, Fabricated

Metal/non-metal products (41.4%); Electrical (37.9%); and Woodwork/Furniture (31.0%).

On the whole, the mean result showed that like the mean for the academic subjects not

taken part, there was a high mean of students not taking part in VET subjects. This result

clearly showed students in this level were yet to take part in most of the academic and VET

subjects. There were a large number of missing values. This could mean that most Grade

10 students have not yet been streamed into discipline-specific programs like, Science,

Social Sciences & Humanities, Language and Literature, to name a few. Like their peers,

the Grade 10 results also indicated most students participated/participating in academic

subjects than VET as illustrated in Table 3 below:

281


General academic and VET subjects





a. English - - 6 20.7 23 79.3 - - 37 100 b. Mathematics - - 6 20.7 23 79.3 - - 37 100 c. Chemistry 10 34.5 6 20.7 5 17.2 8 27.6 37 100 d. Physics 16 55.2 1 3.4 5 17.2 7 24.1 37 100 e. Biology 15 51.7 3 10.3 1 3.4 10 34.5 37 100 f. Economics 17 58.6 1 3.4 2 6.9 9 31.0 37 100 g. History 17 58.6 2 6.9 1 3.4 9 31.0 37 100 h. Geography 16 55.2 2 6.9 3 10.3 8 27.6 37 100 i. Commerce - - 8 27.6 20 69.0 1 3.4 37 100 VET subject participation j. Home Economics 9 31.0 1 3.4 14 48.3 5 17.2 37 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 7 24.1 7 24.1 12 41.4 3 10.3 37 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 17 58.6 3 10.3 - - 9 31.0 37 100 m. Building and Construction trades 17 58.6 4 13.8 3 10.3 5 17.2 37 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 14 48.3 1 3.4 9 31.0 5 17.2 37 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equipment 22 75.9 - - - - 7 24.1 37 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 11 37.9 2 6.9 11 37.9 5 17.2 37 100 q. Art & Design/Media 20 69.0 1 3.4 1 3.4 7 24.1 37 100 r. Dance & Music 16 55.2 2 6.9 5 17.2 6 20.7 37 100 s. Computer Information Studies 19 65.5 4 13.8 - - 6 20.7 37 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 21 72.4 1 3.4 - - 7 24.1 37 100 u. Food/beverages processing 22 75.9 - - - - 7 24.1 37 100 v. Mining and petroleum 18 62.1 1 3.4 2 6.9 8 27.6 37 100 w. Forestry management 11 37.9 5 17.2 8 27.6 5 17.2 37 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 20 69.0 1 3.4 - - 8 27.6 37 100 y. Small business management 21 72.4 1 3.4 - - 7 24.1 37 100 z. Textile/Clothing 22 75.9 - - - - 7 24.1 37 100

282


With the exception of English and Mathematics subjects being participated and now

participating by most Grade 9 students, they have not participated in most other academic

subjects. Just 3 students (8.8%) and 7 students (20.6%), seemed to either have participated

or currently participating in Commerce subject. Just 4 students have taken part or

currently taking part in Economics subject, while only 7 students have taken part or

currently taking the History subject. This result showed that most academic subjects, other

than English and Mathematics, are only taken in the Upper Secondary School years and

not in Grade 9.

When compared with the VET subjects, a similar result seemed to come out of this survey.

Most students have not participated in VET courses and only a few students either have

participated or are participating in VET subjects. The mean value for this survey appears

that there was almost an equivalent number of students who have not participated either the

academic or VET subjects. Similarly, students who have either participated or are

participating in academic or VET subjects do not seem to show significant difference. The

results indicated that, apart from English and Math subjects, most students in Grade 9 have

not been participating in most academic and VET subjects. It would mean that ‘Subject

Selection’ and ‘streaming’ would have to be done in the Upper Secondary School level.

283

Table A4: Grade 9 students who have participated or are currently participating in general academic and VET subjects General academic and VET subjects





a. English - - 9 26.5 25 73.5 - - 37 100 b. Mathematics 1 2.9 7 20.6 26 76.5 - - 37 100 c. Chemistry 25 73.5 - - 1 2.9 8 23.5 37 100 d. Physics 24 70.6 1 2.9 1 2.9 8 23.5 37 100 e. Biology 24 70.6 - - 2 5.9 8 23.5 37 100 f. Economics 21 61.8 2 5.9 2 5.9 9 26.5 37 100 g. History 20 58.8 2 5.9 5 14.7 7 20.6 37 100 h. Geography 23 67.6 - - 2 5.9 9 26.5 37 100 i. Commerce 15 44.1 3 8.8 7 20.6 9 26.5 37 100 VET subject participation j. Home Economics 9 26.5 6 17.6 16 47.1 3 8.8 37 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 11 32.4 8 23.5 12 35.3 3 8.8 37 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 25 73.5 1 2.9 1 2.9 7 20.6 37 100 m. Building and Construction trades 19 55.9 3 8.8 4 11.8 8 23.5 37 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 13 38.2 6 17.6 10 29.4 5 14.7 37 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments 24 70.6 2 5.9 1 2.9 7 20.6 37 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 19 55.9 8 23.5 1 2.9 6 17.6 37 100 q. Art & Design/Media 19 55.9 5 14.7 2 5.9 8 23.5 37 100 r. Dance & Music 20 58.8 5 14.7 2 5.9 7 20.6 37 100 s. Computer Information Studies 20 58.8 1 2.9 8 23.5 5 14.7 37 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 25 73.5 1 2.9 1 2.9 7 20.6 37 100 u. Food/beverages processing 25 73.5 1 2.9 1 2.9 7 20.6 37 100 v. Mining and petroleum 25 73.5 - - 2 5.9 7 20.6 37 100 w. Forestry management 15 44.1 1 2.9 13 38.2 5 14.7 37 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 27 79.4 - - - - 7 20.6 37 100 y. Small business management 27 79.4 - - - - 7 20.6 37 100 z. Textile/Clothing 26 76.5 - - 1 2.9 7 20.6 37 100

284

Table A5: Grade 12 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses

The results of this question showed that most of the reasons are seen as important apart

from parents’ wishes (37.5%), convenient locations (15%) and costs of VET courses

(15%). Interesting subjects (35%), parents’ wishes of neither important nor unimportant

(42.5%), school advice or career guidance services (20%), flexible study options (27.5%),

convenient locations (52.5%) and costs of VET courses (15%). Students are not too sure

whether they are important nor unimportant.

However, most students thought that the other reasons for participating in VET courses

were important. Thus, the following variables received the highest ratings from the

minimum of 50% to a maximum of 95%: credit towards college/university (70%),

interesting VET subjects (52.5%), further study and job opportunities ((95%), school

advice/career guidance (72.7%), new apprentice opportunity (67.5%), a recognized

qualification (77.5%), flexible study options (50%), industry knowledge and practical

experience (82.5%), quality of teaching staff (80%) and costs of VET courses (55%).

It was interesting to note that amongst these reasons for Grade 12 students taking part in

VET, credit towards university, further study and job opportunities, school advice/career

guidance, a recognized qualification, industry knowledge and practical experience and the

quality of teaching staff have been accorded with the highest ratings by most students. It

was also important to realize that at least 22.5% of students have no knowledge of what the

“New apprenticeship opportunity’ was all about. Students ranging from a minimum of 5%

to a maximum of 12.5% have no knowledge of their reasons for participating in VET

courses as Table A5 illustrates.

285

Table A5: Grade 12 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses Importance of the

reasons to participate VET courses

1 = Not important

2 = Neither important nor unimportant

3 = Important 4 = Don’t know Missing data Total

Frequency and percentages

Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

a. Credit towards College/University

1 2.5 7 17.5 28 70.0 2 5.0 2 5.0 40 100

b. Interesting VET subjects

- - 14 35.0 21 52.5 2 5.0 3 7.5 40 100

c. Further study and job opportunities

- - 2 5.0 38 95.0 - - - - 40 100

d. Parents’ wishes 15 37.5

17 42.5 4 10.0 2 5.0 2 5.0 40 100

e. School advice/career guidance services

2 5.0 8 20.0 29 72.7 1 2.5 - - 40 100

f. New apprentice opportunity

- - 2 5.0 27 67.5 9 22.5 2 5.0 40 100

g. A recognized qualification

1 2.5 4 10.0 31 77.5 2 5.0 2 5.0 40 100

h. Flexible study options

2 5.0 11 27.5 20 50.0 4 10.0 3 7.5 40 100

i. Industry knowledge & practical experience

- - 4 10.0 33 82.5 2 5.0 1 2.5 40 100

j. Convenient locations 6 15.0

21 52.5 9 22.5 3 7.5 1 2.5 40 100

k. Quality of teaching staff

1 2.5 2 5.0 32 80.0 4 10.0 1 2.5 40 100

l. Costs of VET courses

6 15.0 6 15.0 22 55.0 5 12.5 1 2.5 40 100

286


When analysing the importance of the reasons for Grade 11 students to participate in VET

courses, most students thought the reasons for participating in the following courses were

important: credit towards college/university (64.9%); interesting VET subjects (48.6%);

further study and job opportunities (94.6%); school advice/career guidance services

(73.0%); New apprentice opportunity (59.5%); a recognized qualification (89.2%); flexible

study options (62.2%); industry knowledge and practical experience (56.8%); convenient

locations (40.5%); quality of teaching staff (67.6%) and costs of VET courses (43.2%).

Amongst these preferred variables, at least six variables received the highest rating, which

include: further study and job opportunities (94.6%), a recognized qualification (89.2%),

school advice/career guidance services (73.0%), quality of teaching staff (67.6%), credit

towards college/university (64.9%), flexible study options (62.2%) and New

Apprenticeship opportunities (59.5%).

At least four students thought that parent’s wishes were not important, whilst 43.2% were

on the border. Only 8 students (21.6%) thought that parents’ wishes are important.

Similarly, only a few students thought that the importance of the reasons to participate in

VET courses was neither important nor unimportant. The highlights of this include:

parents’ wishes (43.2%), convenient locations (32.4%), industry knowledge and practical

experience (21.6%), interesting VET subjects (18.9%), flexible study options (16.2%) and

costs of VET courses (16.2%).

A reasonable number of students did not seem to know nor had any idea about the

importance of VET and the reasons for taking part in VET `courses. The following Grade

11 students did not seem to know the importance of the reasons for participating in VET

courses at the school level: costs of VET courses (37.8%), parents’ wishes (24.3%), and

credit towards college/university (21.6%), new apprenticeship opportunities (21.6%), and

quality of teaching staff (18.9%), interesting VET subjects (18.9%) and flexible study

options (16.2%). Despite some Grade 11 students’ lack of knowledge of the importance of

VET, most of them tend to view that there are important reasons to taking part in VET

courses at their level. This is indicated in Table A6.

287


Importance of the reasons to participate VET courses

1 = Not important 2 = Neither important nor unimportant





- - 3 8.1 24 64.9 8 21.6 2 5.4 37 100


1 2.7 7 18.9 18 48.6 7 18.9 4 10.8 37 100


- - 2 5.4 35 94.6 - - - - 37 100

d. Parents’ wishes 4 10.8 16 43.2 8 21.6 9 24.3 - - 37 100


1 2.7 5 13.5 27 73.0 3 8.1 1 2.7 37 100


- - 5 13.5 22 59.5 8 21.6 2 5.4 37 100


- - 2 5.4 33 89.2 - - 2 5.4 37 100


1 2.7 6 16.2 23 62.2 6 16.2 1 2.7 37 100


- - 8 21.6 21 56.8 6 16.2 2 5.4 37 100

j. Convenient locations 3 8.1 12 32.4 15 40.5 6 16.2 1 2.7 37 100


2 5.4 1 2.7 25 67.6 7 18.9 2 5.4 37 100


- - 6 16.2 16 43.2 14 37.8 1 2.7 37 100

288


Although not many students appeared to have been exposed to most of the VET subjects,

the results for this survey showed that, most Grade 10 students expressed that participating

in VET was important for the various reasons. The most notable reasons that students

viewed as important, include: further study and job opportunities (93.1%); industry

knowledge and practical experience (72.4%); credit towards college or university (65.5%);

a recognized qualification (65.5%); quality of teaching staff (62.1%); school advice/career

guidance (58.6%); flexible study options (58.6%); interesting VET subjects (48.3%); costs

of VET courses (44.8%); and New Apprenticeship opportunities (48.3%). ‘Parents’

wishes’ has been rated lowest amongst the ‘importance of the reasons to participate in

VET’ (27.6%), although 44.8% of them thought parents’ wishes as neither important nor

unimportant. Most students thought that VET was important for the various reasons as

shown in this survey question. Table A7 illustrates the results of this data.

289

Table A7: Grade 10 students’ reasons to participate in VET courses Importance of the

reasons to participate VET courses






1 3.4 2 6.9 19 65.5 6 20.7 1 3.4 37 100


- - 9 31.0 14 48.3 5 17.2 1 3.4 37 100


- - 1 3.4 27 93.1 1 3.4 - - 37 100

d. Parents’ wishes 5 17.2 13 44.8 8 27.6 3 10.3 - - 37 100


- - 4 13.8 17 58.6 7 24.1 1 3.4 37 100


- - 6 20.7 14 48.3 9 31.0 - - 37 100


- - 2 6.9 19 65.5 6 20.7 2 6.9 37 100


- - 5 17.2 17 58.6 7 24.1 - - 37 100


- - 6 20.7 21 72.4 2 6.9 - - 37 100

j. Convenient locations 4 13.8 9 13.0 5 17.2 11 37.9 - - 37 100


1 3.4 4 13.8 18 62.1 6 20.7 - - 37 100


1 3.4 5 17.2 13 44.8 10 34.5 - - 37 100

290


Although most Grade 9 students had less contact with most VET subjects, most of them

realized that there was important reasons to take part in VET courses. Out of the 34 Grade

9 students who have responded to this question, 30 students (88.2%) viewed that taking

part in VET courses was important because, it involved further study and job opportunities.

Also, the same number of students (88.2%) viewed that taking part in VET courses was

important because VET qualifications can be recognized. This was followed by 73.5% of

students who thought that VET was important because of its related industry knowledge

and practical experience. Then about 22 students (64.7%) viewed that VET was important

because of its relation with credit towards college or university. Just 26.5% of students

thought it important to participate in VET because of their parents/ guardians wishes.

This result showed that Grade 9 students, despite their limited access to most VET subjects

and their lack of knowledge of the reasons to taking part in VET, considered the

importance of taking part in VET as Table A8 illustrates.

291


Importance of the reasons to participate VET courses






- - 4 11.8 22 64.7 8 23.5 - - 37 100


- - 13 38.2 14 41.2 5 14.7 2 5.9 37 100


1 2.9 - - 30 88.2 3 8.8 - - 37 100

d. Parents’ wishes 7 20.6 13 38.2 9 26.5 4 11.8 1 2.9 37 100


2 5.9 5 14.7 18 52.9 5 14.7 4 11.8 37 100


1 2.9 3 8.8 20 58.8 8 23.5 2 5.9 37 100


1 2.9 2 5.9 30 88.2 - - 1 2.9 37 100


2 5.9 3 8.8 15 44.1 9 26.5 5 14.7 37 100


1 2.9 2 5.9 25 73.5 5 14.7 1 2.9 37 100

j. Convenient locations 8 23.5 11 32.4 5 14.7 10 29.4 2 5.9 37 100


2 5.9 4 11.8 21 61.8 6 17.6 1 2.9 37 100


2 5.9 8 23.5 13 38.2 9 26.5 2 5.9 37 100

292

Table A9: Grade 12 students’ views about VET

The highlights of the results were that, most students agreed on all statements, except

‘VET courses are designed to suit males and not females’ (87.5%) and ‘VET is good for

people who are not suited to academic careers (30%). At least 25% of the students think

that VET is considered a second chance for people who want further education. Then about

17.5% of the students thought that university qualifications were more highly recognized

than VET qualifications. Similarly, about 12.5% of students thought that ‘VET uses a

hands-on approach’.

As indicated earlier, however, most students agreed on each statement. For example, 60%

agreed that University qualifications are more highly recognized than VET qualifications;

72.5% agreed that VET is an alternative if people are unable to find a job; 60% agreed that

VET is good for people who are not suited to academic careers; 65% thought that VET is

considered a second chance for people who want further education and 72.5% thought that

VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship. On the contrary, 22.5% of

students expressed that they had no knowledge of whether VET enhances the chances of

getting a New Apprenticeship; 12.5% also had no knowledge whether VET uses a hands-

on approach and 10% are unaware whether university qualifications are highly recognised

than VET qualifications. Table A9 illustrates this result.

293


Agreement or disagreement about VET

1 = Disagreement 2 = Neither agree or disagree

3 = Agree 4 = Don’t know Missing data

Total


Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Freq. (%) Frequency (%)

a. University qualifications are more highly recognized than VET qualifications

5 12.5 7 17.5 24 60.0 4 10.0 - - 40 100

b. VET is an alternative if you are unable to find a job

5 12.5 2 5.0 29 72.5 3 7.5 1 2.5 40 100

c. VET is good for people who are not suited to academic careers

12 30.0 4 10 24 60.0 - - - - 40 100

d. VET courses are designed to suit males and not females

35 87.5 1 2.5 2 5.0 2 5.0 - -

40 100

e. VET is considered a second chance for people who want further education

2 5.0 10 25.0 26 65.0 2 5.0 - -

40 100

f. VET uses a hands-on approach

4 10.0

5 12.5 26 65.0 5 12.5 - -

40 100

g. VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship

1 2.5 1 2.5 29 72.5 9 22.5 - -

40 100

294


The results showed that with the exception of 89.3% of students disagreeing on ‘VET

courses being designed to suit males and not females’, most agreed on the statements. The

highlights of these are: VET is an alternative if they are unable to find a job (81.1%); VET

is considered a second chance for people who want further education (78.4%); VET is

good for people who are not suited to academic careers (70.3%); VET enhances the

chances of getting a New Apprenticeship (64.9%); University qualifications are more

highly recognized than VET qualifications (51.4%); and VET uses a hands-on approach

(21.6%).

Only a few students ranging from 8.1% to 16.2% disagreed on all uses of VET. ‘VET

courses are designed to suit males than females’ has been accorded with the highest rating

(89.2%), signifying that VET is for both males and females. On the contrary, about 48.6%

of students do not know whether VET enhances a hands-on approach. In addition, four

students (10.8%) did not know whether University qualifications were more highly

recognized than VET qualifications. Similarly, another four students (10.8%) did not know

whether VET was good for people who are not suited to academic careers.

The results for this survey question showed that like their Seniors in Grade 12, most agreed

that VET courses are not highly recognized as University qualifications; VET courses are

alternatives for people who are unable to find jobs; VET courses are good for people who

are not suited for academic careers; and VET was considered a second chance for people

who want further education. As Table 10 illustrates, the only exception here was that at

least 24 students (64.9%) agreed that VET enhances the chances of getting a New

Apprenticeship.

295




3 = Agree 4 = Don’t know Missing data Total


Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Freq. (%)


6 16.2 8 21.6 19 51.4 4 10.8 - - 37 100


4 10.8 1 2.7 30 81.1 2 5.4 - - 37 100


4 10.8 3 8.1 26 70.3 4 10.8 - - 37 100


33 89.2 1 2.7 1 2.7 2 5.4 - - 37 100


3 8.1 4 10.8 29 78.4 - - 1 2.7 37 100


3 8.1 6 16.2 8 21.6 18 48.6 2 5.4 37 100


- - 4 10.8 24 64.9 - - 9 24.3 37 100

296


The results showed that most Grade 10 students (89.7%) disagreed that VET courses are

designed to suit males than females. Conventional wisdom tells the students that there is no

reason why the females should be restricted from studying VET. Also, at least six students

(20.75) disagreed that university qualifications are highly recognized than VET

qualifications. This result also showed that these students saw VET qualifications as

important as qualifications acquired from a university level study. Only 4 students did not

agree that VET is good for people who are not suited to academic careers.

On the other hand, most students responded favourably to statements relating to VET.

Most students agreed that: VET is an alternative if you are unable to find a job (93.1%);

VET is considered a second chance for people who want further education (82.8%); VET

enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship (72.4%); VET is good for people

who are not suited to academic careers (62.1%); University qualifications are highly

recognized than VET qualifications ((41.4%); and VET uses a hands-on approach (27.6%).

