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Data collection methodsdeepa

Introduction Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon under studyPrimary and secondary data

InterviewQuestioningObservationBio physiological measurementsPsychosocial measurement scalesRecord analysis

CONCEPTData collection involves gathering relevant data in order to achieve an answer to the problem stated. There are various methods of data collection which can be used by the investigator depending upon the nature of study undertaken.

PURPOSES OF DATA COLLECTIONidentify variables/factsmeasure variable/ phenomenadescribe behaviour obtain empirical evidence (objective, reliable, valid)

Data is meaningless as by itself it does not explain or cause change, information does. Therefore, the aim of gathering and summarizing data is to transform this into information in order to:

FIVE Ws OF DATA COLLECTIONWhat data to collect? (Consideration on type of data)From whom data is to be collectedWho will collect dataFrom where the data will be collectedWhen is the data to be collected

The number of data to be collected will depend on: Type of studyHypothesis to be testedNumber of variables Type of statistical computationIn an experimental study the number will also be determined by the number of experimental and control groups. One needs also to consider the method of administration, the nature of treatment and the schedule.

SOURCES OF DATADocumentary- primary and secondary Field sourcesInclude living persons who have a fund of knowledge about or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and changes over a considerable period of time. These people are in a position to describe not only the existing state of affairs but also the observable trends and significant milestones in a social process.

HISTORICAL DATAThese consist of documents and various historical sources to which the historian himself has access.Materials of cultural history and analytical history. Personal sources of authentic observers and witnesses.These can be oral, written evidence, artifacts etc.

Historical data is a combination of primary & secondary and field sources.

Methods and toolsMethods- steps or strategiesTechnique- means of gathering data with the use of specific tools that are used in given methodsInstrument/ tools- instrument is a device used to measure the concept that researcher uses to collect data

TECHNIQUES AND TOOLSObservation Observation check list (structured unstructured)Rating scales, anecdotes Machineries, i.e. Video tape/ Films, electrocardiogram, closed circuit T.V.anecdotesTOOLSInstrument procedure TECHNIQUESMethod of collecting data

Questioning- self report

Questionnaire,opinionnaire, Attitude ScaleTests on psychomotor skills Standardized toolsPhysiological measurements.

Biophysical measurements.

Interview

In vivoIn vitroPhysical measurements e.g. temperatureChemical measurements- e.g. hormone, sugar Microbiological measurements-e.g. bacterial count Interview Schedule

Record Analysis (Content)Others

Computer assisted measurement

Q sorts projective techniques & Vignettes

Selection of methods of data collectionNature of phenomenon under studyType of research subjectsType of research studyPurposeSize of sampleDistribution of target populationTime frame of studyLiteracy level of the subjectsAvailability of resources and manpowerResearchers knowledge level and competence

Criteria of evaluation/ assessment of collection methodsAccuracy and completenessCompatibility with educational level, socio cultural values and beliefsIn accordance with nature of phenomenon, purpose, time frame and resources

RECORD ANALYSISRecords are compilation of writings and figures that individuals have collected. Records are a valuable and lucrative source of nursing research data.Records are ever-present source of material.Records are found everywhere in homes, offices, places of leisure, hospitals, museum (Relics & artifacts), personal diaries and letters, speeches, Articles, documents etc.Records are available in every department, institution, organizations & Individuals.Data sources may be primary or secondary.

INTRODUCTION

ADVANTAGESRecords are unbiased collected.Records cover a long period of times, therefore research can discover events and trends.Records are inexpensive. All available at one time. Records are convenient & time saving and available in their pure form, complied in neat and orderly fashioned. Records provide readily available data.Researcher can not bias the subjects as the records have been already collected.

Existence of large quantity of records allows researcher a considerable choice of data.Data are obtained by an unobtrusive method Records can provide personal information about subjects, beliefs, attitudes and feelings concerning the topic of interest. Records dont rely on recall but were recorded when they occurred.

DISADVANTAGESAmount of information is limited to what is available. Researcher can not get more data as subjects are not present. If record is incomplete, no way to complete it. No one sure under which conditions data were collected. Was more than one person involved in compilation? How careful they were to handle facts & figures. No assurance of accuracy of the records,People who presented the original records were not aware whether it would be used for research. Therefore, researcher has to admit any error into the study that was built in the original records.