Only a few students, ranging from 1 - 6 in number indicated that they neither agreed nor

disagreed on each of the variables. Likewise, 58.6% of students are not sure whether VET

uses a hands-on approach. Likewise, 24.1% and 17.2% of students were not sure whether

VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship and University qualifications

being more highly recognizable than VET subjects. These results show that some of the

Grade 10 students may not be sure of what VET is all about. However, generally like their

fellow students in Grade 11 and 12, they also had reservations for VET subjects than

academic subjects as revealed in Table A11.

297








6 20.7 6 20.7 12 41.4 5 17.2 - - 37 100


1 3.4 1 3.4 27 93.1 - - - - 37 100


4 13.8 4 13.8 18 62.1 3 10.3 - - 37 100


26 89.7 1 3.4 1 3.4 1 3.4 - - 37 100

e.VET is considered a second chance for people who want further education

- - 2 6.9 24 82.8 3 10.3 - - 37 100


- - 3 10.3 8 27.6 17 58.6 1 3.4 37 100

g.VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship

- - - - 21 72.4 7 24.1 1 3.4 37 100

298


Most Grade 9 students (91.2%) disagreed that VET courses were designed to suit males

than females. Similarly, about 26.5% of students disagreed that University qualifications

are more highly recognized than VET qualifications. This finding showed that the Grade 9

students thought that VET courses were suitable for both males and females. Similarly,

they thought that VET qualifications were also as important as University qualifications.

Although 9 students (26.5%) neither agreed nor disagreed that University qualifications are

more highly recognized than VET qualifications, just a few students rated each statement

as neither important nor unimportant.

Despite these results, most students ‘agreed’ to most of the statements. The results for this

category are as follows: About 73.5% of students agreed that VET is an alternative if they

are unable to find a job; VET is considered a second chance for people who want further

education (70.6%); VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship (64.7%);

VET is suitable for people who are not suited to academic careers (50.0%); VET uses a

hands-on approach (23.4%) and University qualifications are more highly recognized than

VET qualifications (23.4%). Only 50% of the students were not sure whether VET uses a

hands-on approach. Also, 23.5% of students also indicated that they had no knowledge of

whether VET enhances the chances of getting a New Apprenticeship, while 20.6%

indicated no knowledge of whether VET was good for people who are not suited for

academic careers.

The results showed that, like many of their senior students in Grade 10, 11, and 12, most

Grade 9 students also ‘agreed’ with most of the statements in this question that VET is

reserved for only those students who may not do well and wish to take the VET pathway as

Table A12 illustrates.

299






Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

a) University qualifications are more highly recognized than VET qualifications

9 26.5 9 26.5 11 23.4 5 14.7 - - 37 100


3 8.8 3 8.8 25 73.5 3 8.8 - - 37 100


5 14.7 5 14.7 17 50.0 7 20.6 - - 37 100


31 91.2 1 2.9 - - 2 5.9 - - 37 100


1 2.9 5 14.7 24 70.6 4 11.8 - - 37 100


- - 5 14.7 11 23.4 17 50.0 1 2.9 37 100


1 2.9 3 8.8 22 64.7 8 23.5 - - 37 100

300

Table A13: Importance of employability skills and personal attributes for Grade 12 students

The results showed that most students viewed the employability skills and attributes as

either important or very important. Only 22.5% thought the ‘employability skills’ slightly

important; 15% thought ‘Information Technology’ as slightly important, another 15% rated

‘reliability’ as slightly important, 12.5% viewed ‘motivation’ as slightly important, another

12.5% saw ‘personal presentation’ as slightly important, and 20% thought ‘sense of

humour’ as slightly important.

It was also interesting to know that from those majority of students who rated the other

employability skills and attributes, the following skills and attributes have been rated by

students between 50 – 85% range: communication (75%), teamwork (55%), planning and

organizing (60%), self-management (75%), loyalty (52.2%), commitment (85%), honesty

and integrity (77.5%), enthusiasm (50%), reliability (57.5%), balanced attitude to work and

home life (72.5%), personal presentation (55%), common sense (62.5%), positive self-

esteem (57.5%), ability to deal with pressure (72.5%) and adaptability (60%). Also,

problem solving, initiative and enterprise, ongoing learning, information technology,

motivation, and sense of humour were rated within the 40% to 45% range which showed

that they were also important or very important as viewed by students. Table A13 has this

data.

301


Employability Skills required for future careers

1= Not important 2 = Slightly important

3 = Important 4 = Very important

Missing data Total

Frequency & Percentages


a. Communication - - 3 7.5 7 17.5 30 75.0 - - 40 100 b. Teamwork - - 2 5.0 16 40.0 22 55.0 - - 40 100 c. Problem Solving 1 2.5 4 10.0 17 42.5 18 45.0 - - 40 100 d. Initiative and Enterprise - - 9 22.5 15 37.5 16 40.0 - - 40 100 e. Planning and organizing - - 2 5.0 14 35.0 24 60.0 - - 40 100 f. Self management - - 1 2.5 9 22.5 30 75.0 - - 40 100 g. Ongoing Learning - - 3 7.5 19 47.5 18 45.0 - - 40 100 h. Information Technology - - 6 15.0 15 37.5 19 47.5 - - 40 100 Personal attributes

i. Loyalty 1 2.5 1 2.5 17 42.5 21 52.5 - - 40 100 j. Commitment - - - - 6 16.0 34 85.0 - - 40 100 k. Honesty and integrity - - - - 9 22.5 31 77.5 - - 40 100 l. Enthusiasm - - 1 2.5 18 45.0 20 50.0 1 2.5 40 100 m. Reliability 2 5.0 6 15.0 9 22.5 23 57.5 - - 40 100 n. Balanced attitude to work and home life

- - 1 2.5 10 25.0 29 72.5 - - 40 100

o. Motivation - - 5 12.5 16 40.0 19 47.5 - - 40 100 p. Personal presentation - - 5 12.5 13 32.5 22 55.0 - - 40 100 q. Common sense - - 3 7.5 12 30.0 25 62.5 - - 40 100 r. Positive self-esteem - - 1 2.5 16 40.0 23 57.5 - - 40 100 s. Sense of humour 2 5.0 8 20.0 12 30.0 18 45.0 - - 40 100 t. Ability to deal with pressure - - 3 7.5 8 20.0 29 72.5 - - 40 100 u. Adaptability - - 4 10.0 12 30.0 24 60.0 - - 40 100

302


The results for this question suggested that, like the Grade 12 students, most Grade 11

students thought that the ‘employability skills’ and ‘attributes’ was either ‘important’ or

‘very important’ for their future careers. Only a few students thought that some of the

employability skills and attributes were ‘slightly important’.

First, for the employability skills, planning and organizing (75.7%), communication

(73.0%), and self-management (73.0%) have been viewed as very important, followed by:

Information technology (67.6%), ongoing learning (51.4%), problem solving (43.2%),

teamwork (35.1%) and initiative and enterprise (29.7%). Only seven students (18.9%)

thought that ‘teamwork’ is slightly important, followed by six students (16.2%) viewed

that ‘initiative and enterprise’ is slightly important. Second, the results for the personal

attributes indicate that both ‘commitment’ (91.9%) and ‘honesty and integrity’ (97.3%)

have been rated as ‘very important’. The second highest ratings include: personal

presentation (75.7%), common sense (73.0%), positive self-esteem (70.0%) balanced

attitude to work and home life (67.6%), reliability (64.9%), loyalty (59.5%), and

adaptability (54.1%) have also received good response. Furthermore, sense of humour

(51.4%) and motivation (51.4%) has also been considered very important by almost two

quarters of them. On the other hand, those students who viewed that some of the

employability skills and attributes are ‘slightly important’, seemed to range from a low of

5.4% to a high of 16.2%.

On the whole, most students were of the view that their future and the prospects of

securing jobs would very much dependent on how well they would be acquainted with

these various employability skills and attributes. When comparing the means for the

employability skills and attributes, the results tended to fall on the right as more students

preferred the skills and attributes as illustrated in Table A14.

303


Employability Skills required for future Careers



Missing data Total



a. Communication - - 3 8.1 7 18.7 27 73.0 - - 37 100 b. Teamwork - - 7 18.9 17 45.9 13 35.1 - - 37 100 c. Problem Solving 1 2.7 3 8.1 17 45.9 16 43.2 - - 37 100 d. Initiative and Enterprise 1 2.7 6 16.2 19 51.4 11 29.7 - - 37 100 e. Planning and organizing - - 1 2.7 8 21.6 28 75.7 - - 37 100 f. Self management - - 2 5.4 8 21.6 27 73.0 - - 37 100 g. Ongoing Learning 1 2.7 3 8.1 14 37.8 19 51.4 - - 37 100 h. Information Technology - - 1 2.7 11 29.7 25 67.6 - - 37 100 Personal attributes

i. Loyalty - - 2 5.4 11 29.7 22 59.5 2 5.4 37 100 j. Commitment - - - - 2 5.4 34 91.9 1 2.7 37 100 k. Honesty and integrity - - - - 1 2.7 36 97.3 - - 37 100 l. Enthusiasm - - 4 10.8 16 43.2 14 37.8 3 8.1 37 100 m. Reliability 1 2.7 2 5.4 10 27.0 24 64.9 - - 37 100 n. Balanced attitude to work and home life

- - - - 12 32.4 25 67.6 - - 37 100

o. Motivation - - 4 10.8 14 37.8 19 51.4 - - 37 100 p. Personal presentation - - 1 2.7 8 21.6 28 75.7 - - 37 100 q. Common sense - - 1 2.7 9 24.3 27 73.0 - - 37 100 r. Positive self-esteem - - 2 5.4 8 21.6 27 73.0 - - 37 100 s. Sense of humour 1 2.7 6 16.2 11 29.7 19 51.4 - - 37 100 t. Ability to deal with pressure 1 2.7 2 5.4 8 21.6 26 70.3 - - 37 100 u. Adaptability 1 2.7 6 16.2 10 27.0 20 54.1 - - 37 100

304


The results showed that like their colleagues in Grades 11 and 12, the Grade 10 students

viewed the employability skills and attributes were either ‘important’ or ‘very important’.

Most students thought that the employability skills and attributes were ‘very important’.

The highlights of this, include: honesty and integrity (86.2%); commitment (82.8);

planning and organizing (79.3%); balanced attitude to work and home life (72.4%);

positive self-esteem (65.5%); loyalty (62.1%); personal presentation (62.1%); ability to

deal with pressure (62.1%); communication (58.6%); Information Technology (58.6%);

adaptability (58.6%); and self-management (55.2%).

From these results, it was clear that the students viewed both employability skills and

attributes as either important or very important for them. Although, there tended to be a

general perception that VET could play a secondary role in their view, they were certain

that these employability skills and attributes were crucial for their life and future. This

result is reflected in Table A15.

305

A15: Importance of employability skills and personal attributes for Grade 10 students


1= Not important

2 = Slightly important


Missing data Total



a. Communication - - 5 17.2 7 24.1 17 58.6 - - 37 100 b. Teamwork - - 4 13.8 14 48.3 11 37.9 - - 37 100 c. Problem Solving 2 6.9 2 6.9 13 44.8 12 41.4 - - 37 100 d. Initiative and Enterprise 3 10.3 5 17.2 7 24.1 13 44.8 1 3.4 37 100 e. Planning and organizing - - 2 6.9 4 13.8 23 79.3 - - 37 100 f. Self management 1 3.4 1 3.4 11 37.9 16 55.2 - - 37 100 g. Ongoing Learning - - 3 10.3 14 48.3 11 37.9 1 3.4 37 100 h. Information Technology - - 2 6.9 10 34.5 17 58.6 - - 37 100 Personal attributes

i. Loyalty - - 3 10.3 8 27.6 18 62.1 - - 37 100 j. Commitment - - - - 5 17.2 24 82.8 - - 37 100 k. Honesty and integrity - - - - 4 13.8 25 86.2 - - 37 100 l. Enthusiasm - - 5 17.2 13 44.8 10 34.5 1 3.4 37 100 m. Reliability 3 10.3 3 10.3 10 34.5 12 41.5 1 3.4 37 100 n. Balanced attitude to work & home-life

- - 3 10.3 5 17.2 21 72.4 - - 37 100

o. Motivation - - 2 6.9 14 48.3 13 44.8 - - 37 100 p. Personal presentation - - - - 11 37.9 18 62.1 - - 37 100 q. Common sense 1 3.4 2 6.9 8 27.6 18 62.1 - - 37 100 r. Positive self-esteem - - 3 10.3 7 24.1 19 65.5 - - 37 100 s. Sense of humour 1 3.4 4 13.8 11 37.9 13 44.8 - - 37 100 t. Ability to deal with pressure 1 3.4 5 17.2 5 17.2 18 62.1 - - 37 100 u. Adaptability 2 6.9 2 6.9 8 27.6 17 58.6 - - 37 100

306


Most Grade 9 students ranked either ‘important’ or ‘very important’ on most employability

skills and attributes. Just a few students thought that these employability skills and

attributes were ‘not important’ or ‘slightly important’. When comparing the group mean

for these categories, it became clear that most students favoured employability skills and

the attributes.

The mean results indicated that there was not much difference in the results. The mean

results showed that most students indicated the employability skills and attributes being

either ‘important’ or ‘very important’. This result on the whole showed that students

considered the employability skills and attributes to be either ‘important’ or ‘very

important for their future careers’. Table A16 illustrates the view that a similar pattern was

developing for this question for all Grades (Grade 9 – 12).

307





Missing data Total



a. Communication - - 4 11.8 9 26.5 20 58.8 1 2.9 37 100 b. Teamwork - - 5 14.7 13 38.2 16 47.1 - - 37 100 c. Problem Solving 3 8.8 4 11.8 15 44.1 11 32.4 1 2.9 37 100 d. Initiative and Enterprise 2 5.9 7 20.6 13 38.2 11 32.4 1 2.9 37 100 e. Planning and organizing 1 2.9 2 5.9 9 26.5 22 64.7 - - 37 100 f. Self management 1 2.9 2 5.9 8 23.5 23 67.6 - - 37 100 g. Ongoing Learning 2 5.9 3 8.8 12 35.3 17 50.0 - - 37 100 h. Information Technology 1 2.9 3 8.8 14 41.2 16 47.1 - - 37 100 Personal attributes i. Loyalty 2 5.9 2 5.9 11 32.4 17 50.0 2 5.9 37 100 j. Commitment - - 1 2.9 8 23.5 25 73.5 - - 37 100 k. Honesty and integrity - - - - 6 17.6 28 82.4 - - 37 100 l. Enthusiasm 1 2.9 8 23.5 14 41.2 9 26.5 2 5.9 37 100 m. Reliability 3 8.8 7 20.6 11 32.4 12 35.3 1 2.9 37 100 n. Balanced attitude to work and home life

1 2.9 2 5.9 11 32.4 20 58.8 - - 37 100

o. Motivation 1 2.9 4 11.8 18 52.9 10 29.4 1 2.9 37 100 p. Personal presentation 1 2.9 4 11.8 9 26.5 19 55.9 1 2.9 37 100 q. Common sense - - - - 11 32.4 22 64.7 1 2.9 37 100 r. Positive self-esteem 1 2.9 - - 10 29.4 23 67.6 - - 37 100 s. Sense of humour 3 8.8 6 17.6 13 38.2 11 32.4 1 2.9 37 100 t. Ability to deal with pressure 1 2.9 7 20.6 6 17.6 19 55.9 1 2.9 37 100 u. Adaptability 4 11.8 6 17.6 9 26.5 14 41.2 1 2.9 37 100

308

Table A17: Grade 12 students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness

The results illustrated that over 50% of students agreed on all teacher qualities. For

example, 57.5% of students agreed that teachers were very clear in their explanation of

why certain employability skills and attributes are important; about the same percent

(57.5%) believed they enjoyed the activities set in class by their teachers in order for them

to develop their employability skills and attributes; about 50% of students believed that

they understood the purpose of assessment; another 50% thought their teachers made them

learn competencies that are relevant to jobs students would do in future.

Also about 50% of Grade 12 students thought that their teachers were innovative and very

practical in the way they teach their students. In addition, about 27.5% of students strongly

agreed that they enjoyed the activities set in class that helped them develop their

employability skills and attributes. Similarly, 32.5% very strongly agreed that they

understood the purpose of the assessment that has been used by their teachers to assess

their knowledge and skills.

However, about 30% of them disagreed that their teachers were very clear in their

explanation of why it was important for the students to learn certain employability skills

and attributes. Even further, about 35% of students disagreed that their teachers made them

learn competencies that are relevant for to their future industry work. Similarly, about

47.5% of students disagreed that their teachers tried to use a broad set of employability and

skills and attributes that would allow them to change jobs if and when they wanted to.

Finally, about 32.5% students disagreed that their teachers have been innovative in how

they tried to help students learn new employability skills and attributes. On the other hand,

two students strongly disagreed that they enjoyed the activities set by their teachers.

Similarly, four students very strongly thought their teachers tried to use a broad set of

employability skills and attributes that would allow them to change jobs, nor do they

become practical in their focus in the way they (teachers) tried to help students.

309

Results showed that teachers generally had been both helpful in their approach to teaching

their students with whatever skills within their disposal. One was not sure, whether the

employability skills and attributes that the students relate to were VET or academic

courses. At the same time, one has to bear in mind that this data has been derived from five

urban schools and not rural schools. The results for rural schools would be different than

this. Table A 17 has these results:

310


Agreement or disagreement about teacher effectiveness

1 = Strongly disagree

2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly agree

Missing data Total

Frequency and percentages Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

a. Teachers are very clear in explaining why it is important for students to be learning certain employability competencies and attributes

- - 12 30.0 23 57.5 4 10.0 1 2.5 40 100

b. I enjoy the activities set in class that help me develop new employability competencies/attributes

2 5.0 3 7.5 23 57.5 11 27.5 1 2.5 40 100

c. I understand how the assessment is used to test my course content knowledge an skills

- - 5 12.5 20 50.0 13 32.5 2 5.0 40 100

d. Teachers make me to learn competencies that are relevant to the job or industry I want to work in

- - 14 35.0 20 50.0 5 12.5 1 2.5 40 100

e. Teachers try to use a broad set of employability competencies/attributes that would allow me to change jobs if and when I wanted to

4 10.0 19 47.5 11 27.5 2 5.0 4 10.0 40 100

f. I think our teachers are innovative in how they help me learn knew employability competencies and attributes

1 2.5 13 32.5 20 50.0 4 10 2 5.0 40 100

g. Teachers have a very practical focus in what they teach me

4 10.0 6 15.0 22 55.0 6 15.0 2 5.0 40 100

311


The Grade 11 results for this survey question reflected students either ‘agreeing’ or

‘strongly agreeing’ on the various characteristics of teacher effectiveness. Most students

seemed to agree that: students understand how assessment was used to test their content

knowledge and skills (67.6%). Moreover, teachers were: innovative and they helped

students learn the skills and competencies (62.2%); clear in their explanation of why their

students needed to learn certain employability skills and attributes (56.8%); and made

students learn skills that were relevant to their job or industry they would work in future

(51.4%). Some students also indicated they enjoyed class activities set by their teachers

that dealt with certain employability skills and attributes (48.6%); teachers were having

practical focus in what they taught (45.9%), and they (teachers) tried to use a broad set of

employability skills/attributes that would provide various pathways.

Although 45.9% of students thought that their teachers tried to use a broad set of

employability skills/attributes that would provide various pathways, 37.8% of them

(students) ‘disagreed’ with this statement. At the same time, about 31.6% of students

strongly thought that teachers tried to use a broad range of skills and attributes that would

allow them to look for jobs. Similarly, 35.1% of students strongly thought their teachers

made them learn competencies that would be relevant to their future jobs. Also some

students strongly thought their teachers had a very practical approach to what they taught

(35.1%) and that some teachers were very clear in their explanation of the importance of

their students’ learning employability skills (29.7%). Only, 27% of students indicated that

they enjoyed activities set by their teachers that helped them develop new employability

skills and attributes. As Table 18 illustrates, most students either agreed or strongly agreed

that most of their teachers were doing what they can to present their lessons.

312





Missing data Total



a. Teachers are very clear in explaining why it is important for students to be learning certain employability competencies and attributes

- - 4 10.8 21 56.8 11 29.7 1 2.7 37 100


3 8.1 5 13.5 18 48.6 10 27.0 1 2.7 37 100

c. I understand how the assessment is used to test my course content knowledge and skills

- - 3 8.1 25 67.6 9 24.3 - - 37 100


- - 5 13.5 19 51.4 13 35.1 - - 37 100


3 8.1 14 37.8 12 32.4 8 31.6 - - 37 100


- - 9 24.3 23 62.2 5 13.5 - - 37 100


4 10.8 2 5.4 17 45.9 13 35.1 1 2.7 37 100

313


For this survey question, eight students (27.6%) disagreed that teachers tried to use a broad

set of employability competencies/attributes that would allow them to change jobs if and

when they wanted to. Similarly, only six students (20.7%) disagreed that their teachers are

innovative in how they help them learn employability skills and attributes. Likewise, five

students (17.2%) disagreed that their teachers made them learn competencies that were

relevant to the job or industry they want to work in.

There were three students (10.3%) who disagreed with the statement that ‘their teachers

were very clear in explaining why it was important for students to be learning certain

employability skills and attributes’. Similarly, three students (10.3%) disagreed that they

understood how the assessment was used to test their course content knowledge and skills.

At least three students (10.3%) strongly disagreed that their teachers tried to use a set of

employability skills and attributes that would allow them to change jobs if and when they

wanted to.

Conversely, the results showed that most students either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with

the statements concerning the effectiveness of their teachers. About 62.1% of students

agreed and 27.6% of them strongly agreed that they enjoyed the activities set in class by

their teachers that helped them develop new employability skills and attributes. Similarly,

about 62.1% and 27.6% of students ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ respectively, that they

understood the assessment used by their teachers to test their course content knowledge

and skills. Likewise, about 62.1% and 17.2% of students respectively either ‘agreed’ or

‘strongly agreed’ that their teachers are innovative in how they help them learn new

employability skills and attributes.

At least sixteen (55.2%) and ten (34.5%) students respectively either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly

agreed’ that their teachers were very clear in explaining why it was important for students

to be learning certain employability skills and attributes. About 14 students (48.3%) and 13

314

students (44.8%) respectively, either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ that their teachers were

very practical focus in what they were teaching them.

There were some 14 students (48.3%) and 4 students (13.8%) respectively, either ‘agreed’

or ‘strongly agreed’ that their teachers tried to use a broad set of employability skills and

attributes that would allow their students to change jobs if and when they wanted to in

future. Finally, at least 11 students (37.9%) and 13 students (44.8%) respectively, either

‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ that their teachers made their students to learn competencies

that were relevant to jobs or industries that they would be working in. Table 19 presents

the results, illustrating that most students ‘agreed’ with the statements concerning the

effectiveness of their teachers in teaching them certain employability skills and attributes.

315





Missing data Total

Frequency and percentages Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) a. Teachers are very clear in explaining why it is important for students to be learning certain employability competencies and attributes

- -

3 10.3

16 55.2

10 34.5

- -

37 100

b. I enjoy the activities set in class that help me develop new employability skills/attributes

2 6.9 1 3.4 18 62.1 8 27.6 - - 37 100


- - 3 10.3 18 62.1 8 27.6 - - 37 100


- - 5 17.2 11 37.9 13 44.8 - - 37 100


3 10.3 8 27.6 14 48.3 4 13.8 - - 37 100


- - 6 20.7 18 62.1 5 17.2 - - 37 100


1 3.4 1 3.4 14 48.3 13 44.8 - - 37 100

316


The 4-point Likert scale showed that a good number of Grade 9 students agreed with most

of the statements concerning teacher effectiveness. Of the 34 Grade 9 students who took

part in this survey, 20 of them (58.8%) agreed that their teachers were innovative in how

they helped them learn new employability competencies and attributes. Conversely, 7

students (20.6%) disagreed with this statement. A further 5 students (14.7%) strongly

agreed with this statement.

The second highlight was that 18 students (52.9%) agreed with the statement that they

understood how the assessment was used to test their course content knowledge and skills

by their teachers. Only 4 students thought that this statement was not true, whereas 8

students strongly agreed this statement to be true. Then about 17 students (50.0%) agreed

that their teachers have been very clear in their explanation of the importance of their

students learning certain employability skills and attributes. About 4 students (11.8%)

disagreed with this statement while 9 students (26.5%), strongly agreed with this

statement.

Similarly, 16 students (47.1%) agreed that they enjoyed the activities set in class by their

teachers helped them to develop new employability skills and competencies. Also, 13

students (38.2%) strongly agreed this statement while only 3 students disagreed. Then

about 8 students (23.5%) disagreed with the statement that their teachers made them to

learn competencies that were relevant to the job or industry they would be doing in future.

However, the same statement was agreed by 15 students (44.1%) and strongly agreed by 8

students (23.5%) respectively. Likewise, 12 students (35.3%) disagreed with the statement

that their teachers tried to use a broad set of employability skills/attributes that would allow

them to change jobs if and when they wanted to. Also, 3 students (8.8%) strongly

disagreed with this statement. However, 14 students (41.2%) and just 3 students (8.8%)

respectively agreed and strongly agreed with this statement.

317

Finally, 1 and 3 students strongly disagreed or disagreed respectively with the statement

that their teachers have been very practical in what they tried to teach them. On the other

hand, 14 students (41.2%) and 13 students (38.2%) respectively agreed and strongly agreed

that their teachers have been very practical in their approach in teaching their students.

On the whole, Table A20 states that, although there were some students who generally

disagreed with the statements regarding the effectiveness of their teachers, most students

agreed or strongly agreed that their teachers were trying their best to help their students

learn whatever knowledge and skills that they were teaching.

318

Table A20: Grade 9 students’ evaluation of teacher effectiveness Agreement or disagreement

about teacher effectiveness 1 = Strongly disagree


Missing data Total

Frequency and percentages Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) a. Teachers are very clear in explaining why it is important for students to be learning certain employability competencies and attributes

1 2.9 4 11.8 17 50.0 9 26.5 3 8.8 37 100


- - 3 8.8 16 47.1 13 38.2 2 5.9 37 100


1 2.9 4 11.8 18 52.9 8 23.5 3 8.8 37 100


- - 8 23.5 15 44.1 8 23.5 3 8.8 37 100


3 8.8 12 35.3 14 41.2 3 8.8 2 5.9 37 100


- - 7 20.6 20 58.8 5 14.7 2 5.9 37 100


1 2.9 3 8.8 14 41.2 13 38.2 3 8.8 37 100

319

Table A21: People influencing Grade 12 students’ study and career pathways

The results showed that friends and peer most often influence them (45%), followed by

their class teachers (45%). At least 30% of the students reported career advisors/

counsellors most often influence their study and career pathways. Similarly, 42.5% of

students indicated that they were influenced by their friends and peers, 35% thought career

advisors often influence them, and 32.5% of students thought they often have been

influenced by prospective employers. Career advisors, prospective employers and other

unspecified number of people sometimes have been influencing the students in their

studies and career pathways. The highlight of this was the employers/prospective

employers (52.5%). On the other hand, 50% of students were unsure whether their parents

were influencing them. Similarly, 40% of students had no idea whether their class teachers

had influenced them on their study and career pathways. Table 21 has these results.

320


Frequency of people influencing students’ study and career pathways

1 = Sometimes 2 = Often 3 = Most often 4 = Don’t know Missing data Total


Frequency (%)


a. Parents/guardians 2 5.0 4 10.0 14 35.0 20 50.0 - - 40 100 b. Friends and peer opinions

1 2.5 17 42.5 18 45.0 4 10.0 - - 40 100

c. Class teachers 1 2.5 4 10.0 18 45.0 16 40.0 1 2.5 40 100 d. Career advisors/ counsellors

10 25.0 14 35.0 12 30.0 4 10.0 - - 40 100

e. Employers 21 52.5 13 32.5 3 7.5 3 7.5 - - 40 100 f. Any others (please specify and scale)

10 25.0 7 17.5 4 10.0 6 15.0 13 32.5 40 100

321


The results for this survey question illustrated that employer/prospective employers

‘sometimes’ (62.2%) and ‘any others’ sometimes (29.7%) influenced them in their study

and career pathways. But the people who have been influencing the students ‘often’ and

‘most often’ showed that the former category includes: friends and peers (45.7%); career

advisors or counsellors (43.2%); class teachers (27.0%); parents/guardians (21.6%). The

latter (most often) include: class teachers (35.1%); friends and peers (32.4%);

parents/guardians (27.0%); career advisors/counsellors (21.6%); employers/prospective

employers (16.2%).

On the contrary, 51.4% of students had no idea whether their parents and guardians ever

influenced their study and career pathways. Similarly, students do not know whether their

class teachers influenced their students in study and career planning. Likewise, about

16.2% of students thought that their friends and peers had ever influenced their study and

career pathways.

These results showed that although most of the students were influenced by various groups

of people ranging from, parents/guardians, friends/peers, class teachers, career

advisors/counsellors, prospective employers, and any other people, there were other

students who thought that many of the above people had done very little, if not none to

encourage them on their study and possible future career pathways. It was surprising to see

parents doing very little to encourage their children on their study and career pathways.

Similarly, class teachers seemed to play some role in influencing their students on study

and career pathways but not as much as expected. The student advisors/counsellors also

played some role in advising students about their study and future career pathways but not

much as expected. On the whole however, a good number of people either sometimes,

often or most often were influencing the students on their future study and career pathways

as the results in Table A22 illustrates.

322






a. Parents/guardians

- - 8 21.6 10 27.0 19 51.4 - - 37 100

b. Friends and peer opinions

2 5.4 17 45.9 12 32.4 6 16.2 - - 37 100

c. Class teachers

2 5.4 10 27.0 13 35.1 12 32.4 - - 37 100

d. Career advisors/counsellors

9 24.3 16 43.2 8 21.6 4 10.8 - - 37 100

e. Employers/prospective employers

23 62.2 4 10.8 6 16.2 3 8.1 1 2.7 37 100

f. Any others (please specify and scale)

11 29.7 5 13.5 6 16.2 3 8.1 12 32.4 37 100

323


The results showed that 58.6% of students had no idea as to whether their parents/guardians had

influenced them in their study and career pathways compared to 27.7% and 13.8% of students

respectively either ‘often’ or ‘most often’ were having the impression that their parents/guardians

influenced them in their study and career pathways. As far as study and career influences from

friends and peers are concerned, about 41.4% and 37.9 % of students respectively, thought either

‘often’ or ‘most often’ that they were influenced by their friends or peers. Only 6 students (20.7%)

responded that they had no knowledge whether their friends and peers had influenced them in their

study and career preferences.

Apart from 12 students (41.4%) having no knowledge regarding whether their class

teachers had influenced them in their study and career pathways, 5 students (17.2%), 6

students (20.7%), and another 6 students (20.7%) respectively, viewed that their teachers

“sometimes’, ‘often’ and ‘most often’ had been influencing them in their study and career

pathways. Likewise, apart from 4 students (13.8%) having no knowledge regarding

whether any career advisors/counsellors had influenced them in their study and career

pathways, about 11 students (37.9%), 12 students (41.4%) and just 2 students (6.9%)

respectively, thought that advisors/counsellors had ‘sometimes’, ‘often’ and ‘most often’

have been influencing them in their study and career pathways.

When asked about the study influences from any employers/prospective employers, at least

58.6%, 20% and another 20% of students respectively, thought that they had been

‘sometimes’, ‘often’ or ‘most often’ been influenced on their study and career pathways.

This result may indicate that there were some point in their life that they had been advised,

or encouraged by certain employers (maybe managers, etc. of some organization) around

them of the importance of their education and the need for career choices that the students

should be taking.

324

Finally, apart from 17.2% of ‘missing values’, at least 14 students (48.3%), 4 students

(13.8%) and 3 students (10.3%) respectively, responded that they ‘sometimes’, ‘often’, and

‘most often’ been influenced by other people on their study and career pathways. A further

3 students (10.3%) responded that they had no knowledge whether any other person had

ever influenced them in their study and career pathway choices. This frequency of people

influencing Grade 10 career pathways is illustrated in Table A23.

325




Frequency and percentages Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) a. Parents/guardians

- - 8 27.6 4 13.8 17 58.6 - - 37 100

b. Friends and peer opinions

- - 12 41.4 11 37.9 6 20.7 - - 37 100

c. Class teachers

5 17.2 6 20.7 6 20.7 12 41.4 - - 37 100

d. Career advisors/counsellors

11 37.9 12 4.4 2 6.9 4 13.8 - - 37 100

e. Employers/prospective employers

17 58.6 6 20.7 6 20.7 - - - - 37 100


14 48.3 4 13.8 3 10.3 3 10.3 5 17.2 37 100

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The frequency of people influencing Grade 9 students, some 20 students (58.8%) did not

know whether their parents had ever influenced them in their study career pathways. In

contrast, 6 students (17.6%) and another 6 students (17.6%) respectively thought their

parents/guardians either often or most often have been influencing them in their study and

career pathways. On the other hand, at least 12 (35.3%) and 10 (29.4%) students

respectively thought that their friends and peers often and most often influenced them in

their career pathways. Another 10 students (29.4%) have no knowledge whether their

friends and peers had ever influenced them on their study and career pathways.

About 5 students (14.7%), 9 students (26.5%) and 11 students (32.4%) respectively

thought that their class teachers sometimes, often and most often influenced them in their

study and career pathways. Also, 14 students (41.2%), 9 students (26.5%), and 8 students

(23.5%) respectively thought that career advisors and counsellors had influenced them in

their study and career pathways. A few students also have been influenced by either

employers or prospective employers.

The result of this showed 14 students (41.2%), 12 students (35.5%) and only 3 students

(8.8%) reported to have been sometimes, often or most often been influenced by

employers/prospective employers. Finally, 12 students (35.3%), just 3 students (8.8%) and

6 students (17.6) respectively thought other people have sometimes, often and most often

been influencing them in their study and career pathways. Most students thought that their

parents and guardians have not been so influential in their children in advising them on

their study and career pathways. Friends and peers appear to have been so influential in

this regard although some student counsellors, career advisors and some industry people

have played some roles in influencing the Grade 9 students in their study and career

pathways as presented in Table A24.

327




Frequency and percentages Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) a. Parents/guardians - - 6 17.6 6 17.6 20 58.8 2 5.9 37 100 b. Friends and peer opinions - - 12 35.3 10 29.4 10 29.4 2 5.9 37 100 c. Class teachers 5 14.7 9 26.5 11 32.4 7 20.6 2 5.9 37 100 d. Career advisors/counsellors 14 41.2 9 26.5 8 23.5 1 2.9 2 5.9 37 100 e. Employers/prospective employers

14 41.2 12 35.3 3 8.8 2 5.9 3 8.8 37 100


12 35.3 3 8.8 6 17.6 7 20.6 6 17.6 37 100

328

Table A25: Grade 12 students’ general academic and VET course preferences

First, students rated most general academic subjects as ‘having high preference’ or ‘some

preference’. The most notable academic subjects that received more attention from

students include: English (60%), Mathematics (65%), Chemistry (35%), Physics (35%),

Biology (30%) and economics (45%). This was followed by Geography (30%) and

Commerce (20%) subjects. On the contrary, some students who did not take Chemistry,

Physics, Biology and Commerce subjects tended to rate these subjects as without any

preference. They had no preference for these subjects because they were taking Social

Science courses apart from Maths B and English as compulsory courses.

Second, the results indicated that almost all VET subjects were rated as ‘no preference’ by

the Grade 12 students. The only exception was on Building and Construction trades

(22.5%), Auto-mechanics (30%), Computer Information Studies (45%), Tourism and

Hospitality (25%), Forestry management (32.5%), Small business management (30%) and

Textile/Clothing (27.5%). Most of the VET subjects also were categorised under the low

preference range. The reason for this variation in the VET course preferences indicated that

most of these subjects had not been available or that most students were not exposed to

such VET subjects. There was also a number of missing data noted here, except for

English and Mathematics. For both the academic and VET subjects, it seemed that students

either just decided to mark only the courses they preferred taking and leaving out those that

they have no preference for taking. The results again showed that there was some preference to

high preference of the academic subjects compared to the VET subjects.

329

Table A25: Grade 12 students’ general academic and VET course preferences General academic and VET

preferences 1= No preference 2 = Low

preference 3 = Some preference

4 = High preference

Missing data Total

General academic subjects Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) a. English - - 3 7.5 13 32.5 24 60.0 - - 40 100 b. Mathematics 1 - 4 10.0 9 22.5 26 65.0 - - 40 100 c. Chemistry 14 35.0 1 2.5 7 17.5 14 35.0 4 10.0 40 100 d. Physics 13 32.5 1 2.5 8 20.0 14 35.0 4 10.0 40 100 e. Biology 8 20.0 3 7.5 13 32.5 12 30.0 4 10.0 40 100 f. Economics 5 12.5 2 5.0 14 35.0 18 45.0 1 2.5 40 100 g. History 14 35.0 6 15.0 6 15.0 6 15.0 8 20.0 40 100 h. Geography 6 15.0 5 12.5 13 32.5 12 30.0 4 10.0 40 100 i. Commerce 12 30.0 3 7.5 9 22.5 8 20.0 8 20.0 40 100 Vocational Education and Training (VET) preference

j. Home Economics 15 37.5 8 20.0 9. 22.5 4 10.0 4 10.0 40 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal product 14 35.0 6 15.0 6 15.0 7 17.5 7 17.5 40 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 15 37.5 4 10.0 7 17.5 6 15.0 8 20.0 40 100 m. Building and Construction trades 12 30.0 4 10.0 7 17.5 9 22.5 8 20.0 40 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 15 37.5 3 7.5 9 22.5 5 12.5 8 20.0 40 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments 9 22.5 3 7.5 7 17.5 12 30.0 9 22.5 40 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 11 27.5 10 25.0 7 17.5 3 7.5 9 22.5 40 100 q. Art & Design/Media 10 25.0 7 17.5 10 25.0 5 12.5 8 20.0 40 100 r. Dance & Music 14 35.0 10 25.0 4 10.0 3 7.5 9 22.5 40 100 s. Computer Information Studies 3 7.5 3 7.5 9 22.5 18 45.0 7 17.5 40 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 10 25.0 5 12.5 7 17.5 10 25.0 8 20.0 40 100 u. Food/beverages processing 10 25.0 6 15.0 8 20.0 8 20.0 8 20.0 40 100 v. Mining and petroleum 11 27.5 9 22.5 5 12.5 7 17.5 8 20.0 40 100 w. Forestry management 6 15.0 5 12.5 9 22.5 13 32.5 7 17.5 40 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 11 27.5 5 12.5 9 22.5 7 17.5 8 20.0 40 100 y. Small business management 9 22.5 6 15.0 5 12.5 12 30.0 8 20.0 40 100 z. Textile/Clothing 8 20.0 7 17.5 6 15.0 11 27.5 8 20.0 40 100

330


The result for this survey question showed that like their fellow students at the Grade 12

level, most of them had some or high preferences for the academic subjects than the VET

subjects. It is quite the reverse for VET when most of them indicated that they have ‘no

preference for the VET subjects. Only a few students had indicated either low preference,

some preference or high preference for the VET subjects.

For the students’ academic subject preferences, most students had ‘high preferences’ for

English (67.6%); Economics (59.5%); mathematics (54.1%); Geography (45.9%); History

(43.2%); Chemistry (32.4%); Biology (32.4%); Commerce (29.7%); and Physics (27.0%).

Similarly, a fair number of students had ‘some preference’ for Biology (40.5%);

Commerce (37.8%); Mathematics (37.8%); English (27.0%); Chemistry (24.3%);

Economics (21.6%) and Geography (21.6%). Some twelve students either preferred

Physics (16.2%) or History (16.2%) respectively. Students ranging from a low of 8.1% to a

high of 18.9% had either no or low preferences for the academic subjects. For the VET

subjects, with the exception of ‘Computer Information studies’ (45.9%) and ‘Forestry

management’ (43.2%), most students indicated they had ‘no preference’ for the VET

subjects.