Some serious draw backs may be there in data recording. For e.g. the person who recorded the data may not have recorded adequately. Search for very old records and extracting information from records may be time consuming. Requesting people who are not involved in the research work to provide records, may be intrusion into their work schedule.

PROBLEMSPermission has to be sought from concerned People to study records.Difficult to trace if not kept in order & well organised. Authorities/ Concerned people/ Officer may not like their records to be disturbed for the fear of misplacing, pulling out information (loss of paper from files)Organisation/ Institution may not like anyone to go through their pvt. Files other than selected individuals.

Researcher will require help to retrieve the data.Researcher may require interpretation of records (Meaning of words, symbols, figures etc) Records research may be a disagreeable task as records are stored in basements, stores, boxes etc. Seems difficult to locate & find records for the period needed. Another problem with records is item equivalency. Are records based on same criteria ? Records from two institutions may not have data on a particular variable in the same manner.

Some records are seldom used after their compilation. People who compiled might have died or left the institution or moved away. So value of such records is forgotten and for all practical purposes they are lost. Organizations may give permission to use records provided a copy of final research report is given to them. It is important to maintain anonymity, privacy, truth and accuracy and a consideration for the personal preferences of the individuals involved.

GUIDELINES IN USE OF RECORDSBoth primary & secondary sources of data can be used. Prefer primary sourceEssential to establish authenticity, accuracy, validity & reliability of data sources (external and internal criticism)

QUESTIONNAIREMost common research instrument It is a paper-pencil approach to data collectionCan be used with some other tools too in a single study Comprised of a series of questions that are filled in by all subjects in the sample.May be distributed to subjects in the classroom, on the streets, on campus, home or at work;Can be mailed to those who live in a large geographical area as it is expensive and time consuming to reach individuals directly.

PURPOSESTo elicit information from subjects to supplement findings Explore a new topic Assess knowledge, attitude, practices, beliefs, opinions & feelings.

ADVANTAGESRelatively simple method of collecting data. Items can be constructed easily by beginning researcher. Rapid and efficient method of gathering data Collect data from a widely scattered population Inexpensive to distributeEasy to tabulate data from close ended items Respondents can remain anonymous Simple procedure to explore a new topic Easiest tool to test for validity & reliability

Questionnaire can be flexible concerning type of item, order of items and topics covered by the researcher. Subjects have time to contemplate their response to each questionMeasurement is enhanced because all subjects respond to the same questions.Easy accomplishment of data analysis and interpretation.

DISADVANTAGESInability to probe a topic in-depth unless the questionnaire is lengthy.Respondents may omit or disregard any item that they choose without giving any explanation Some items may force subjects to choose response that are not their actual choice (Forced-choice items).Amount of information gathered is limited by subjects time & interest span. Usually people dont like to take more than 25 minutes to answer a questionnaire. (Length of questionnaire should not be more than 60 minutes/ one Hour)

Printing may be costly if questionnaire lengthy and printed on good quality of paper.Addressing outside envelops and postage are time consuming and expensive respectively.Data are limited to information given voluntarily by the subject. Not all subjects comply with request to participate Some items may be misunderstood.Questionnaire use limited to literate. Subjects non-verbal cues cannot be observed.

it is impossible to know who returned the questionnaires in case follow up is needed.Special efforts must be made to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire.Researcher has no opportunity to interact with respondents.Subjects can express their views/opinions better while speaking than writing.

Types of QuestionnaireClose Ended (fixed Alternatives)Open Ended.

Close EndedAfter questions respondents are given a number of alternatives to either mark a Yes or No, check an item from list of suggested responses.Items may be forced choice type e.g. Do you still beat your wife? YesAdvantage : Easy to fill, tabulate, analyze and data suited many statistical analysis.Disadvantage: Limited to specific topic to be answered in a specific way.

Open Ended QuestionsHave no choices from which respondents select their response. Respondent must Create their response.

Example: Why did you choose to take your graduate work at this university?Advantage : Stimulate thought, solicit suggestions, probe peoples memories.