All academic subjects showed a high preference level compared to VET subject

preferences. Those students marking ‘no preferences’ shows that like their colleagues in

Grade 12, the Grade 11 students had ‘no’ preference or only “some” preference for VET

subjects. Table A26 presents the Grade 11 results:

331


General academic and VET preferences

1= No preference 2 = Low preference

3 = Some preference

4 = High preference

Missing data Total



a. English - - 2 5.4 10 27.0 25 67.6 - - 37 100 b. Mathematics - - 3 8.1 14 37.8 20 54.1 - - 37 100 c. Chemistry 5 13.5 5 13.5 9 24.3 12 32.4 6 16.2 37 100 d. Physics 6 16.2 7 18.9 6 16.2 10 27.0 8 21.6 37 100 e. Biology 1 2.7 4 10.8 15 40.5 12 32.4 5 13.5 37 100 f. Economics - - 2 5.4 8 21.6 22 59.5 5 13.5 37 100 g. History 3 8.1 5 13.5 6 16.2 16 43.2 7 18.9 37 100 h. Geography 2 5.4 4 10.8 8 21.6 17 45.9 6 16.2 37 100 i. Commerce 4 10.8 3 8.1 14 37.8 11 29.7 5 15.5 37 100 Vocational Education and Training (VET) preference

j. Home Economics 9 24.3 9 24.3 11 29.7 1 2.7 7 18.9 37 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 8 21.6 5 13.5 10 27.0 4 10.8 7 18.9 37 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 12 32.4 12 32.4 2 5.4 3 8.1 8 21.6 37 100 m. Building and Construction trades 13 35.1 4 10.8 6 16.2 8 21.6 6 16.2 37 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 11 29.7 4 10.8 13 35.1 3 8.1 6 16.2 37 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments 10 27.0 7 18.9 5 13.5 8 21.6 7 18.9 37 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 9 24.3 5 13.5 11 29.7 5 13.5 7 18.9 37 100 q. Art & Design/Media 11 29.7 6 16.2 5 13.5 8 21.6 7 18.9 37 100 r. Dance & Music 10 27.0 10 27.0 6 16.2 5 13.5 6 16.2 37 100 s. Computer Information Studies 2 5.4 1 2.7 13 35.1 17 45.9 4 10.8 37 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 10 27.0 6 16.2 7 18.9 7 18.9 7 18.9 37 100 u. Food/beverages processing 9 24.3 6 16.2 10 27.0 5 13.5 7 18.9 37 100 v. Mining and petroleum 11 29.7 8 21.6 4 10.8 5 13.5 9 24.3 37 100 w. Forestry management 3 8.1 3 8.1 7 18.9 16 43.2 8 21.6 37 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 15 40.5 6 16.2 4 10.8 5 13.5 7 18.9 37 100 y. Small business management 11 29.7 6 16.2 6 16.2 7 18.9 7 18.9 37 100 z. Textile/Clothing 11 29.7 5 13.5 7 18.9 7 18.9 7 18.9 37 100

332


The result for this question appeared to vary amongst students’ preferences of academic

and VET subjects. For the academic subject preferences, apart from the English and

Mathematics subjects, some good number of students had no preference for the other

academic subjects. At the same time, students ranging from 1 to 4 indicated ‘low

preference’ for the academic subjects while some students sparingly considered ‘some

preference’ or ‘high preference’ for the academic subjects. As a result, some similar

‘missing data’ has been reported. Similarly, some mixed reactions from Grade 10 students

have been noticed under the various categories of VET subject preferences. There was also

some ‘missing data’ noted for this question.

When comparing subject preferences for academic and VET subjects, the results seemed to

show some good portion of students having no preference for VET subjects than academic

subjects. Similarly, when comparing the academic and VET subject preferences for the low

preference category, there was low preference for VET subjects than academic subjects.

Table A27 presents the Grade 10 results for this question.

333


General academic and VET preferences

1=No preference 2 = Low preference

3 = Some preference

4 = High preference

Missing data Total



a. English - - 1 3.4 14 48.3 13 44.8 1 3.4 37 100 b. Mathematics - - 4 13.8 6 20.7 18 62.1 1 3.4 37 100 c. Chemistry 7 24.1 2 6.9 9 31.0 6 20.7 5 17.2 37 100 d. Physics 9 31.0 2 6.9 6 20.7 6 20.7 6 20.7 37 100 e. Biology 9 31.0 3 10.3 8 27.6 3 10.3 6 20.7 37 100 f. Economics 9 31.0 2 6.9 6 20.7 6 20.7 6 20.7 37 100 g. History 7 24.1 3 10.3 4 13.8 7 24.1 8 27.6 37 100 h. Geography 9 31.0 3 10.3 3 10.3 7 24.1 7 24.1 37 100 i. Commerce - - 2 6.9 12 41.4 14 48.3 1 3.4 37 100 Vocational Education and Training (VET) preference

j. Home Economics 5 17.2 3 10.3 13 44.8 4 13.8 4 13.8 37 100 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal 3 10.3 7 24.1 12 41.4 3 10.3 4 13.8 37 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 12 41.4 4 13.8 4 13.8 3 10.3 6 20.7 37 100 m. Building and Construction trad. 11 37.9 3 10.3 6 20.7 3 10.3 6 20.7 37 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 8 27.6 3 10.3 8 27.6 5 17.2 5 17.2 37 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equip. 11 37.9 2 6.9 5 17.2 5 17.2 6 20.7 37 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 2 6.9 7 24.1 12 41.4 3 10.3 5 17.2 37 100 q. Art & Design/Media 9 31.0 4 13.8 5 17.2 2 6.9 9 31.0 37 100 r. Dance & Music 6 20.7 7 24.1 4 13.8 5 17.2 7 24.1 37 100 s. Computer Information Studies 8 27.6 3 10.3 2 6.9 9 31.0 7 24.1 37 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 12 41.4 3 10.3 2 6.9 6 20.7 6 20.7 37 100 u. Food/beverages processing 13 44.8 4 13.8 5 17.2 - - 7 24.1 37 100 v. Mining and petroleum 11 37.9 4 13.8 7 24.1 - - 7 24.1 37 100 w. Forestry management 3 10.3 3 10.3 10 34.5 7 24.1 6 20.7 37 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 11 37.9 3 10.3 4 13.8 4 13.8 7 24.1 37 100 y. Small business management 12 41.4 3 10.3 3 10.3 5 17.2 6 20.7 37 100 z. Textile/Clothing 11 37.9 3 10.3 4 13.8 4 13.8 7 24.1 37 100

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There is mixed reaction to this question as most students tend to indicate ‘no preference’

‘some preference’ and ‘high preference’ for most academic and VET courses. While other

academic and VET subjects have mixed results, English and Mathematics have been rated

modestly with a value of 52.9% and 47.1% respectively. This question indicated not much

difference with the preferences for both academic and VET subjects. Yet, surprisingly, it

appears that most students indicated a no preference for most academic and VET subjects.

Despite this outcome, some students had some preference for both academic and VET with

a mean value of 8% and 8.53% for VET subjects. Similar, some students have a high

preference for both academic and VET subjects respectively. It appears students are yet to

be introduced to most academic and VET subjects at this stage as illustrated in Table A28.

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Table A28: Grade 9 students’ general academic and VET course preferences General academic and VET

preferences

1= No preference

2 = Low preference 3 = Some preference

4 = High preference

Missing data Total



a. English 1 2.9 2 5.9 11 32.4 18 52.9 2 5.9 37 100 b. Mathematics - - 9 26.5 7 20.6 16 47.1 2 5.9 37 100 c. Chemistry 14 41.2 1 2.9 8 23.5 6 17.6 5 14.7 37 100 d. Physics 12 35.3 2 5.9 7 20.6 8 23.5 5 14.7 37 100 e. Biology 15 44.1 - - 5 14.7 9 26.5 5 14.7 37 100 f. Economics 14 41.2 - - 8 23.5 6 17.6 6 17.6 37 100 g. History 14 41.2 4 11.8 7 20.6 4 11.8 5 14.7 37 100 h. Geography 14 41.2 2 5.9 6 17.6 7 20.6 5 14.7 37 100 i. Commerce 7 20.6 4 11.8 13 38.2 5 14.7 5 14.7 37 100 Vocational Education an Training (VET) preference

j. Home Economics 8 23.5 5 14.7 9 26.5 7 20.6 5 14.7 37 100 k. Fabricated metal products 4 11.8 5 14.7 12 35.3 8 23.5 5 14.7 37 100 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 11 32.4 4 11.8 9 26.5 4 11.8 6 17.6 37 100 m. Building and Construction trades 8 23.5 4 11.8 10 29.4 8 23.5 4 11.8 37 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 10 29.4 3 8.8 9 26.5 8 23.5 4 11.8 37 100 o. Automotive mechanics/equips. 12 35.3 4 11.8 12 35.3 3 8.8 3 8.8 37 100 p. Electrical & Electronics 9 26.5 3 8.8 10 29.4 8 23.5 4 11.8 37 100 q. Art & Design/Media 8 23.5 4 11.8 9 26.5 8 23.5 5 14.7 37 100 r. Dance & Music 5 14.7 5 14.7 11 32.4 8 23.5 5 14.7 37 100 s. Computer Information Studies 8 23.5 2 5.9 12 35.3 9 26.5 3 8.8 37 100 t. Tourism & hospitality 13 38.2 2 5.9 7 20.6 7 20.6 5 14.7 37 100 u. Food/beverages processing 12 35.3 2 5.9 6 17.6 9 26.5 5 14.7 37 100 v. Mining and petroleum 11 32.4 5 14.7 7 20.6 5 14.7 6 17.6 37 100 w. Forestry management 11 32.4 4 11.8 8 23.5 8 23.5 3 8.8 37 100 x. Fisheries and marine resources 14 41.2 3 8.8 4 11.8 8 23.5 5 14.7 37 100 y. Small business management 16 47.1 1 2.9 5 14.7 8 23.5 3 8.8 37 100 z. Textile/Clothing 15 44.1 2 5.9 5 14.7 8 23.5 4 11.8 37 100

336

APPENDIX B: TEACHERS’ SURVEY RESULTS

Table B29: Personnel involvement in developing general academic and VET courses

The academic course development – either: ‘exclusively by individual course instructors’,

or by ‘group(s) of educators’, would mean different things to different people. Thus, the

former statement may be understood as those various general academic teachers at the

school level or from the National Department of Education. Likewise, the latter may refer

to group(s) of educators from the National Department of Education (people from the

Curriculum Division in Port Moresby) or academics at the school. Whatever the

interpretation, the statement, ‘done exclusively by course instructors’ would refer to

individual academics within each school while ‘exclusively by group(s) of educators’

refers to people from the National Curriculum Division of the National Department of

Education.

For the VET subjects, the results seemed to show the opposite from that of the academic

result. For most VET courses, there were signs of individual course instructors engaging or

developing the various VET subjects compared to groups of educators. At the same time,

there was reason to believe that some educators from the National Curriculum Division of

the Department of Education had involved in designing some VET subjects. In contrast,

there appeared to be very few input primarily from educators with industry support or done

with about equal educator and industry input. At the same time, however, most teachers

did not respond to most variables that resulted in a high number of missing variables as

Table B29 illustrates:

337

Table B29: Personnel involvement in developing general academic and VET courses


1=Done exclusively by individual course instructors

2=Done exclusively by group(s) of educators

3=Done primarily by educators with industry support

4=Done with about equal educator & industry input

9=Missing data Total

Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %

a. English 12 23.1 13 25.0 2 3.8 2 3.8 23 44.2 52 100 b. Mathematics 10 19.2 12 23.1 1 1.9 2 3.8 27 51.9 52 100 c. Chemistry 10 19.2 12 23.1 1 1.9 2 3.8 27 51.9 52 100 d. Physics 12 23.1 9 17.3 1 1.9 2 3.8 28 53.8 52 100 e. Biology 11 21.2 9 17.3 1 1.9 2 3.8 29 55.7 52 100 f. Economics 8 15.4 12 23.1 2 3.8 2 3.8 28 53.8 52 100 g. History 11 21.2 10 19.2 2 3.8 2 3.8 27 51.9 52 100 h. Geography 9 17.3 10 19.2 2 3.8 3 5.8 28 53.8 52 100 i. Commerce 8 15.4 10 19.2 2 3.8 2 3.8 30 57.7 52 100 VET subject

j. Home Economics 11 21.2 8 15.4 3 5.8 1 1.9 29 55.7 52 100 k. Fabricated metal products 11 21.2 8 15.4 3 5.8 1 1.9 29 55.7 52 100 l. Agriculture 3 5.8 2 3.8 2 3.8 1 1.9 44 84.6 52 100 m. Building and Construction 3 5.8 - - 1 1.9 2 3.8 46 88.4 52 100 n. Woodwork/furniture 5 9.6 7 13.5 1 1.9 2 3.8 37 71.1 52 100 o. Automotive mechanics 1 1.9 - - - - 2 3.8 49 94.2 52 100 p. Electrical & electronics 7 13.5 5 9.6 1 1.9 1 1.9 38 73.1 52 100 q. Art & Design/Media 5 9.6 2 3.8 1 1.9 1 1.9 43 82.7 52 100 r. Dance & Music 10 19.2 2 3.8 1 1.9 1 1.9 37 71.1 52 100 s. Computer Information 10 19.2 4 7.7 3 5.8 1 1.9 34 65.4 52 100 t. Tourism & hospitality - - - - 1 1.9 1 1.9 50 96.1 52 100 u. Food/beverages processing - - - - 1 1.9 1 1.9 50 96.1 52 100 v. Mining and petroleum 1 1.9 - - 1 1.9 1 1.9 49 94.2 52 100 w. Forestry management 6 11.5 6 11.5 3 5.8 - - 37 71.1 52 100 x. Fisheries and marine resource 1 1.9 - - 2 3.8 - - 49 94.2 52 100 y. Small business management - - - - 1 1.9 - - 51 98.1 52 100 z. Textile/Clothing 1 1.9 - - 1 1.9 - - 50 96.1 52 100

338

Table B30: Teachers’ observations about VET course development and delivery

Teachers were asked to provide information on how or what methods were being used to

develop VET courses and delivered at the school level. The reason for asking this question

was to understand the various approaches used to teach VET subjects and skills/attributes

at the school level. Teachers, of course, were asked to mark various preferences using the

Likert Scale. The first preference represents VET courses in schools with workplace

learning. The aim was to find out whether there was an integrated curriculum being

designed with a school-based apprenticeship program in partnerships with

business/industry.

The second preference asked for teachers to indicate whether a stand- alone VET course at

the school level has been in existence. That statement seeks to know whether school-based

VET (if there were any) not being accredited towards a Senior School Certificate. The

third choice asked the teachers to indicate whether VET has been delivered at their

secondary schools without work-place learning attachments. Then the fourth choice asked

teachers for their opinion on whether VET course had been delivered only at Post-

secondary school level with work attachments. The final preference asked teachers to

indicate VET not being taught at their school. These options were considered vital because

their results might show the extent to which VET was playing its role at the secondary and

post-secondary school level in PNG. The results would also show whether there has been

any apprenticeships at the school level with industry and workplace linkages, or stand-

alone VET without any workplace attachments that is only delivered at the post-secondary

school level in PNG.

The results appear to indicate a major contrast with VET not being taught receiving a high

number of teacher-responses as well as missing values toppling the list of preferences.

Nevertheless, for those teachers that responded on the first three scales, the first category

339

of teacher responses on VET course in schools with workplace learning – an integrated

curriculum with school-based apprenticeships in partnership with business/industry,

received a few positive outcomes for selected VET subjects. First,

‘Agriculture/horticulture’ was marked by 5 teachers (9.6%) for the first scale category

while the second and third scale categories on the same variable have been marked by 7

teachers (13.5%) and 8 teachers (15.4%) respectively. About 23 teachers (44.2%) indicated

that Agriculture/horticulture was not being taught at their school.

About 15.4% of teachers did not mark anything for this subject. It is however, noted that

Agriculture was marked by 7 teachers on the second category which meant that

Agriculture/horticulture was a stand-alone course – not accredited towards senior School

Certificate. Similarly, 8 teachers had the preference for this course in the third category

which means that, like category 2, this course was taught but without any workplace

attachments.

The other VET that needed to be highlighted was ‘Building and construction”. At least 4

teachers (7.7%) marked it as choice number one while another 4 teachers (7.7%) had it

under preference number three. The first 4 teachers thought this course has been taught at

the school level with some apprenticeship with industry engagement while the other 4

teachers thought the opposite. These teachers thought Building and construction was taught

at the school level but without workplace attachment. Then a massive 28 teachers (53.8%)

thought that this course was not taught at their school. About 30.7% of teachers left some

of these categories blank.

‘Information Technology’ had received some positive feedback as teachers went about

marking the four categories beside this course. There were 5 teachers (9.6%) having this

course under preference one category which meant that Computer Information was taught

at their school as part of an integrated curriculum while 9 teachers (17.3%) had it under the

second category. That meant that Information Technology was taught at their school as a

340

stand-alone subject, meaning that there was no accreditation accorded for those students

who participated in this course. Similarly, a further 7 teachers (13.5%) had IT under the

third category, which meant that for these 7 teachers, Information Technology was

delivered at their school but without any workplace attachment. About 18 teachers (34.6%)

did not respond to this variable in various categories.

For ‘Business Development’ (entrepreneurship), only 2 teachers (3.8) marked the first

category, 3 teachers (5.8) marked the second category and 5 teachers (9.6%) marked the

third category which meant that this subject was taught as part of the school curriculum but

without workplace attachment. Then about 25 teachers (48.1%) did not fill in anything for

this category while 17 teachers (32.7%) did not respond to this variable. The other areas of

VET had little recognition - most had less than 2 teacher choices and even none on most

VET areas. Most of these VET subjects, however, were categorized under “VET not being

taught” or not response at all, signifying that most of these VET subjects have not been

taught at the selected secondary schools in Port Moresby. Table B30 illustrated teachers’

observation in VET course development.

341

Table B30: Teachers’ observations about VET course development and delivery

Areas of VET

1=VET course in schools with workplace learning (integrated curriculum, school based apprenticeships in partnerships with business/industry)

2=Stand alone VET course at school (not accredited towards senior school certificate

3=VET delivery at secondary school without workplace learning attachments

4= VET course delivered only at Post-secondary school level with work attachments

5 = VET not being taught

9=Missing data

Total

Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % a. Agriculture/hot/culture 5 9.6 7 13.5 8 15.4 1 1.9 23 44.2 8 15.4 52 100 b. Building, construction 4 7.7 - - 4 7.7 - - 28 53.8 16 30.7 52 100 c. Manufacturing - - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100 d. Transportation - - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100 e. Water supply - - 1 1.9 - - - - 33 63.5 18 34.6 52 100 f. Business development (entrepreneurship)

2 3.8 3 5.8 5 9.6 - - 25 48.1 17 32.7 52 100

g. Food industry 2 3.8 1 1.9 1 1.9 - - 30 57.7 18 34.6 52 100 h. Healthcare 2 3.8 1 1.9 3 5.8 - - 30 57.7 16 30.7 52 100 i. Hotels/restaurants - - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100 j. Eco-tourism development

1 1.9 1 1.9 4 7.7 1 1.9 28 53.8 17 30.8 52 100

k. Retail trade 2 3.8 1 1.9 3 5.8 1 1.9 28 53.8 17 30.8 52 100 l. Financial services (banking/insurance)

1 1.9 1 1.9 4 7.7 1 1.9 29 55.8 16 30.7 52 100

m. Real estate - - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100 n. Tourism & hospitality 1 1.9 - - 1 1.9 - - 32 61.5 18 34.6 52 100 o. Information Technology 5 9.6 9 17.3 7 13.5 1 1.9 18 34.6 12 23.1 52 100 p. Telecommunication 1 1.9 - - - - - - 32 61.5 19 36.5 52 100 q. Technical/Automotive - - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100 r. Material supplies & logistics

- - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100

s. Electrical services - - - - - - - - 33 63.5 19 36.5 52 100 t. Electronic services 1 1.9 - - - - - - 33 63.5 18 34.6 52 100 u. Mining & petroleum 1 1.9 1 1.9 - - - - 33 63.5 17 30.8 52 100 v. Forestry 1 1.9 1 1.9 - - - - 32 61.5 18 34.6 52 100 w. Fisheries & Marine resources

- - 1 1.9 - - - - 32 61.5 19 36.5 52 100

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Table B31: Teachers’ views on employability skills and personal attributes included in general academic and VET courses

Teachers have been asked to think about the major course (s) they were teaching and

indicate using a Likert Scale from 1 – 4 the employability skills and attributes that were

included in the general academic and VET courses they were teaching. As usual, 1 = not

included, 2 = slightly included, 3 = mostly included, and 4 = fully included. A missing data

section was also created.

The outcome of this survey indicated that there was not much difference between teachers’

perception on the inclusion of employability skills and personal attributes on the general

academic and VET courses they were teaching. However, there was a slight difference on

the attributes compared to the employability skills. That meant that, for category 3 and 4,

there was a slight difference respectively in favour of the personal attributes. Table B31

clearly illustrates this difference in percentages.

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Table B31: Teachers’ views on employability skills and personal attributes included in general academic and VET courses

Employability skills and attributes included in general academic and VET courses

1= Not included 2=Slightly included

3=Mostly included

4=Fully included 9=Missing data

Total

Employability skills

Frequency % Frequency % Frequency% Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %

a. Communication 1 1.9 13 25.0 15 28.8 15 28.8 8 15.4 52 100 b. Teamwork 1 1.9 15 28.8 19 36.5 13 25.0 4 7.7 52 100 c. Problem Solving 3 5.8 12 23.1 11 21.2 19 36.5 7 13.4 52 100 d. Initiative and Enterprise 10 19.2 13 25.0 14 26.9 8 15.4 7 13.4 52 100 e. Planning and organizing 4 7.7 13 25.0 11 21.2 16 30.8 8 15.4 52 100 f. Self management 4 7.7 9 17.3 18 34.6 14 26.9 7 13.4 52 100 g. Ongoing Learning 3 5.8 15 28.8 10 19.2 16 30.8 8 15.4 52 100 h. Information Technology 10 19.2 13 25.0 13 25.0 10 19.2 6 11.5 52 100 Personal attributes

i. Loyalty 5 9.6 11 21.2 15 28.8 16 30.8 5 9.6 52 100 j. Commitment 5 9.6 10 19.2 15 28.8 17 32.7 5 9.6 52 100 k. Honesty and integrity 4 7.7 11 21.2 14 26.9 17 32.7 6 11.5 52 100 l. Enthusiasm 3 5.8 10 19.2 17 32.7 15 28.8 7 13.4 52 100 m. Reliability 1 1.9 13 25.0 16 30.8 17 32.7 5 9.6 52 100 n. Balanced attitude to work and home life

2 3.8 13 25.0 17 32.7 13 25.0 7 13.4 52 100

o. Motivation 2 3.8 12 23.1 14 26.9 18 34.6 6 11.5 52 100 p. Personal presentation 4 7.7 11 21.2 15 28.8 16 30.8 6 11.5 52 100 q. Common sense 3 5.8 12 23.1 16 30.8 15 28.8 6 11.5 52 100 r. Positive self-esteem 2 3.8 14 26.9 15 28.8 14 26.9 7 13.4 52 100 s. Sense of humour 2 3.8 18 34.6 16 30.8 10 19.2 6 11.5 52 100 t. Ability to deal with pressure 4 7.7 12 23.1 15 28.8 15 28.8 6 11.5 52 100 u. Adaptability 5 9.6 14 26.9 11 21.2 14 26.9 8 15.4 52 100

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Table B32: Teachers’ views about VET employability skills and attributes

Teachers were asked to choose from a Likert scale of 1 – 4 to indicate their level of agreement on

various statements relating to VET employability skills and attributes. Accordingly, 1 =strongly

disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree and 4 = strongly agree.

The first statement asked for teachers’ views on whether they were clear in explaining why it was

important for their students to learn employability skills and attributes. Of the 52 teachers who

responded, 18 teachers (34.6%) agreed while 15 (28.8%) of them strongly agreed with that

statement. Only 3 teachers (5.8%) strongly disagreed and 5 teachers (9.6%) disagreed with this

statement. There was a missing data of 21.1%. Then, when teachers were asked whether their

students understood how assessment was used to test their knowledge in VET courses and VET

employability skills and attributes, about 15 teachers (28.8%) disagreed with this statement.

However, 17 teachers (32.7%) agreed this statement. Only six teachers strongly agreed that

students understood how assessment was conducted to test their knowledge in VET. There were 12

teachers (23.1%) who did not respond to this statement.

When teachers were asked to share their views on whether students should be learning specific

employability skills and attributes that they believe are relevant to the job or industry they want to

work in future, about 28 teachers (53.8%) strongly agreed with the statement. Similarly, 11

teachers (21.2%) agreed with this statement while only 3 teachers strongly disagreed and a further

3 teachers respectively disagreed with this statement. It seems that most teachers were of the

opinion that specific employability skills and attributes should be taught and learned by students at

the school level if they were to find some form of employment in future.

When asked that students should learn a broad set of employability skills and attributes that will

allow them to change jobs or industries, about 18 teachers (34.6%) and 20 teachers (38.5%) either

agreed or strongly agreed with this view. Only 2 teachers (3.8%) and 5 teachers (9.6%) respectively

either strongly disagreed or just disagreed with this statement. When teachers have been asked to

indicate whether their school training package clearly describes the general academic and VET

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employability skills and attributes, about 6 teachers (11.5%) strongly disagreed. Also, 14 teachers

(26.9%) disagreed with this statement. However, 15 teachers (28.8%) agreed with this statement.

Only 4 teachers (7.7%) strongly agreed with this statement. About 13 teachers (25%) did not

respond to this statement.

When teachers were asked to identify whether their schools’ training packages helping to produce

graduates who are highly employable in a range of jobs in various industries, it appears most

teachers were not in favour of this statement. About 9 teachers (17.3%) strongly disagreed and 15

teachers (28.8%) disagreed with this statement. On the other hand, another 15 teachers (28.8%)

agreed with this statement. There was just 1 teacher who strongly agreed this statement while 12 of

them (23.1%) did not say anything at all for this statement.

Finally, when teachers were requested to indicate whether their schools training packages

(syllabuses) have guidelines that helped them to assess their students’ employability skills and

attributes, 11 teachers (21.2%) strongly disagreed and a further 13 teachers (25%) disagreed with

this statement. Only 12 teachers (32.1%) agreed and just 2 teachers (3.8%) strongly agreed with

this statement while 14 teachers (26.9%) did not respond to the statement.

On the whole, these statements received mixed results. This meant that there were some teachers

who either strongly agreed or just agreed while other teachers ‘strongly disagreed’ or just

‘disagreed’ with some of the statements. The results illustrate that more teachers believed that they

explained the importance of employability skills and attributes. Also, it was convincing to note that

most students did not understand how the assessment was used to test their level of knowledge in

VET courses and their skills and attributes. However, there was some understanding and agreement

on why students should learn the employability skills and attributes as illustrated in Table B32.

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Table B32: Teachers’ views about VET employability skills and attributes

Perceptions of VET employability skills and attributes

1=Strongly disagree

2=Disagree 3=Agree 4=Strongly agree 9=Missing data Total

Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %

a. I believe I am very clear in explaining why it is important to learn employability skills and attributes

3 5.8 5 9.6 18 34.6 15 28.8 11 21.1 52 100

b. Students understand how the assessment is being used to test their knowledge in VET courses and VET employability skills and attributes

2 3.8 15 28.8 17 32.7 6 11.5 12 23.1 52 100

c. Students should learn specific employability skills and attributes that they believe are relevant to the job or industry they want to work in

3 5.8 3 5.8 11 21.2 28 53.8 7 13.4 52 100

d. Students should learn a broad set of employability skills and attributes that will allow them to change jobs or industries

2 3.8 5 9.6 18 34.6 20 38.5 7 13.4 52 100

e. Our school training package clearly describes the general academic and VET employability skills and attributes

6 11.5 14 26.9 15 28.8 4 7.7 13 25.0 52 100

f. Our school training package is helping to produce graduates who are highly employable in a range of jobs in different industries

9 17.3 15 28.8 15 28.8 1 1.9 12 23.1 52 100

g. There are guidelines in our school training package that help me assess employability skills and attributes development in my students

11 21.2 13 25.0 12 23.1 2 3.8 14 26.9 52 100

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APPENDIX C

BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL SURVEY RESULTS

Table C33: Business/industry views about employability skills and personal attributes

Industry/business personnel were asked to indicate their degree of importance on

employability skills and personal attributes they would seek from new secondary school

graduates. They were asked to rate their preference by using the Likert Scale: 1 = Not so

important; 2 = Important; 3 = Very important; and 4 = Not applicable. The reason for

asking this question was not only to identify the importance of employability skills and

attributes school graduates possess that they would seek but also to find out whether

employers would recruit new secondary school graduates regardless of any skills and

attributes.

First, for the employability skills, 43 personnel (76.8%) thought that communication was

very important while only 11 people (19.6%) thought communication was important.

Similarly, 44 personnel (78.6%) thought teamwork was very important while 11 of them

(19.6%) thought teamwork was important. Problem solving was rated by 27 people

(48.2%) as very important and 23 of them (41.1%) thought this skill as important.

Likewise, initiative and enterprise was considered by 21 personnel (37.5%) as very

important while 31 personnel (55.4%) thought this skill as important. Then comes

planning and organizing, which was considered as important by 26 personnel (46.4%)

while 23 of them (41.1%) thought this skill very important. About 6 people (10.7%)

thought this skill as not so important. On the same note, self-management was considered

by 6 personnel (10.7%) as not so important while 18 of them (32.1%) thought self-

management was important. This skill was considered very important by 29 personnel

(51.8%). Then comes ongoing learning which was rated by 28 personnel (50.0%) as

important while 24 of them (42.9%) thought it as a very important employability skill.

348

Finally, Information Technology was considered not so important by 8 industry personnel

(14.3%) but important by 28 people ((50.0%) and very important by 18 people (32.1%).

The reason for the 8 people (14.3%) to rate IT knowledge as not so important that they

should seek from new secondary school graduates is not yet known.

Second, not many industry personnel rated ‘not so important’ for some of the attributes.

Amongst the attributes, ‘sense of humour’ was rated by 12 people (21.4%) as ‘not so

important’. However, most of the industry personnel thought that most of the personal

attributes were either ‘important’ or ‘very important’ for secondary school graduates that

they would consider for employment.

About 15 people (26.8%) thought that loyalty was ‘important’ while 36 personnel thought

this attributes as ‘very important’. For ‘commitment’, 11 people (19.6%) thought this

attributes as important while 42 personnel (75.0%) rated this as ‘very important’. A

majority of 50 personnel (89.3%) had a very high choice for ‘honesty and integrity’, thus

rated as ‘very important’ attribute. Enthusiasm was rated ‘important by 19 people (33.9%),

whereas 35 of them (62.5%) thought this attribute as ‘very important’. ‘Reliability’ was

considered ‘important’ by 15 people (26.8%) while 39 of them (69.6%) viewed this

attribute as ‘very important’. ‘Balanced attitude to work and home life was considered

important by 24 people (42.9%) while 26 people (46.4%) considered this to be ‘very

important’. ‘Motivation’ has been rated ‘important’ by 28 personnel (50.0%) while 25

people (44.6%) thought this attribute as ‘very important’. Then about 24 personnel (42.9%)

and 30 personnel (53.6%) thought that ‘personal presentation’ was either ‘important’ or

‘very important’ respectively. Similarly, 25 people (44.6%) thought ‘common sense’ was

‘important’ and 29 of them (51.8%) thought this as ‘very important’.

‘Positive self-esteem’ was rated important’ by 23 people (41.1%), whereas 27 personnel

(48.2%) thought this to be ‘very important’. Again, 12 people (21.4%) thought that ‘sense

of humour’ was ‘not so important’ but considered ‘important’ by 33 people (58.9% while

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only 11 of them (19.6%) thought this as ‘very important’ attribute. ‘Ability to deal with

pressure’ was thought to be ‘not important’ by only 5 people (8.9%) but ‘important’ by 23

people (41.1%) and ‘very important’ by 28 people (50.0%). Finally, ‘adaptability’ was

considered ‘not important’ by only 3 people (5.4%) but ‘important’ and ‘very important’

by 26 people (46.4%) and 27 people (48.2%) respectively.

The results showed the majority of the industry/business personnel had a high regard for

the employability skills and the attributes. They thought the employability skills and

personal attributes would be considered either ‘important’ or ‘very important’ in their

search for new school graduates. Such results would reflect the business/industry position

when seeking new secondary (or post-secondary) graduates in PNG. If the

business/industry personnel would only seek to employ young graduates who have the

employability skills and attributes, then it would mean schools need to prepare students

with appropriate employability skills and attributes that would enable the students to either

further their study or find employment as illustrated in Table C33.

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Table C33: Business/industry views about employability skills and personal attributes


1=Not so important

2 = Important

3 = Very Important

4 = Not applicable

Missing data

Total


Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Frequency (%)

a. Communication - - 11 19.6 43 76.8 1 1.8 1 1.8 56 100 b. Teamwork - - 11 19.6 44 78.6 1 1.8 - - 56 100 c. Problem Solving 3 5.4 23 41.1 27 48.2 2 3.6 1 1.8 56 100 d. Initiative and Enterprise 2 3.6 31 55.4 21 37.5 2 - - 56 100 e. Planning and organizing 6 10.7 26 46.4 23 41.1 1 1.8 - - 56 100 f. Self management 6 10.7 18 32.1 29 51.8 2 3.6 1 1.8 56 100 g. Ongoing Learning 2 3.6 28 50.0 24 42.9 1 1.8 1 1.8 56 100 h. Information Technology 8 14.3 28 50.0 18 32.1 1 1.8 1 1.8 56 100 Personal attributes 56 i. Loyalty 2 3.6 15 26.8 36 64.3 1 1.8 2 3.6 56 100 j. Commitment 1 1.8 11 19.6 42 75.0 1 1.8 1 1.8 56 100 k. Honesty and integrity - - 3 5.4 50 89.3 2 3.6 1 1.8 56 100 l. Enthusiasm - - 19 33.9 35 62.5 2 3.6 - - 56 100 m. Reliability - - 15 26.8 39 69.6 2 3.6 - - 56 100 n. Balanced attitude to work and home life

2 3.6 24 42.9 26 46.4 3 5.4 1 1.8 56 100

o. Motivation 1 1.8 28 50.0 25 44.6 1 1.8 1 1.8 56 100 p. Personal presentation 1 1.8 24 42.9 30 53.6 1 1.8 - - 56 100 q. Common sense - - 25 44.6 29 51.8 2 3.6 - - 56 100 r. Positive self-esteem 3 5.4 23 41.1 27 48.2 2 3.6 1 1.8 56 100 s. Sense of humour 12 21.4 33 58.9 11 19.6 - - - - 56 100 t. Ability to deal with pressure 5 8.9 23 41.1 28 50.0 - - - - 56 100 u. Adaptability 3 5.4 26 46.4 27 48.2 - - - - 56 100

351

Table C34: Business/industry views about employability skills and personal

attributes in VET training programs


statements regarding employability skills and attributes and VET programs. The aim for

this survey question was to identify the industry personnel’s position in employing

graduates from various levels of educational institutions in PNG. As usual, the Likert Scale

was used, thus: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree and 4 = Strongly agree.

The first statement states, high school graduates generally have the appropriate

employability skills and attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

The results showed that 12 personnel (21.4%) strongly disagreed with this statement. Also

29 personnel (51.8%) disagreed with this statement while only 13 of them (23.2%) agreed

and 2 people (3.6%) strongly agreed with this statement. The second statement intended to

find out whether the industry personnel would agree with the fact that, post-secondary

graduates generally have the appropriate employability skills and attributes to be effective

in the position that they were hired for.

The results showed that about 13 people (23.3%) disagreed with this statement while 39 of

them agreed with the statement. Only 2 people (3.6%) strongly agreed with this statement.

Then the final statement wanted to know whether, other TAFE/tertiary graduates have

generally the appropriate employability skills and attributes to be effective in the position

that they were hired for. The results indicate that 32 personnel (57.1%) agreed with this

statement. Also, 14 people (25.0%) strongly agreed with this statement. On the other hand,

only 2 people (3.6%) and 5 people (8.9%) either strongly disagreed or just disagreed with

this statement.

The results showed that most industry/business personnel had a very strong view that only

the post-secondary school graduates and technical/tertiary graduates had the appropriate

employability skills and attributes to effectively perform tasks that they have been hired or

352

employed to do than the young secondary school graduates. If such were the views of

employers in PNG, then it would mean that the secondary school graduates have a lesser

chance of getting employed in business/industry sectors in PNG. The reason appears to be

that the secondary school graduates have no proper employability skills and attributes to

perform the type of job that the employers are looking for as presented in Table C34:

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Table C34: Business/industry views about employability skills and personal attributes in VET training programs Employability Skills/Attributes

and degree of agreement

1= Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree

3 = Agree 4 = Strongly agree

Missing data

Total


Frequency (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Frequency (%)

High school graduates generally have the appropriate employability skills/ attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

12 21.4

29 51.8

13 23.2

2 3.6

- -

56 100

Post-secondary graduates generally have the appropriate employability skills/attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

1 1.8

13 23.2

39 69.6

2 3.6

1 1.8

56 100

Other TAFE/Tertiary graduates have generally the appropriate employability skills/attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

2 3.6

5 8.9

32 57.1

14 25.0

3 5.4

56 100

354

Table C35: Business/industry perceptions about provision of employability skills training for new employees

Business/industry personnel were asked to choose employability skills training programs

their organization were offering to new employers. This question was asked in order to

determine whether business/industries in Port Moresby engage in providing any form of

skills training. It just required a yes/no response but if they chose NO, they were asked to

further indicate the reasons for not having such training programs within their

organizations. Also, if any business organization had a training program, the next question

that followed was asked in order to find out the type of people (skilled professional

trainers) engaged in providing the training.

In response to the first part of the question, about 32 industry/business personnel (57.1%)

indicated that their organization provided such employability skills training for their new

employees. However, 20 of them (35.7%) indicated that their organization did not offer

any skills training for their new employees. For those organizations that did provide skills

training for their new employees, about 25 personnel (44.6%) indicated positively that they

have on board people specialized in coordinating and assessing their organization’s

employability skills training needs for their new employees. However, 10 people (17.9%)

indicated they had not specialized personnel or trainers in their organizations to provide

such employability skills training for their new recruits.

For those organizations that did not have employability skills training program were asked

to indicate why their organization not offered any employability skills training program for

new employees.

The reasons were placed on a Likert Scale from: 1 = Lack of time or resources to conduct

training; 2 = New employees are skilled already; 3 = Number of new employees is small; 4

= Training is done in other PNG VET/Technical colleges or universities; 5 = Not

applicable. In responding to these scales, about 9 industry personnel (16.1%) thought that

355

there was a lack of time or resources to conduct such training for their new employees

while only 3 of them (5.4%) were of the view that new employees are skilled already. Then

about 10 personnel (17.9%) indicated that the number of employees that they recruit is

usually small while 5 personnel (8.9%) admitted that training is done in other PNG

VET/technical colleges or universities. Surprisingly, about 28 people (50.0%) did not

respond this part of the question.

From these results, it was considered obvious that there were some organizations in Port

Moresby that provided employability skills training for their new employees. Some of

these organizations had the training personnel, may be through their Human Resource

Training division while others did not have such training programs. For those

organizations that did not provide training programs indicated that: their organizations

either lacked time or resources to conduct such training; number of their employees were

usually small; most of their new employees were expected to have obtained their skills

training at VET/technical colleges or universities and therefore, they do not need to

provide any more training or that their new employees are considered to be skilled already.

The reason(s) for not having training programs in some of these organizations, required

questions regarding the provision of skills training at the school level prior to any further

training and employment for the majority of young people in PNG. This data is represented

in Table C35.

356

Table C35: Business/industry views about provision of employability skills training for new employees


1= Lack of time or resources to conduct training

2 = New employees are skilled already

3 = Number of new employees is small

4 = Training is done in other PNG VET/technical colleges or universities

5 =Not applicable

Missing data

Total

Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%)

Please answer this if your response for choice a above is NO. Tick one box only that applies to your organization b. Why does your company/organization not offer any employability skills training program for new employees?

9 16.1

3 5.4

10 17.9

5 8.9

1 1.8

28 50.0

56 100


1= Yes 2 = No

3 =Not applicable

4 = Missing data Total

Frequencies Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (% )

a. My company or organization offers a employability skills training program for new employees (If NO, go on to b)

32 57.1

20 35.7

- -

3 5.4

56 100

b. [If YES in a] Do you have a person specialized in coordinating and assessing your company’s or organization’s employability skills training needs for your new employees?

25 44.6

10 17.9

- -

21 37.5

56 100

357

Table C36: Business/industry views about VET training and apprenticeship program participation at different education levels

The final industry/business survey question was asked with the aim to draw from the employers,

their views on the level of interest to participate or not to participate in vocational education and

training and engaging in apprenticeship programs in various educational levels in PNG. They have

been asked to choose from a five-point Likert scale on statements that correspond to their industry

sector that they would be interested in participating. If for some reason that their organization had

no intention to participate in any VET or apprenticeship program, they were asked to choose the

‘Not applicable” column. The year/institutional level of interest to participate in

VET/apprenticeship program as shown on the Likert scale include: 1 =Grades 9 -10 level only; 2 =

Grades 11 – 12 level only; 3 = All Grades 9 – 12 levels only; 4 = Post-

secondary/college/University levels only; and finally, 5 = Not applicable.