Disadvantage: Not suited for mailed questionnaire

- Difficult to construct meaningful variables for statistical analysis.- Analysis is often problematic and time consuming

Partially closed ended questions provide a compromiseThough answer choices provided, but subjects have the option of creating their own response.

Example :For what reasons did you retire before the age of58?(i) Health reasons (ii) desire for more free time(iii) Was assured of more than adequate income(iv) Please list as many other reasons as you can think of.

Factors to consider

Methods of questionnaire administration

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Framing QuestionsQuestion Content based on researchers aims, concepts under study.Question Wording - Clarity - Ability of respondents to reply- Bias- Handling sensitive or personal information.

Response Alternatives:- Select appropriate response alternatives,- Ordering responses rationally- Response length Not too lengthy as it is inefficient and cumbersome to read detailed replies.

Organization Plan question sequence (order of question and schedule format)- Items should relate to topic

- Items organized into units- Questions to be specific.- Items to elicit demographic data.- Schedule format questionnaire schedule affects the accuracy of the response. Formats that are easy to follow and pleasing to the eye are completed by respondents.

Introduction and Instructions:

- State the nature and purpose of the study in introduction.- Why the subjects are being questioned.- Directions for respondents to respond.- Confidentiality and anonymity should be assured.

- Personal data Age, Sex, Education.- Back ground data Family income, occupation, living environment etc.- Content Knowledge, opinion, belief, attitude etc. - Acknowledging participation.

Writing Good QuestionsUse words that are simple, direct and familiar to all.Question Clear and SpecificDefine or quality the term that can be easily be misinterpreted.Avoid double barreled questions. Do you think that students should have more classes about history and culture?Beware of double negatives (Are you against not allowing nurses to strike?)Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasis.e.g. should all schools offer a modern foreign language?

Avoid questions that are leading or suggest the expected answer.e.g. you dont approve of strikes, do you?Be sure alternatives are enough and appropriate.Reason for asking personal question should be given.Problem words lead to confusion in subjects mind. e.g. How many patients did you care for last week?

Administration of QuestionnaireSelf administered:- Individual / Group administration- Maximizes the return rate.- Allow researcher to clarify any doubts while responding.Mailing distribution Mailed to respondents with a request letter.Advantage : Can cover large widely scattered population

Disadvantage: Some items may need clarification- Completion rate tend to be low- Low returns- Monitoring return.

Acceptable response rate- 50% Adequate- 60% Good-70% or more is very good.

Follow up Mailing Provides stimuli for responding- Three mailings seem the most efficient.- Timing of follow up (2 -3 weeks is a reasonable space between mailings).- Sending follow up letters.

Interview Technique of Data CollectionSecond most common method of data collectionFace to face interpersonal role situation.Interview schedule structured, semi-structured, unstructured.Interview schedule is an oral questionnaire that is read to the respondent by the researcher whereas interview guide provides ideas but allows the interviewer freedom to pursue topics in depth.Interviewer has an ability to control over the level of questioning

AdvantagesData from each interview are usable, whereas not true for each questionnaire returned.In-depth data can be obtained, since researcher can pursue any question of special interest.Interview offers protection against ambiguous or confusing questions.Respondents are less likely to give dont know responses or leave a question unanswered FlexibilityPermit greater control over the sample

Suitable for probing complex situations and sensitive issues.Higher proportion of responses are obtained from potential respondents.Saves interviewees time as she/he doesnt have to go through the process of returning the instrument.

Useful for both literate & illiterates and also broader group of individuals i.e. young children, blind, very elderly etc.Face to face interviews have an advantage in their ability to produce additional data through observation (non-verbal)Telephones/videos may be used for soliciting some types of interview data, especially when time period for gathering information is short.

Disadvantages It is time consuming and costlyRapport and interpersonal relationships are important aspect of this technique. Therefore, element of bias can be from both interviewer and interviewee.Interviewer usually has little or no choice in the data or place of the interviewDifficult to make a comparison of data collected by one interviewers with another unless a rigid procedure is followed. In large research projects, training of interviewers adds to the expense of the project

When more than one interviewer collect data of a study, the influence of personal bias of interviewers may affect objectivity.Recording may be biased, incomplete or selective

Conducting the InterviewInterviews can be conducted byFace to face meetingTelephonicallyVideo-recordingConduct in a quiet peaceful atmosphereSubject to be seated in a comfortable positionSubject should be informed before hand as to how much time interview will take.