The outcome of this survey question seemed to lie towards one side where most personnel either

responded as ‘not applicable’ or ‘not responding at all’. Therefore, there was an identification of

large missing data as well as those industry personnel that responded ‘not applicable’. However,

those who could respond, the results seemed to indicate an uneven spread between the Grade levels

in which certain VET training and apprenticeship programs ought to be performed, most leaning

towards post-secondary/college/University levels only, followed by ‘All Grades from Grade 9 –

12’ and then ‘Grades 11 and 12 levels only’. The Grades 9 – 10 levels only had few responses.

If one can highlight a few VET subjects that can be taught and participated and at which

educational levels, subjects like: accounting/management, banking/finance/insurance, medical

supplies, computer information and telecommunication studies, health educational training,

general engineering, general wholesale and retailing, marketing and advertising and mining and

petroleum industry training were considered by most employers to be taught/participated at the

post-secondary school/college/university level only. Whereas, for ‘All Grades 9 – 12 levels,

subjects like: agriculture/livestock/fisheries, some automotive suppliers and services, computers

and telecommunications, construction suppliers and services, food and beverages industries,

forestry, freighting/customs/transport, general wholesaling and retailing, logging/timber,

security/protection/safety, to mention a few, have been considered to be taught/participated at the

Grade 9 – 12 level as illustrated in Table C36.

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Table C36: Business/industry views about VET training and apprenticeship program participation at different education levels


1=Years 9 – 10 level only

2 = Years 11 – 12 level only

3 = All years 9 – 12 levels only

4 = Post-secondary/ /college/Uni. levels only

5. Not applicable

Missing data

Missing system

Total

Year/institutional level of interest to participate in VET

Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%)

a. Accounting, Management and Legal Services

1 1.8 2 3.6 1 1.8 15 26.8 8 14.3 28 50.0 1 1.8 56 100

b. Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Industry

1 1.8 2 3.6 6 10.7 2 3.6 13 23.2 31 55.4 1 1.8 56 100

c. Automotive Suppliers & Services - - 1 1.8 5 8.9 4 7.1 11 19.6 34 60.7 1 1.8 56 100 d. Aviation & Air Services - - 3 5.4 - - 4 7.1 13 23.2 35 62.5 1 1.8 56 100 e. Banking, Finance and Insurance - - 2 3.6 3 5.4 6 10.7 9 16.1 35 62.5 1 1.8 56 100 f. Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Suppliers

- - - - 1 1.8 6 10.7 15 26.8 33 58.9 1 1.8 56 100

g. Computers & Telecommunication 1 1.8 2 3.6 11 19.6 6 10.7 5 8.9 30 53.6 1 1.8 56 100 h. Construction Suppliers & Services - - - - 6 10.7 1 1.8 13 23.2 35 62.5 1 1.8 56 100 i. Health, Educational & Training Services

- - 3 5.4 2 3.6 8 14.3 8 14.3 34 60.7 1 1.8 56 100

j. Entertainment, Amusement & Recreational Services

2 3.6 1 1.8 2 3.6 1 1.8 14 25.0 35 62.5 1 1.8 56 100

k. Food and Beverages Industry 1 1.8 2 3.6 5 8.9 5 8.9 13 23.2 29 51.8 1 1.8 56 100 l. Forestry, Logging, and Timber products - - 1 1.8 5 8.9 - - 15 26.8 34 60.7 1 1.8 56 100 m. Freighting, Customs & transportation - - 3 5.4 5 8.9 3 5.4 10 17.9 34 60.7 1 1.8 56 100 n. Garment, Textile and Fashion - - 3 5.4 4 7.1 1 1.8 14 25.0 33 58.9 1 1.8 56 100 o. General Engineering - - 2 3.6 3 5.4 9 16.1 9 16.1 32 57.1 1 1.8 56 100 p. General Import and Export services 2 3.6 4 7.1 4 7.1 3 5.4 9 16.1 33 58.9 1 1.8 56 100 q. General Wholesale and Retailing 4 7.1 3 5.4 5 8.9 6 10.7 10 17.9 27 48.2 1 1.8 56 100 r. Hospitality, Hotel and Tourism 2 3.6 3 5.4 4 7.1 1 1.8 12 21.4 33 58.9 1 1.8 56 100 s. Marine & Shipping Suppliers 1 1.8 2 3.6 1 1.8 4 7.1 12 21.4 35 62.5 1 1.8 56 100 t. Marketing, Advertising and Signage 1 1.8 2 3.6 4 7.1 6 10.7 9 16.1 33 58.9 1 1.8 56 100 u. Mining and Petroleum Industry - - 1 1.8 1 1.8 7 12.5 14 25.0 32 57.1 1 1.8 56 100 v. Office Equipment, Supplies 1 1.8 5 8.9 3 5.4 1 1.8 11 19.6 34 60.7 1 1.8 56 100 w. Real Estate, Auctioneers, and Properties

1 1.8 - - 2 3.6 2 3.6 15 26.8 35 62.5 1 1.8 56 100

x. Security, Protection and Safety Services

2 3.6 1 1.8 5 8.9 3 5.4 11 19.6 33 58.9 1 1.8 56 100

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The real reason behind most choosing ‘not applicable’ and not having to respond to most

variables may indicate that most of the VET subjects identified have not been known to

them or part of the school curriculum. It also indicated that if the industry personnel

wanted to have their own way, most of them could lean towards having such

VET/apprenticeship programs at the post-secondary/technical college/university levels.

However, those responded to the other educational levels, the results showed some good

indication of having some of the selected VET programs/apprenticeship programs at either

‘All Grades from Grade 9 – 12 levels only, while others suggested Grades 11 – 12 levels

only. Whatever the outcome, providing some relevant VET/apprenticeship programs at all

levels from Grades 9 – 12 seem appropriate.

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APPENDIX D

INTERVIEW DATA FROM POLICY-MAKERS/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

PART I: RESPONSES FROM THREE EDUCATIONAL

OFFICIALS

Question 1: School enrolment/leaver trend in PNG

Respondent one

Respondent one stated that there were more than 7,000 to 15,000 Grade 12s leaving secondary

school, each year. Out of this figure, one third was entering tertiary institutions, while two thirds

were entering TVET colleges or employment. However, no statistics was available to show the

exact figure. This officer said, more Grade 12 students have been leaving the secondary system

annually. Approximately one third of these school leavers entered colleges and universities while

the rest either, enter TVET colleges, seek employment or become unemployed. There was no

research done as yet to determine where the school leavers end up after completing Grade 12.

Respondent two

For respondent two, secondary school principals and officers from the National Measurement

Services Unit come together to select students based on Grade 12 examination results for their

majors and allocate them places at colleges and universities. Non-school leavers (those intending

students who come outside of the school system) also are selected based on their qualification

results. Universities selection team with officers from the Office of Higher Education select their

students based on their (students’) course choices. The students left were selected by the teachers

colleges, nursing schools and other colleges, including TVET institutes.

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Respondent three

This respondent also had the view that there was no exact knowledge of enrolment statistics

available to show how many students enrolled and graduate each year. However, the respondent

felt that school enrolments were increasing nation-wide. Provinces opened up new secondary

schools that catered for Grade 11 and 12 students in numbers. At the same time, the school leavers

were on the increase nationwide. There has been an increase in the number of students enrolling

and leaving the secondary school level. Majority of those leaving school were unable to get jobs

because there are not enough jobs.

Question 2: Current VET performance at the school level

Respondent one

There are a few Technical high schools in PNG but there is a lack of policy to monitor

graduates/post-secondary pathways. As such, one finds it hard to know the exact figure/estimate as

to where graduates end up, post-secondary, tertiary, employment and unemployment. However,

one can assume that at least 7,000 students apply for VET but schools could afford to

accommodate 2-3 thousand. Most graduates have other interests and could not take VET subjects.

Others enter village vocational centres because the school fees are lower than TVET colleges.

Standard fees for vocational centres were K750.00 while TVET colleges were charging about K10,

000 per annum per student.

Respondent two

Respondent two was not sure of the whole system as to how VET was performing. But with limited

understanding, this officer thought the people from the Curriculum division were trying to integrate

VET into the secondary curriculum system. Such course to be integrated and working on has been

Tourism and Hospitality course scheduled to be taught in 2010. This course may also be taught at

the Primary School level. It was considered vital to make awareness on such topics from the

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primary school level up to secondary. Again the officer was not too sure how VET was

implemented in 2006 and has been currently performing at the Lower Secondary School level.

The complaints the officer received related to school inspection. Teachers who were teaching

whatever VET subjects at primary and secondary school levels were not qualified/trained

primary/secondary school teachers. These people went through the TVET training system to teach

in TVET and vocational schools. But they somehow ended up being employed as high school

teachers and so, the inspectors decided not to inspect them.

On the contrary, those primary and secondary trained teachers who wished to teach TVET courses

at colleges had to go through the normal TVET teaching requirements prior to their teaching.

Likewise, those VET teachers who have not gone through proper training needed to get their

primary or secondary school teaching certificate. This means that they have to enter college or

University before teaching high school students. Having attended college/university and obtained

the qualification and skills to teach would enable the inspectors to treat them like any other

qualified teacher and not discriminate against them.

Respondent three

VET subjects currently offered at the secondary school level include: Arts, Business studies,

Practical Skills and Home Economics and few others at the lower secondary school level but these

subjects were not that attractive to students and teachers. The lower secondary school student

entrance to Grade 11 and into Grade 12 depends on examination results on four major academic

subjects only, namely: English, Mathematics, Science and Social Sciences, not VET subjects.

Business Studies course has been very popular and was included in the Grade 12 Curriculum

because it leads to University studies pathway.

Likewise, Tourism and Hospitality course has been also popular and included in the Grade 11/12

curriculum. Under the reform, the curriculum has been flexible and the students continued doing

seven subjects: English, Math, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, English, Commerce, Business Studies

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and Personal Development. Students now should have the flexibility to choose whatever VET

courses they like that lead to the Technical Training pathway. Some technical secondary schools,

like the Kokopo Secondary have already included Business Studies and other VET courses and

students appeared to show some interest. Under the reform, students just have to fit into the

framework. Thus, that interviewee viewed that including VET at the secondary school system

should be a way to go for secondary schools in PNG.

Question 3: VET program and employability skills needs

Respondent one

When asked whether VET program was meeting the employability skills, respondent one indicated

that there were good VET programs at established TVET colleges rather than vocational

institutions in the country. Therefore, those students who attended/attend TVET institutions

appeared almost effective in the sense that most students acquired industry knowledge and skills

capable of meeting industry needs. Thus, most students who went through TVET training got

employed.

Respondent two

The officer thought that there was minimal chance of secondary school leavers getting employed

because of the lack of employability skills. If students want to get employed or find some form of

employment, they should get some training in VET or TVET colleges. The current indications are

that, students aim for universities only. Once they do not get a University place, they should not

expect to be employed automatically because they do not have the right qualification. All they have

acquired is i n regard to some academic theory but not to employment-related knowledge and

skills.

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Respondent three

This respondent viewed that, for Grade 9 and Grade 10 students, the focus was on the four

academic subjects if they wished to go onto Grade 11 and 12. Under the reform, some VET

subjects were included so that students who felt comfortable with taking VET could choose to take

a course or two. Those students wishing to take the academic/VET pathway may enter University

or Technical College if they were successful in Grade 12. The skills in these VET subjects needed

to be clarified, whether they were meeting the needs of students. Skills like ‘communication’ and

‘teamwork’ may become overarching for the curriculum and each subject may have different ways

of utilizing/applying the skills. It was through the teaching and learning/assessment that these skills

are emphasized.

Question 4: School/community/industry VET participation

Respondent one

According to this respondent, the industry and community should work together to develop a

curriculum on the basis of needs of the community. Community-school collaboration, for example,

was needed, where if a school was near the reach of a business activity, such as commercial crop

production area like coffee, the students should be given the opportunity to do some practical work

with the industry/business so that once students leave , they can use that practical knowledge and

skills in useful ways in their own communities. So, if a school was near a vicinity of a coffee or

cocoa plantation, the students can link up with those resources. Similar ideas can be applied to

students who attend schools in towns and cities. Students can link up with business/ industrial

activities, such as building/carpentry trades. Some of the TVET courses have “on the job training

packages” to get students engaged in practical work with industries. At the moment, however, very

little of such activities appeared to be present.

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Respondent two

This respondent was of the view that there was a need for school/industry awareness. Hagen

Technical College, for example, was attaching itself with industries and has been doing a good job

which should be known by others. The need now relates to making awareness with secondary

school students. Some awareness efforts have been made at vocational centres already. TVET

division has been doing some awareness on the importance of schools participating in industry

activities and making connections with existing industries. The provincial and local level

governments in the country have been asked to engage in such awareness. This awareness needs to

be carried out not so much with established Technical colleges but vocational schools because

these schools are in local communities, where they know the needs of the community. These

vocational schools have projects, such as agriculture, carpentry, mechanical or whatever activity

that the people can get involved. Secondary schools have very little facilities to get students

engaged/involved with industry. They however, focused more on academic courses and less on

VET and industry programs.

Respondent three

Reform framework makes the current curriculum flexible, allowing the community/business to get

involved. Before the reform, certain government statutory bodies like the Primary Industry have

been collaborating heavily with certain schools. Certain schools like the Kondio Secondary have

been taking the ‘Agriculture theory’ out of the classroom into practical situations. They planted

trees and engaged in other Agriculture activities. Also, these schools asked the Provincial Forestry

officers to get involved in the School Forestry planting exercises. The parents got involved in these

tree planting activities too, so the whole community got involved.

The students were finding that they were not only planting trees as part of the school activity but

they also learned the basic skills of how to plant trees for themselves when they leave school. Some

of them started planting trees at their community land plots and the community was getting

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involved. Workshops were organized on how to do small businesses with funding from the

International Labour Organization (ILO) in partnership with the National Department of Education

where selected Business Studies teachers were trained on business skills. Such Business Studies

training for teachers should be organized for both urban and rural areas.

Question 5: Assessment and accreditation of VET skills and personal attributes

Respondent one

According to this respondent, VET courses were industry approved and skills designed to meet

industry standards. Main trade skills were developed by the National Apprenticeship and Trade

Testing Board (NATTB). Assessment and accreditation were done by the Education Department

through the TVET institution which also awards the certificates.

Respondent two

This officer claimed that VET certificates were traditionally awarded by VET providers (vocational

schools) or other private organizations and the TVET division provided certificates to its own

graduates. The industries/employers have been confused as to which qualification was better.

Under the reform, all VET course accreditation and awarding of certificates would have to come

under the new National Qualifications Framework. That meant that, whether a private VET

provider or State VET provider, all courses would be registered and come under one umbrella –The

National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and awarding same qualifications. So, whether students

have graduated from private or public VET institutions, they all have the same certificate

accredited to the NQF. The National certificate can also be issued to students at secondary schools

up to VET Level I and II so that students who have taken VET I and II and who have entered

TVET colleges would not take certificate I and II again. These students may be exempted and go

straight to VET Levels III and IV under the NQF.

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Respondent three

Curriculum division was working closely with TVET division to develop a TVET policy. Also they

agreed to teach VET subjects like Tourism and Hospitality in module form to Grade 11/12s. These

VET subjects may not require a lot of facilities. These modules could come as packages with

assessments included so teachers would not have to set extra tests and assessments. There was no

external assessment but all courses internally assessed. Based on that internal assessment, students

would receive their certificates besides their Grade 12 certificates. Secondary school and any

nearby VET training institution can collaborate in providing the practical activities.

Question 6: VET teacher training and level of teaching Respondent one

VET Pre-Service teacher training at Goroka University and professional development of current

practicing teachers at Goroka University and at the Education Institute in Port Moresby was

considered best option under the current system. Teachers who have good TVET qualifications

teach in TVET colleges. There was a VET curriculum implemented in 2006 for the lower

secondary school level. However, there was no VET curriculum available for the Upper secondary

school level, thus the Curriculum Division has been assigned to work on it so that it can be piloted

in 2010.

Respondent two

VET teachers now get their training at the University of Goroka. The need in Goroka has been to

have specialist VET teachers who can teach VET students. People with technical background need

to teach VET students under the Bachelor of Vocational Education and Training. Divine Word

University offers VET courses but on a 3-month basis and awards students a diploma , which is

not enough compared to what the University of Goroka has been offering. The University of

Goroka offers VET students with VET theory and practicals, such as how to draw up the VET

curriculum, engaged in methods and practical training as well.

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Professional development of VET teachers

It is a lot harder now to get professional development training for VET teachers. Only the lucky

ones might enter some overseas-sponsored colleges for further training. The Education Institute has

been providing professional development courses for existing VET teachers but now, teachers are

expected to attend the University of Goroka to upgrade their qualifications. TVET only recognizes

people with technical knowledge and skills and only those teachers may be given the priority to

attend professional training either within or outside. All teachers of VET are encouraged to attend

Goroka University and get their diploma or degree first before they can continue to teach.

Respondent three

According to this respondent, technical subjects require a lot of technical knowledge and skills and

we would prefer to leave it with Technical colleges. These technical courses are taught by qualified

teachers and secondary schools should use these available Lecturers. There are other courses like

Computing, Tourism and Hospitality and Home Economics in which secondary school teachers can

be trained for at the University of Goroka. Also, existing teachers can get Postgraduate Diploma in

Education (PGDE) course available at the University of Goroka. In addition, teachers can get their

professional training in private training institutions so long as those VET courses provided by

private training institutions come under the National Training Council (NTC). Once the TVET

programs come out, some of the selected TVET courses would be taught at the secondary school

level in module form which can be very useful. This TVET framework is going to pull policy-

makers, training institutions and the community together.

Question 7: Achievements and difficulties Respondent one

This respondent alluded to the existing VET model allowing for technical and agriculture courses

to be assessed internally but not externally for both secondary and post-secondary school levels.

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The current arrangement under construction would allow for awarding a nationally recognized

VET qualification for those students at both secondary and post-secondary school levels.

Problems/implications

Respondent one

Secondary school inspectors were not inspecting VET teachers but concentrated on inspecting

other academic teachers. Inspectors were saying that they were not trained to inspect VET teachers

and their skills and styles of teaching. On the other side, VET teachers thought that if their

qualification/style/method of VET pedagogy was not being inspected, there was no chance of them

being promoted to the next level. This allowed/forced some VET teachers to leave secondary

schools and seek jobs elsewhere. Under the reform, this inspection problem has to be solved. The

policies were under construction, thus a dual certificate system would be awarded at both

secondary and post-secondary school levels. All TVET courses would come under a standardized

national curriculum. The standardized national qualification framework under construction will

provide: Certificate 1 – 4, diploma 4-5 and advanced diploma 6. The need was to learn from other

established TVET programs and their certification systems elsewhere and learn from them and try

to adopt some of their methods/approaches.

Respondent two: Further comments

Unemployment has been a major factor and the Education Department needed to do more than

currently doing, especially in institutions. There was a need to change the program, “we do not

teach students to be employed, rather teach students to employ themselves”. “Students attending

vocational schools in rural areas are better than those in towns and cities. Students in communities

can be trained how to use the land available to plant food and cash crops for commercial use”.

TVET courses are competency-based, yet not enough facilities in place to apply the skills in

schools. Teachers needed to know that they were not teachers but facilitators. Currently, this was

not the case. CBT was a good approach where teachers guided their students what to do and

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allowed students learn at their own pace. Teachers need to be trained now to make use of the CBT

approach. The setback was that there were enough training infrastructure and facilities at the school

level to implement these CBT programs successfully. Funding was also a problem and some

schools were trying their best to survive on recurrent budget.

The only good thing was about the NQF that might benefit everybody in the community – as both

private and public VET courses would be recognized and a standard certificate awarded to

everybody. Also, students at secondary schools who take TVET courses would be exempted once

they enter Technical colleges. Their courses already taken at secondary school level would be

credited to their diploma course at the Technical colleges.

Respondent three: Further comments

Before Technical colleges enrolled Grade 10 school leavers; but now the entrance level has been

restricted to Grade 12 school leavers only. The National Department of Education came up with

extra VET subjects to be taught (in module form) at the lower and upper secondary school levels.

This has given flexibility for Grade 11/12 to do academic and selected VET subjects so that

students can have the choice to go to University or Technical College or any other post-secondary

institution. At the moment, there are discussions going on as to how the Grade 10s and 12s can be

given the training so that they can find employment. The new reform package would address some

of these issues so that students are given some skills to take with them once they leave school and

put into practice in their communities. The Grade 10 and 12 dropouts can find hope and become

useful in their communities once they have taken these VET subjects.

Recognition of prior learning and any further information

Certificate I and II only in Grade 11 and 12 and these cover courses like Tourism and Hospitality,

Computing and Home Economics. It would not cover heavy TVET courses like mechanic or others

that require a lot of facilities and equipments and trained instructors. “The study that the researcher

is embarking on can assist a lot in what has so far been covered”. Parents’ perceptions have to be

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changed into accepting VET as an important aspect of their students’ learning. Parents have to

change their thinking on their students becoming pilots, lawyers, doctors. Society is made of

people in all walks of life and policy-makers and schools need to work hand in hand to discover

where students should be placed and for many, it has to be VET.

Drawbacks of VET

A drawback for the VET in schools programs is the time for work experience. Because of the full

program, the Curriculum division has suggested that students be given three weeks or a maximum

of 30 days work experience although that was not enough. However, the question was whether

most of the schools would have enough industries that would engage students in their practical

work activities.

To sum up, the heavy TVET courses will not be taught at the secondary school level. To have them

would be very expensive. These heavy TVET courses will only be taught at Technical colleges.

But the problem is there are only few technical colleges and that means that thousands of students

will still miss out on their chances of getting their VET skills. Having only a selected not so heavy

VET courses at the secondary school level would limit the opportunity for potential students who

might wish to build their career in TVET. Parents, guardians and students need to change their

views on VET. They tend to put less emphasis on VET and more on academic subjects.

It appears, this perception to degrade VET is reflected on the minds of policy-makers and many

other stake-holders, such as students and parents/guardians. This is clearly shown in the way VET

courses at the secondary school level have been discriminated against. They put more emphasis on

less heavy VET courses for the secondary school level while the heavier VET courses were to be

taught at Technical colleges. These heavy TVET courses were going to be enjoyed by only a

handful of students who attend these selected TVET colleges in PNG.

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PART II: RESPONSES FROM TWO SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

Question 1: Inclusion of VET subjects in current curriculum

Respondent one

A few VET courses included, such as: Practical skills: Metal work, Wood work, Furniture,

Home Economics, Expressive Arts, mostly music and drama, graphic design, model

houses, Agriculture and Commerce as part of VET.

Respondent two

Technology courses: urban technology and rural technology, referred as non-core subjects

as opposed to VET. Practical skills: Carpentry and little bit of Welding; Home Economics,

a little bit of Tourism and Hospitality, Art and Drama, Music and Dance. Only these

courses are taught, others cannot be taught due to lack of specialists. AT the same time, the

school did not have the facilities to have these VET courses and others in a deeper way.

There was no funding available to have the facilities set up in order to teach these

important VET courses. This became a stumbling block for the school’s progress and

performance

Question 2: Grade levels VET subjects being taught

Respondent one

These VET courses were offered to Grade 9 and Grade 10, (lower Secondary level) but

Economics and Business Economics for the Upper Secondary School levels (Grade 11/12).

It would be good to have additional VET in Agriculture, Expressive or other TVET

courses at these levels. Agriculture was introduced into the Lower Secondary at KilaKila

Secondary School in Grade 11 and Grade 12 levels. This respondent has a desire to see

such programs included at the secondary school level.

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Respondent two

This school was changed to a secondary school catering for Grades 11 and 12 under the

reform but the school facilities in use were from the old Gerehu High. Only the name has

changed but not the facilities/physical aspects of the school. Carpentry was taught under

the previous high school and that has been continued under the current secondary school.

The school should be taking Mechanical and Electrical subjects but hard now because no

specialists available in this fields and no facilities and lack of funding. These courses were

taught at Grade 9 to 12 but not all students enrolled in these courses. Only a few selected

students. Grades 9s took Practical Skills and Home Economics but they choose which

subject to take.

Question 3: Teacher qualities: VET teachers and their qualifications and teaching effectiveness

Respondent one

Teachers: 2 for Urban Technology, 3 for Home Economics, 3 for Agriculture, 2 for

Expressive Arts. These teachers have diplomas and teachers who joined recently have

Bachelor of Arts degrees. They were fairly well qualified. There was 1 paid contract

officer taking Urban Technology.

Respondent two

The teachers who were taking VET subjects were not trained VET teachers. They were

forced by the situation to teach VET subjects for which they have not been trained for. The

rural secondary schools were lot worse than when compared to urban schools. This school

was not doing well in this area of VET but at least there was someone who can take care of

the VET subjects. This respondent maintained, his school needed specialists taking VET

courses but only two VET teachers qualified to take Home Economics and Practical Skills.

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Such lack of more VET specialists and lack of resources and facilities prevented more

students from taking part in VET programs.

Question 4: Extent to which VET subjects sufficiently meet employment needs of

students Respondent one

That school is doing the best it can with limited resources available. Limited budget to

meet VET pedagogical demands; some of these VET courses require tools and machinery

to back-up teaching. The School did not have enough land to teach Agricultural skills in

the field. This has resulted in some setbacks. If these facilities, tools and equipment were

available, schools would do a very good job. Therefore, currently, these VET courses are

taught in an optional basis. The VET courses were not compulsory for all students. With

the outcome based education (OBE) being introduced, most VET courses became optional

and students either take it or not. This Principal thought the VET courses should be made

compulsory in Grade 9 and 10. These courses have basic skills and the students should

know the basic skills in order to survive. Therefore, selected VET courses are made

compulsory.

Respondent two

The students need these employability skills. The general trend in the PNG has been that

the students were geared towards white-collar jobs. Although, the interest to take VET

courses was there, most students were disinclined to take the VET pathway. The majority

of students wanted to take the academic pathway more than the VET pathway. This

respondent claimed, “There are some very good students in Carpentry but when they go

out they will find some other jobs to do if they are lucky enough to find something else to

do, and that is the trend that we have in PNG”. “But if they pursue VET, the students

should realize that there is a job waiting for them. Looking at what we have in the

workplace, students should be taking these courses. We just need to change the mindset of

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the students, to focus on VET courses”. This Principal was very keen on VET as the way

to go for secondary schools in PNG.

Question 5: Apprenticeship programs

Respondent one

There was no apprenticeship program for VET at the current school. The reason for not

having this program has been that this school had no facilities or tools and proper

expertise. Or that such apprenticeship programs were not made available by policy.

Respondent two

“We do not have school apprenticeship programs here”.

Question 6: Collaborative learning with school/industry and successes

Respondent one

There was no formal collaborative teaching, training and employment taking place for this

school. The Music students have been invited at one stage to perform at their gathering and

the students found this very encouraging and stimulating. It would be a very good idea to

engage students in collaborative activities. Students should take part in learning activities

and industries should take part in imparting certain employability skills and knowledge to

our students. There were not enough teachers available for VET and as a result, the only

teachers available work extremely hard. There was so much teaching and assessment work

for the few teachers available and there was no time for other activities for them. The

programs were so tied up as a result of this workload. The teachers have to cover the

prescribed syllabus within the prescribed time, so there was no time for other subjects.

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Respondent two

The school made some attempt to encourage people from a few industries to go there and

address students. There was just one occasion the PNG Tourism Authority team was

invited to address the students. There was also a music concert held and a team from the

Media Industry was invited to perform at the auditorium. PNG FM was also there to record

and report on the Expressive Arts students performing on stage. For the Expressive Arts

students, they felt happy and satisfied after their performance. A lot of the students

attended the Creative Arts faculty of the University of PNG as a result of this. This

industry-school collaboration has shown positive results and more of such activities needed

to be encouraged in PNG schools.

Question 7: VET Assessment and accreditation

Respondent one

The VET subjects were not yet being accredited and assessed. When students complete a

VET subject, a Letter of Attainment or certificate was awarded to show that a student has

satisfactorily completed a VET course. Assessment should be based on theory as well as

field/practical-based but not the case for the current school. Some selected VET courses

taken by Upper Secondary students, like the Business Studies/Commerce courses had some

chance of getting to Higher Education institutions like the University of Technology or

University of PNG. The city schools have very limited space to accommodate the many

students that come out of primary Schools. Those Secondary schools enrolled only the

brighter students with Credits and Distinctions just enough to fill the available space and

the rest of the brighter students including the academically weaker students are sent home

to their parents. “It is not a matter of passes, but a matter of spaces”.

In the beginning of every year, secondary schools in the city have an influx of parents

fronting up looking for space to enrol their students. But there was not enough space to

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cater for the students so most of them were sent back home without being enrolled. This

was a very sad situation in urban schools in PNG. There were 60 or more students in one

class in Port Moresby city schools. The Church schools and other private schools were

doing OK to enrol the students in their schools. The national government needed to build

more schools or expand the existing schools to accommodate more students in future.

Respondent two

Students were assessed internally and externally. Grade 10s were assessed internally and

Grade 12s have been assessed externally. Assessment for Music was done in collaboration

with the University of PNG’s Creative Arts Faculty. They assessed students by way of

observing students doing auditions and some music and drama. For Fine Arts, they sent

their artistic work to Waigani for the Arts officials there to assess them. According to this

Deputy Principal, these courses were added in the Grade 12 Certificate.

Question 8: VET teacher training and recruitment

Respondent one

VET courses were on offer at Port Moresby In-service College and most of the VET

teachers get their training from the University of Goroka. They go to the University of

Goroka to get their Diploma in Secondary school teaching. There was a need for trained

VET teachers than to recruiting unqualified teachers. And the University of Goroka has

been doing well in this area of training VET teachers. There was also a need to get TVET

graduates into the secondary school teaching system. Those who have graduated with good

Grades can get their further training at Goroka University, especially methods and these

people can be able to teach students at the secondary school level.

378

Respondent two

This respondent claimed that, the national government talked about the education reform

but this reform was not working. There were no facilities and qualified VET teachers for

VET at this school. “Our schools do not have the facilities and means to teach VET

courses. The government is not training teachers of VET and the VET courses the school

has are taught by people who are not VET specialists. The government has forced these

VET course onto teachers who are not specialists in VET or have a qualifications in VET.

If the government is serious about VET, the current unqualified teachers who teach VET

should be retrained, this time in VET- specific pedagogy”.

Question 9: Problems of VET management/ how resolved

Respondent one

Not well-trained teachers were taking VET subjects. The students were more interested in

taking the core academic subjects than VET subjects. They were looking at that direction

and the sad thing was that their parents were encouraging their children to think that way.

They have been looking at what-collar jobs that are way up there. Parents failed to

understand the level of their children’s knowledge of subjects. The government thought

that all students were better and were lumped into taking the academic subjects. The

government failed to realize that some students are better than others. Those students who

are not better than others may be able to take on the VET pathway; but the government

was not providing that pathway.

At the end of year 10, most academically weaker students tend to catch up but the students

who are academically brighter remain higher and so the weaker students become dropouts

while the brighter students progress into Grade 11 and 12. Therefore, most students in the

middle group struggle hard to reach the top, and most of them fail to attend school. There

has been a high absenteeism as a result of this situation.

379

Respondent two

There have been no specialists VET teachers to teach VET courses. Also, there were no

textbooks, building, workshop machinery and tools required for teaching some VET

courses. It was a setback for this school. In order to solve some of these problems, it was

suggested that all stakeholders should be involved. The parents, government and industry

people should be involved. At the moment the schools themselves struggled through and

that was not good enough. The national government should put more money into VET,

train VET teachers and have these facilities in place before VET courses can be taught. At

the moment these things could be seen lacking in the schools in PNG.

Question 10: Relevant industry programs to be added to the current VET program

Respondent one

The respondent was so concerned about the following issues for his school: The current

teacher workload has been high and the student population was increasing. The student-

teacher ratio was so much higher. With OBE being introduced, teachers already were

carrying extra burdens. If schools have more VET students, time was becoming a factor.

How much time would teachers have to teach and at the same time find time to get

involved in industry programs or get students involved in industry programs, assess and

monitor progress and so on? The teachers are going to kill themselves. One teacher would

end up having 40 to 50 students in one class and if teachers are given 4 classes, that would

mean 200 students under one teacher in a week. That is going to be huge responsibility.

However, if the government can build more schools or extend the existing school facilities

to cater for such increase in student number and train and recruit more teachers, it would

solve the problem of over-crowding and time for teachers to teacher VET course.

380

Any other information

There was a suggestion made to consider teaching academically capable students to take

on the academic pathway from Grade 9 to Grade 12 while the majority of students who fall

below the average be encouraged to take the VET subjects. “We do not have to create

extra classes or entertain other classes. For the VET students, facilities like the IT can be

made available if there is enough money and the students can make use of them. IT

specialists from other industries/ or trained computer literate people can be on standby to

assist students”. This Principal concludes: “I had dreams, big dreams but became

impossible because of lack of resources and facilities”.

Respondent two

This respondent concluded that, “The existing VET courses are OK but what is needed is

improvement and more direction and all that…develop and teach these VET courses by

specialists in an improved environment, or with better facilities. If these facilities are

improved, and VET courses are taught by trained VET teachers, it would give students

some opportunities for employment and other training pathways. VET is important for

development and serious attention should be paid by people, and particularly the national

government”.

381

APPENDIX E

SURVEY LETTERS AND QUESTIONNAIRES

1. LETTER TO ASSISTANT SECRETARY (SECONDARY

SCHOOLS)

School of Education, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, SA 5005

Tel: +61 8 8303 5892 Fax: +61 8 8303 3604

5th May 2008 Assistant Secretary (Secondary Schools) Department of Education Waigani, NCD. Papua New Guinea Dear Sir/Madam, Request for permission My name is Daniel Leke, a Lecturer from the University of PNG. I am currently studying for my PhD in

Education at the School of Education, University of Adelaide, South Australia. I am interested to understand the

teachers’ and students; perceptions of vocational education and training (VET) at the secondary school level in

Papua New Guinea.

The objective of this study is to investigate the characteristics of a vocational education and training program

model at the secondary school level which would address potential under-skilled student transition problem in

PNG.

Could you therefore, grant me permission to go into the following secondary schools to administer the survey

questionnaires to teachers and students and interview 2 principals and 3 policy-makers please?

� DelaSale Secondary � Port Moresby National High � Gordon Secondary � Kilakila Secondary � Gerehu Secondary

The survey questionnaire would take 40 minutes for the students to complete while teachers would complete their

survey questionnaire in less than 40 minutes in their spare time. Also, the interview time for the school principals

and policy-makers would take less than 40 minutes.

Thank you so much for your understanding and I hope to hear from you soon. Yours truly Daniel Leke (PhD Research Student)

UNIVERSITY OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA Centre for Research & Postgraduate Studies, PO Box 320, UNIVERSITY, NCD Tel: (675) 326704; Fax: (675) 3267699

382

2. LETTER SEEKING PERMISSION FROM SECONDARY

SCHOOL PRINCIPALS


Tel: +61 8 8303 5892 Fax: +61 8 8303 3604

5th May 2008 The Principal ………………………………………………………….. Waigani, NCD. Papua New Guinea Dear Sir/Madam, Request for your support in a questionnaire survey about vocational education and training with your teachers and selected students: My name is Daniel Leke, a Lecturer from the University of PNG. I am currently studying for my PhD in Education at the School of Education, University of Adelaide, South Australia. I am interested to understand your teachers’ and students’ perceptions of vocational education and training (VET) at the secondary school level in Papua New Guinea. The objective of this study is to investigate the characteristics of a vocational education and training program model at the secondary school level which would address potential under-skilled student transition problems in PNG. Could you therefore, request for your teachers and students collaboration in filling the questionnaire please? For the teachers, the questionnaire can be done in their spare time. For the students, they can fill it in during one class period. The questionnaire should take no more than 30 - 40 minutes to complete. Let me know soon so that we can arrange a time with teachers and students for this survey in VET at the secondary school level in PNG. Thank you so much for your understanding. Daniel Leke (PhD Research Student)


383

3. LETTER FOR STUDENTS AND THEIR SURVEY

QUESTIONNAIRE

School of Education, Level 8 10 Pulteney Street, SA 5005

Tel: +61 8 8303 5892 Fax: +61 8 8303 3604

5th May 2008 Dear Student: My name is Daniel Leke, a Lecturer from the University of PNG. I am currently undertaking doctoral

studies in Education at the University of Adelaide, South Australia. I am interested to understand your

perceptions of vocational education and training (VET) at the secondary school level in Papua New

Guinea. Your school has been purposely selected amongst other schools, teachers and students to take

part in this survey. The broad aim of the study is to improve PNG’s vocational education and training

(VET) system at the secondary school level. Your input is vital to this survey.

All responses will be treated with confidentiality. No personal identification will be disclosed and while

information is requested about your school, this will only be used to compile school-wide results. Please

use this opportunity to provide honest feedback that can help shape the future vocational education

and training system in Papua New Guinea.

This questionnaire should take about 40 minutes to complete. After completing the questionnaire, please hand it to me. I would like to thank you for sharing your thoughts and opinions. Yours sincerely, Daniel K. Leke (Doctoral Research Student) Supervisors 1. Dr. Christine Velde (Principal Supervisor) School of Education, University of Adelaide, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA 5005; Ph: +61 8 83035561; Email: [email protected] 2. Professor R. Crotty (Co-Supervisor) School of Education, University of Adelaide, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA 5005; Ph. +61 8 830 26436, Email: [email protected]

Questionnaire survey: Students’ perceptions of VET in PNG


384

Questionnaire Survey for Students

Male Female (please tick) Part A. School levels, general academic and VET participation Q1. What is your current Grade level? Please tick appropriate box below.

Grade level a. Grade 9 b. Grade 10 c. Grade 11 d. Grade 12

Q2. Which of the following general academic and vocational education and training (VET) subject areas have you participated or are currently participating? Please circle only the numbers on the right that applies to you. General academic and VET subjects participated or currently participating

1.Not participated

2.Participated

3.Now participating


a. English 1 2 3 b. Mathematics 1 2 3 c. Chemistry 1 2 3 d. Physics 1 2 3 e. Biology 1 2 3 f. Economics 1 2 3 g. History 1 2 3 h. Geography 1 2 3 i. Commerce 1 2 3 Vocational Education and Training (VET) subject

j. Home Economics 1 2 3 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products 1 2 3 l. Agriculture/agro-culture 1 2 3 m. Building and Construction trades 1 2 3 n. Woodwork/furniture 1 2 3 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments 1 2 3 p. Electrical & Electronics 1 2 3 q. Art & Design/Technology 1 2 3 r. Dance & Music/Media 1 2 3 s. Computer Information Studies 1 2 3 t. Tourism & hospitality 1 2 3 u. Food/beverages processing 1 2 3 v. Mining and petroleum 1 2 3 w. Forestry management 1 2 3 x. Fisheries and marine resources 1 2 3 y. Small business management 1 2 3 z. Textile/Clothing 1 2 3

385

Q3. How important are the following items of reasons when deciding whether or not to participate VET courses? Please circle an appropriate number from 1 - 4 scale for each item below. Importance of the reasons for participating VET courses

Not Neither Important Don’t important important nor know unimportant

a. Credit towards College/University 1 2 3 4 b. Interesting VET subjects 1 2 3 4 c. Further study and job opportunities 1 2 3 4 d. Parents’ wishes 1 2 3 4 e. School advice/career guidance services 1 2 3 4 f. New apprentice opportunity 1 2 3 4 g. A recognized qualification 1 2 3 4 h. Flexible study options 1 2 3 4 i. Industry knowledge & practical experience 1 2 3 4 j. Convenient locations 1 2 3 4 k. Quality of teaching staff 1 2 3 4 l. Costs of VET courses

1 2 3 4

Q4. Do you agree or disagree with the following statements about VET? Please circle an appropriate number from scale 1 - 4 for each item below. Agreement or disagreement about VET

Disagree Neither agree Agree Don’t nor disagree know


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4

f. VET uses a hands-on approach 1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4

Part B: Perceptions of VET

386

Q5. How important are the following VET employability skills and personal attributes for your future careers? Please circle an appropriate number from scale 1 to 4 for each item below. Employability skills required for future careers

Not important

Slightly important

Important Very important

a. Communication 1 2 3 4 b. Teamwork 1 2 3 4 c. Problem Solving 1 2 3 4 d. Initiative and Enterprise 1 2 3 4 e. Planning and organizing 1 2 3 4 f. Self management 1 2 3 4 g. Ongoing Learning 1 2 3 4 h. Information Technology 1 2 3 4 Personal attributes

i. Loyalty 1 2 3 4 j. Commitment 1 2 3 4 k. Honesty and integrity 1 2 3 4 l. Enthusiasm 1 2 3 4 m. Reliability 1 2 3 4 n. Balanced attitude to work and home life

1 2 3 4

o. Motivation 1 2 3 4 p. Personal presentation 1 2 3 4 q. Common sense 1 2 3 4 r. Positive self-esteem 1 2 3 4 s. Sense of humour 1 2 3 4 t. Ability to deal with pressure 1 2 3 4 u. Adaptability 1 2 3 4 Q6. Statements below are about teacher effectiveness. Please circle a number from 1 to 4 to indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement about teacher effectiveness. Go on your first reaction to each statement. Teacher effectiveness Strongly

disagree disagree agree Strongly

agree a. Teachers are very clear in explaining why it is important for students to be learning certain employability competencies/attributes

1

2

3

4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4

Part C: Importance of VET employability skills and attributes, teaching effectiveness and general academic and VET course developments

387

Q7. How often have the following people been in influencing your study and career decisions (pathways)? Please circle an appropriate number from scale 1 - 4 for each item below. People influencing your study and career pathways

Don’t Often Most often Don’t know know

a. Parents/guardians 1 2 3 4

b. Friends and peer opinions 1 2 3 4

c. Class teachers 1 2 3 4

d. Career advisors/counsellors 1 2 3 4

e. Employers/prospective employers 1 2 3 4


1 2 3 4

Part D: Student perceptions of general academic and VET course preferences Q8. Please circle one number from scale 1 – 4 for each item below to indicate your level of general academic and VET course preferences. (1 = No preference; 2 = Low preference; 3 = Some preference; 4 = High preference) General academic and VET course preferences

No preference Low preference

Some preference

High preference

General academic course preferences

a. English 1 2 3 4 b. Mathematics 1 2 3 4 c. Chemistry 1 2 3 4 d. Physics 1 2 3 4 e. Biology 1 2 3 4 f. Economics 1 2 3 4 g. History 1 2 3 4 h. Geography 1 2 3 4 i. Commerce 1 2 3 4 Vocational Education and Training (VET) course preferences

j. Health & nutrition 1 2 3 4 k. Fabricated metal work 1 2 3 4 l. Agriculture/agro- culture/landscaping

1 2 3 4

m. Building and Construction trades

1 2 3 4

n. Woodwork/furniture 1 2 3 4 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments

1 2 3 4

p. Electrical & Electronics 1 2 3 4 q. Art & Design 1 2 3 4 r. Dance & Music 1 2 3 4 s. Computer Information Studies 1 2 3 4 t. Tourism & hospitality 1 2 3 4 u. Food/beverages processing 1 2 3 4 v. Mining and petroleum 1 2 3 4 w. Forestry management 1 2 3 4 x. Fisheries and marine resources 1 2 3 4 y. Small business management 1 2 3 4 z. Textile/Clothing 1 2 3 4 Thank you so much for completing this questionnaire. Once you’ve completed the questionnaire, please hand it to me.