Recording of responses should be done simultaneously. Sometimes with subjects permission, interviewer may record responses by use of tape recorder/video recording.Ofcourse experience of writing in shorthand is useful.Interviewer must ask the questions in a similar fashion throughout the data gathering process.

Build Rapport with the interviewee by Introducing self,Nature and purpose of studyAsk permission to interviewCreate a friendly and pleasant atmosphere for the subjectsAssure interviewees anonymity and confidentiality of responses Request for frank opinions/feeling etc.Should not pressure the individual to answer. They should be told they need not answer embarrassing questions if they dont wish to do so.

Problems Ineffective procedure for obtaining actual behaviour patternsSome interviewees may have faulty memories and either can not remember a certain fact or guess what seems to be a reasonable answer.Subjects may give answers which is representative of a group rather than their own ideasPresence of interviewer may influence the subjects, so that they answer questions differently than they would if filling a questionnaire

Sample mortality. (Not everyone in the expected sample may be present)Some respondents may not be qualified to answer some questions asked to them. May not recognize their own problems.Respondents get nervous seeing their responses being written.Time is lost, when interviewer has to record responses. In haste, he may make some mechanical mistake.

Interviewee may lose his train of thoughts while waiting the interviewer to finish writing the last response. Thus some data may be lost.Interviewer is likely to overlook/become unaware of non-verbal cues while getting busy with interview guide or schedule.

OBSERVATION TECHNIQUEIt is one of the basic and oldest method to gather data Is systematically planned and recorded. It is a technique to acquire information through occurrence that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices. It is a two part process i.e. someone is observing and there is something to observe (observer; observed)

Four Broad Questions in observationWhat should be observed?How should observation be recorded ?What procedures should be used to try to assure the accuracy of observation ?What relationship should exist between the observer and the observed, and how can such relationship be established?

Phenomena Amenable to ObservationCharacteristics and conditions of individuals Peoples attributes, status, Physiological conditions (Through senses and apparatus)Verbal communication behaviour linguistic behaviour, content & structure of conversation, entire process of social interaction. Non-verbal communication behaviour Facial expressions, touch posture, gesture, body movements, Linguistic behaviour manner of speaking, loudness, continuity of speech

Activities Peoples behaviour that communicates overt state. Actions indicative of health status Physical and emotional functioning; study of activities of health personnel etc. Skill attainment and Performance- Nursing skills- Procedures, Techniques.Environmental characteristics/Attributes noise levels, cleanliness, ventilation, odour, water supply, mosquito breeding, Infrastructure.

Units of ObservationTwo basic approaches for making decision concerning what constitutes a unit. Molar Approach Observation of large units of behaviour and treating them as a whole. (Study of psychiatric patients swings in verbal & non verbal behaviour on one hand and passive behaviour on the other hand.Molecular Approach Observation of small and highly specific behaviour e.g. observation of each movement, gesture, action & treating each action separately or perhaps breaking it further into smaller units.

Approaches

Types Structured interviewUnstructured interviewSemi structured interviewIn depth interviewFocused group interviewTelephone interview

Interviewing processPreparation for interviewPre interview introductionDeveloping rapportCarrying the interview forwardRecording the interviewClosing the interview

Observation methodsUnstructured observation is made to provide as complete and non-selective a description as possible of an event or behaviour observed. Techniques used for unstructured method of observation :-Participant observation involves researcher to participate in the functioning of social group under investigation. Researcher attempts not to interject his views & meaning into the social situation under observation.

Unstructured observation methodProvides rich and deep understanding of human behaviour.Observer bias and influence are prominent difficulties Memory distortions represent another possible source of inaccuracy.

Log and field notesAnecdotesField diariesVideo and tape recording

Logs, Field Notes, AnecdotesLogs is a record of events & conversation, maintained on daily basis. Field Notes include daily log but tend to be much broader, more analytic and include more interpretation than mere listing of occurrences. Essential to record simultaneously because of memory failure.Anecdotes Focus on behaviour of particular interest. Anecdote typically selects specific kind of events and behaviours for observation before hand. Observer objectively and accurately records the observation.

Structured ObservationExcellent method of data collection. Indicates presence or absence of pre-specified behaviour / attribute.More subjects can be observed in much less time Checklists, rating scales and category system are commonly used tools in structured observation.Sampling by time and event are common strategies for observational sampling. Frequency and duration of activity/event/ behaviour needs to be determined. Category system represents an attempt to designate in a systematic or quantitative fashion the qualitative behaviours and events transpiring within the observations setting.

Check listRating scalesCategory system

Considerations in category systemCareful and explicit definition of behaviours and characterstics Referrant behaviour should be mutually exclusive. Developing a system of coding.Pilot run of constructed category system to assess its suitability for intended study.Developing, refining and retesting of new category system.

Types ParticipantLive or work in the fieldUnstructured tools Non participantObserve without interactionChildren and animals

Types of ObservationNo concealment and participant Concealment and participantConcealment and non-participantNo concealment and non-participant

No concealment and participant observation Observer make no alteration in the social setting Doesnt make observation covertly. Subjects are aware of researchers presence but not aware of researchers underlying motive. Drawbacks are Hawthorne effect (subjects awareness of being observed). Interaction between the observed & observer alters the subjects behaviour.

Concealment and participant observation Researcher observes subjects behaviour in their natural setting but adopts a passive role as otherwise it may alter subjects behaviour. Researcher observes and records observation with minimum intervention. The problem of behaviour distortion with presence of observer is known as reactive measurement effect.

Concealment disguised observation by hiding or by videotaped81

Concealment and non- participant observation Researcher makes observation from the periphery of a social setting in such a way that he is present but doesnt interact with others. (Also called lurking)Observer does not make his intentions known to the group, nor does he make any effort to participate.Can collect great deal of information. If observer is not nearby, difficulty in hearing can lead to misunderstanding. Question of violation of human rights i.e. lack of dignity in data collection because the observed are neither aware of the observer nor being observed.

Goddel and fossey observing the chimpanzee82

No concealment and Non-participant observation Extremely valuable in nursing research intervention studies. Observers presence knownSubjects aware of their participation in the study and being observed. Research Methods: A Modular ApproachBy Sherri Jackson

Types

Observation Sampling TechniqueUsually impossible to observe behaviour for extended period of time because of fatigue and boredom.Commonly used techniques are:- Time sampling methodEvent samplingTime sampling involves selection of time periods during which observation will take place. Researcher should decide duration & time when to begin and when to stop

Event samplingEvent sampling refers to a diverse class of specific empirical methods for studying individual experiences and social processes within their natural, spontaneous context. Event sampling procedures are designed to obtain reasonably detailed accounts of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours as they occur in everyday life.

AbstractMost studies on occupational stress concentrateon chronic conditions, whereas research onstressful situations is rather sparse. Using anevent-sampling approach, 80 young workersreported stressful events over 7 days (409work-related and 127 private events). Contentanalysis showed the newcomers' work experiencesto be similar to what is typically found inolder samples (e.g., social stressors,quantitative overload, problems ofcooperation). At work and in private life,social stressors were dominant. Inmultilevel-analyses active coping predictedhigher success in calming down and problemsolving, particularly in controllablesituations. Palliation was positively relatedto successful calming down and negatively toevent-related well-being. With regard to therelationship between chronic conditions andsituational variables, (stable) job control wasassociated with successful calming down instressful situations, and it buffered theeffect of chronic job stressors on successfulsituational calming down, yielding a specificvariant of the demands-control model. Number ofwork-related stressful events, weighted bysignificance, was moderately associated withchronic job stressors. However, while chronicjob stressors predicted momentary well-beingover and above the weighted number of events,events did not predict momentary well-being,and its prediction of stable well-beingdisappeared once chronic stressors werecontrolled. These results show how chronicconditions represent background variables thatnot only have a stronger influence onwell-being but also influence the immediatereaction to stressful encounter

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Difference Time sampling = When you set a designated amount of time e.g. 30 seconds and observe what behaviour is happening in these intervals. Here behaviour is recorded at regular, preset interval.