388

4. LETTER FOR TEACHERS AND THEIR SURVEY

QUESTIONNAIRE

School of Education, 245 North Terrace, SA 5005 Tel: +61 8 8303 5892

Fax: +61 8 8303 3604

27th April 2008 Dear Teacher:

My name is Daniel Leke, a Lecturer from the University of PNG. I am currently undertaking doctoral

studies in Education at the University of Adelaide, South Australia. I am interested to understand your

perceptions of vocational education and training (VET) at the secondary school level in Papua New

Guinea. Your school has been purposely selected amongst other schools, teachers and students to take

part in this survey. The broad aim of the study is to improve PNG’s vocational education and training

(VET) system at the secondary school level. Your input is vital to this survey.


information is requested about your school, this will only be used to compile school-wide results. Please

use this opportunity to provide honest feedback that can help shape the future vocational education

and training system in Papua New Guinea.

This questionnaire should take about 40 minutes to complete. After completing the questionnaire,

please hand it to me.

I would like to thank you for sharing your thoughts and opinions.

Yours sincerely,

Daniel K. Leke (Doctoral Research Student)

Supervisors

1. Dr. Christine Velde (Principal Supervisor) School of Education, University of Adelaide, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA 5005; Ph: +61 8 83035561; Email: [email protected] 2. Professor R. Crotty (Co-Supervisor) School of Education, University of Adelaide, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA 5005; Ph. +61 8 830 26436, Email: [email protected]

Questionnaire survey: Secondary school teachers’ perceptions of VET in Papua New Guinea


389

TEACHER SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

Secondary/High School:____________________________________ Male Female (Please tick) Title/position:_____________________________________________________ Telephone:_____________________ Email:________________________(optional) Part A: School Type, Level of Students and Teaching Experiences Q1. What type of school are you teaching in? (please tick )

a. Government or state school b. Church/mission-run school c. Independent or private school d. Others

Q2. What is the level of students that you teach most often per week? (Please tick one level only)

Grade levels Grade(s) you teach most often

No. of hours per week

Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12

Q3. How many years have you been teaching in your current school and in other schools?

Years of teaching No. of teaching years a. Current school

b. Other schools

Total years of teaching

390

Q4. Which general academic or VET course(s) have you mainly taught or currently teaching? (Please tick appropriate box on the right).


Tick appropriate box

a. English b. Mathematics c. Chemistry d. Physics e. Biology f. Economics g. History h. Geography i. Commerce Vocational Education and Training (VET) subject

j. Home Economics k. Fabricated metal/non-metal products l. Agriculture/agro-culture m. Building and Construction trades n. Woodwork/furniture o. Automotive mechanics/equipments p. Electrical & Electronics q. Art & Design/Media r. Dance & Music s. Computer Information Studies t. Tourism & hospitality u. Food/beverages processing v. Mining and petroleum w. Forestry management x. Fisheries and marine resources y. Small business management z. Textile/Clothing

391

Q5. For each general academic and VET course, indicate which people (course instructors from your school, educators, i.e. curriculum developers from the national/provincial education offices, business/ industry, i.e. people who provide VET) are involved in developing or adopting the specified courses. Involvement may not be the same for all general and VET courses. Please circle only one number in each row that applies to an area of general academic and VET course currently being taught at your school. General academic and VET Courses General academic subjects

Done exclusively by individual course instructors

Done exclusively by group(s) of educators

Done primarily by educators with industry support

Done with about equal educator & industry input

Done exclusively by industry

a. English 1 2 3 4 5 b. Mathematics 1 2 3 4 5 c. Chemistry 1 2 3 4 5 d. Physics 1 2 3 4 5 e. Biology 1 2 3 4 5 f. Economics 1 2 3 4 5 g. History 1 2 3 4 5 h. Geography 1 2 3 4 5 i. Commerce 1 2 3 4 5 VET subject j. Home Economics 1 2 3 4 5 k. Fabricated metal/non-metal prod.

1 2 3 4 5

l. Agriculture 1 2 3 4 5 m. Building and Construction trades

1 2 3 4 5

n. Woodwork/furniture 1 2 3 4 5 o. Automotive mechanics/equipments

1 2 3 4 5

p. Electrical & electronics

1 2 3 4 5

q. Art & Design/Media 1 2 3 4 5 r. Dance & Music 1 2 3 4 5 s. Computer Information

1 2 3 4 5

t. Tourism/hospitality 1 2 3 4 5 u. Food/beverages processing

1 2 3 4 5

v. Mining and petroleum

1 2 3 4 5

w. Forestry management

1 2 3 4 5

x. Fisheries and marine resources

1 2 3 4 5

y. Small business management

1 2 3 4 5

z. Textile/Clothing 1 2 3 4 5

Part B: Personnel involvement in course development and delivery mechanisms

Personnel involvement in general academic and VET courses

392

Q6: VET course development and delivery mechanisms How have the following areas of VET been developed and delivered in your school program? (Please tick one column on the right for each VET course that your school has been involved in).If no VET has been taught at your school, please tick VET not being taught. Areas of VET

VET course in schools with workplace learning (integrated curriculum, school based apprenticeships in partnerships with business/industry)

Stand alone VET course at school (not accredited towards senior school certificate

VET delivery at secondary school without workplace learning attachments

VET course delivered only at Post-secondary school level with work attachments

VET not being taught

a. Agriculture/horticulture b. Building, construction & hardware

c. Manufacturing d. Transportation e. Water supply f. Business development (entrepreneurship)

g. Food industry h. Healthcare i. Hotels/restaurants j. Eco-tourism development

k. Retail trade l. Financial services (banking/insurance)

m. Real estate n. Tourism & hospitality o. Information Technology p. Telecommunication industry

q. Technical/Automotive services

r. Material supplies & logistics

s. Electrical services t. Electronic services u. Mining & petroleum v. Forestry w. Fisheries & Marine resources

x. Land management y. Business Communication

z. Others (specify

393

Part C: Perceptions of employability skills and attributes included in general academic and VET courses Q7. Below is a list of employability skills and attributes. Think about the major

course you are currently teaching. Please indicate whether the course includes general academic and VET employability competencies/attributes. (Please circle a number from 1 – 4 for each employability competency/attribute)

Employability skills and attributes included in general academic and VET courses

Not included

Slightly included

Mostly included

Fully included


0%

25%

50%

100%



1 2 3 4

o. Motivation 1 2 3 4 p. Personal presentation 1 2 3 4 q. Common sense 1 2 3 4 r. Positive self-esteem 1 2 3 4 s. Sense of humour 1 2 3 4 t. Ability to deal with pressure 1 2 3 4 u. Adaptability 1 2 3 4

394

Q8. Below are a series of statements. Please circle a number from scale 1 to 4 to indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement. Answer according to your first reaction to the statement. If you do not have an opinion about a statement, or the statement is not relevant to your current role, then please leave the item out. Perceptions of VET employability skills and attributes Strongly

disagree Disagree Agree Strongly

agree a. I believe I am very clear in explaining why it is important to learn employability skills and attributes

1 2 3 4

b. Students understand how the assessment is being used to test their knowledge in VET courses and VET employability skills and attributes

1 2 3 4

c. Students should learn specific employability skills and attributes that they believe are relevant to the job or industry they want to work in

1 2 3 4

d. Students should learn a broad set of employability skills and attributes that will allow them to change jobs or industries

1 2 3 4

e. Our school training package clearly describes the general academic and VET employability skills and attributes

1 2 3 4

f. Our school training package is helping to produce graduates who are highly employable in a range of jobs in different industries

1 2 3 4

g. There are guidelines in our school training package that help me assess employability skills and attributes development in my students

1 2 3 4

Thank you so much for completing this questionnaire. Please hand it to me as soon as it is completed.

395

5. LETTER FOR BUSINESS/INDUSTRY PERSONNEL AND

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

School of Education, Level 8 10 Pulteney Street, SA 5005

Tel: +61 8 8303 5892 Fax: +61 8 8303 3604

5th May 2008 Dear Sir/Madam:

My name is Daniel Leke, a Lecturer from the University of PNG. I am currently undertaking doctoral studies

in Education at the University of Adelaide, South Australia. I am interested to understand your perceptions of

vocational education and training (VET) at the secondary school level in Papua New Guinea. Your industry

or organization has been randomly selected amongst a number of others to take part in this survey. The broad

aim of the study is to improve PNG’s VET system at the secondary school level. Your input is vital to this

survey.


information is requested about your business, this will only be used to compile industry-wide results. Please

use this opportunity to provide honest feedback that can help shape the future vocational education and

training system in Papua New Guinea.

This questionnaire should take about 20 minutes to complete. After completing the questionnaire, please mail

it to the address given below in the reply paid envelope.

Daniel K. Leke, Centre for Research & Postgraduate Studies, University of Papua New Guinea , P.O. Box 320, University, NCD. Papua New Guinea

I would like to thank you for sharing your thoughts and opinions.

Yours sincerely,

Daniel K. Leke (Doctoral Research Student)

Supervisors

1. Dr. Christine Velde (Principal Supervisor) School of Education, University of Adelaide, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA 5005; Ph: +61 8 83035561; Email: [email protected] 2. Professor R. Crotty (Co-Supervisor) School of Education, University of Adelaide, Level 8, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA 5005; Ph. +61 8 830 26436, Email: [email protected]

Questionnaire survey: Business/industry perceptions of VET in PNG

UNIVERSITY OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA Centre for Research & Postgraduate

Studies, PO Box 320, UNIVERSITY, NCD

396

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BUSINESS/INDUSTRY

PERSONNEL

Business/organization name:_____________________________________ Male Female Please tick Your position held:____________________________________________________ Part A: Business/industry sector and employability skills and attributes Q1. In which sector does your company/organization mainly operate? (Please choose one (1) sector only, where most of your activity takes place and tick on the right box)? No. Name of Business/Industry Sector Tick a Accounting, Management and Legal Services b Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Industry c Automotive/Motor Vehicles Suppliers & Services d Aviation & Air Services e Banking, Finance and Insurance f Chambers of Commerce g Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Suppliers h Information Technology & Telecommunication i Construction Suppliers & Services j Educational & Training Services k Entertainment, Amusement & Recreational Services l Food Products and Beverages Industry m Forestry, Logging, and Timber Products n Freighting, Customs & Transportation o Garment, Textile and Fashion p General Engineering/ Fabricated Metal Products and Machinery q General Importers and Exporters r General Wholesale and Retailing s Government Departments & Organizations t Hospitality, Hotel and Tourism u Marine & Shipping Suppliers & Services v Media, Marketing, Advertising and Signage w Mining and Petroleum Industry x Office Equipment, Supplies and Services y Real Estate, Auctioneers, and Properties z Security, Protection and Safety Services

397

Q2. How important are the following employability skills and personal attributes you would seek from new secondary school graduates? (Please indicate your degree of importance by circling: 1 = Not so important; 2 = Important; 3 = Very important; 4 = Not applicable)


Not so important

Important Very important

Not applicable



1 2 3 4

o. Motivation 1 2 3 4 p. Personal presentation 1 2 3 4 q. Common sense 1 2 3 4 r. Positive self-esteem 1 2 3 4 s. Sense of humour 1 2 3 4 t. Ability to deal with pressure 1 2 3 4 u. Adaptability 1 2 3 4

398

Part B: Industry/business perceptions of employability skills/attributes and VET training programs Q3. Please circle the extent to which you agree with the following statements. (1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Agree; 4 = Strongly agree). Employability skills/attributes and degrees of agreement

Strongly disagree

Disagree Agree Strongly agree

a. High school graduates generally have the appropriate employability skills/ attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

1

2

3

4

b. Post-secondary graduates generally have the appropriate employability skills/attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

1 2 3 4

c. Other TAFE/Tertiary graduates have generally the appropriate employability skills/attributes to be effective in the position that they were hired for.

1 2 3 4

Q4. Employability skills training programs for new employees: (Please indicate with a tick the employability skills training programs offered for new employees) a. My company or organization offers a employability skills training program for new employees (If NO, go on to b)

Yes No

i. [If YES in a] What type of employability skills training program do you offer? (Please outline briefly on the space provided on the right)

ii. [If YES in a] Do you have a person specialized in coordinating and assessing your company’s or organization’s employability skills training needs for your new employees?

Yes No

Please answer this if your response for choice a above is NO. Tick one box only that applies to your organization b. Why does your company/organization not offer any employability skills training program for new employees?

� Lack of time or resources to conduct training � New employees are skilled already � Number of new employees is small � Training is done in other PNG VET/ technical colleges or universities

399

Q5. Business/industry’s level of interest to participate in VET training/ apprenticeship programs at various Education levels in PNG. Please tick a number on the right that corresponds to the industry sector that you would be interested in participating. Note: For some reason your organization has no intention of participating in any VET or apprenticeship program, please tick “Not applicable” column. Year/institutional level of interest to participate in VET

Years 9 - 10 level only

Years 11 – 12 level only

All years 9 – 12 levels only

Post-secondary/ /college/ university levels only

Not applicable

a. Accounting, Management and Legal Services

1 2 3 4 5

b. Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Industry

1 2 3 4 5

c. Automotive Suppliers & Services 1 2 3 4 5 d. Aviation & Air Services 1 2 3 4 5 e. Banking, Finance and Insurance 1 2 3 4 5 f. Chemical, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Suppliers

1 2 3 4 5

g. Computers & Telecommunication 1 2 3 4 5 h. Construction Suppliers & Services 1 2 3 4 5 i. Health, Educational & Training Services

1 2 3 4 5

j. Entertainment, Amusement & Recreational Services

1 2 3 4 5

k. Food and Beverages Industry 1 2 3 4 5 l. Forestry, Logging, and Timber Products

1 2 3 4 5

m. Freighting, Customs & Transportation

1 2 3 4 5

n. Garment, Textile and Fashion 1 2 3 4 5 o. General Engineering 1 2 3 4 5 p. General Import and Export services 1 2 3 4 5 q. General Wholesale and Retailing 1 2 3 4 5 r. Hospitality, Hotel and Tourism 1 2 3 4 5 s. Marine & Shipping Suppliers & Services

1 2 3 4 5

t. Marketing, Advertising and Signage 1 2 3 4 5 u. Mining and Petroleum Industry 1 2 3 4 5 v. Office Equipment, Supplies and Services

1 2 3 4 5

w. Real Estate, Auctioneers, and Properties

1 2 3 4 5

x. Security, Protection and Safety Services

1 2 3 4 5

THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE IN COMPLETING THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

Part C: Business/industry perceptions on VET training/ apprenticeship program participation in PNG

400

6. LETTER FOR POLICY-MAKERS/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

AND INTERVIEW QUESTIONS


Tel: +61 8 8303 5892 Fax: +61 8 8303 3604

5th May 2008 ....................................................................................... ………………………………………………………….. Waigani, NCD. Papua New Guinea Dear Sir/Madam, Request for your participation in an interview on vocational education and training: My name is Daniel Leke, a Lecturer from the University of PNG. I am currently studying

for my PhD in Education at the School of Education, University of Adelaide, South

Australia. I am interested to understand the stakeholders’ perceptions of vocational

education and training (VET) at the secondary school level in Papua New Guinea.

The objective of this study is to investigate the characteristics of a vocational education

and training program model at the secondary school level which would address potential

under-skilled student transition problem in PNG.

Could you therefore, spare between 20 – 40 minutes of your time to take part in a recorded Interview please? Let me know soon so that we can arrange a time that suits you for this interview on VET at

the secondary school level in PNG.

Thank you so much for your understanding.

Daniel Leke (PhD Research Student)


401

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR POLICY-MAKERS/SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

Education Officers:

Date of interview: ______________________

� Place of interview: ___________________________________

� Position: _______________________________________

� Gender: ___________ A. Student Enrolment/School Leaver Trend and VET Performance

1. Describe the current secondary school enrolments and school leaver trend (or situation) in

PNG? How do you see a number of students enrol and leaver secondary school each year?

Any idea on that?

2. How is the current VET or TVET program performing at the secondary school level performing in PNG?

What would be the number of those students who are ending up in those schools?

B. Teaching Employability Skills and Community Participation in VET 3. Explain whether the current VET program is meeting the employability skills needs of

students at secondary school level?

4. Describe ways in which the local community and business/industry could participate with secondary schools in their VET programs?

Currently, is there any arrangement in place for such industry linkage programs?

C. Assessment, Accreditation, Teacher Training and Set-backs

5. How would VET subjects and VET skills and attributes be assessed and accredited?

6. How best should teachers of VET be trained? What implications does the VET curriculum

have for:

a. Pre-Service teacher training?

402

b. Professional development of existing teachers?

Most of these teachers teach students from what level? TVET both lower and Upper Secondary

7. Describe any achievements and difficulties currently faced in the secondary and post-secondary school VET sector?

Any further information?

Thank you so much for your time in providing the required feedback information.

Secondary School Principals’ Perceptions on VET in PNG:

� Gender: __________________

� Secondary School: __________________

� Position: ______________________________

� Years of Experience: ___________________________ A. VET Subjects, Teaching Levels and Teacher Qualifications

1. Which VET subjects are currently included in your school program?

2. At what level (Grades) are these VET subjects being offered?

3. Describe the backgrounds and abilities of teachers who teach these VET subjects:

� Number of teachers taking these VET subjects? � Their qualifications � Their effectiveness in teaching VET subjects

4. To what extent do you think are those VET subjects included in your school program

sufficiently meeting employment skills of students?

B. School Apprenticeships, Industry Collaboration and Benefits 5. Does the school have any apprenticeship programs?

� Describe how these apprenticeship programs have been arranged?

403

6. Has there been any collaborative learning arrangement in place with any business/industry

with your school?

� Which particular business/industry got involved?

� What ways has this collaboration been successful

C. VET Assessment, Accreditation, Teacher Training, Problems and Future Directions

7. How does your school:

� Assess VET subjects?

� Accredit VET subjects?

8. Can you tell me something about VET teacher training and recruiting?

9. Has there been any problem you have faced in managing the current VET program at your

school?

� How could these problems be resolved?

10. What are some of the relevant industry programs that need to be added to the current VET

program at your school?

Any other information you would like to share? Thank you so much for your time to express your views on VET for PNG.

404

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