Event sampling = Watching all the time and marking down when the specific behaviour is happening..

Steps in Developing An Observation Schedule/ planning the observationDetermine the focus- questions to be answeredSelecting aspects of behaviour to be observed.Defining the behaviour that fall with in a category.Design a system for data collectionRecording sheet and checklistsObservation guides-interactions, processes or behaviorsField notesSelect the sitesSelect the observersTrain observers.Quantify observations.Developing procedures to facilitate recording

Testing of observation schedule by checking: Inter-rater reliability (85% agreement between two observers/raters)Intrarater reliability same rater observes same behaviour/event on two or more occasions. Involves multiple observations extending over days and weeks. Test-retest reliability is considered important for such observational recordings.

Structured observations by nonresearch observersHere the person completing the scale might be asked to describe the attributes and behaviours of another person.Mother might be asked to describe the behavior problems of her preschool childAdvEconomical Reactivity- an outsider observingOccurrence in private situationsInfrequency ( sleep walking)

Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages

DisadvantagesImportant technique for studying human behaviour specially where interventions are used. Provides depth and variety of information.

Observation and interpretation is a demanding task requiring attention, sensation, perception and conception.

Researcher is not dependent on subjects who consent to answer, all subjects are potential respondents. Subjects are usually available unlike questionnaire where one is dependent on return of mailed questionnaire.It allows view of complete situation first hand and include sequence of events. Lack of consent to being observed.

Time and duration of event cant be predicted usually observer may wait until an event happens. Therefore it is difficult to know when to be present to observe key events.

All the data obtained by the observation are usable unlike questionnaire where irrelevant information may be included because respondents misunderstand the questions asked to them. It is most open to use of recording devices such as tape-recorders and cameras. Data obtained are vulnerable to many distortions and biases. Observed events are subjected to researchers cultural background and personal interpretations.

Use of recording devices is expensive.

One can make use of assistants to carry out observations. Extensive training is necessary if assistant observers are used. Observers may get involved in the situation which can cause threat to the objectivity of the data collected. Especially rating scales are susceptible to two distinct type of errors. Halo effect tendency of the rater to be influenced by one characteristic in rating other non-related characteristics.Error of leniency: Tendency of the observer to rate everything positively. Error of severity: tendency of the observer to rate too harshly.

Ethics Observation of human beings involves some important ethical implications in terms of their rights, willingness to be observed. Should they be observed without their knowledge? Is it permissible to inform the subjects that they are being observed? Subjects should be assured of their anonymity, confidentiality. Can we force the subjects to participate in the study ? Is their unwillingness genuine ?

Polit describes three common ethical requirements, which are : voluntary participation/freedom from physical or psychological harm and distress, and anonymity. Observation without participants permission may not assume subjects voluntary participation. Sudden disclosure of being observed may cause distress and mental trauma to some subjects. Therefore, researcher needs to decide on these sensitive questioning prior to data collection.

Examples

Dichotomous qMCQCafeteria qRank order qContingency qRating qImportance qLikert qBipolar qMatrix q

Double barreledDouble negativesLeading qLong qAmbiguous q

Notes on Composite scalesLikert scaleSemantic differential scalesVisual analogue scales

With egs

Rating scalesExpress an opinion on person, object, situation or characterIn RS we judge object in absolute terms against specified criteria without reference to other similar objects Refers to a scale with a set of opinion , which describes varying degree of the dimensions of an attitude being observedA rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative or a qualitative attributeeg Likert scale3 point, 5 point or 7 point RS

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Characteristics Value judgments about attributes of one person by another personCarry out structured observationsQuantitative judgment about a qualitative attributeProvide flexibilityGuilford Clarity RelevanceVarietyObjectivityUniqueness

Types Graphic rating scaleDescriptive rating scalesNumerical rating scalesComparative rating scales

grs

Comparative RS

Causes of distortionCentral tendency biasa desire to avoid being perceived as having extremist views -social desirability biasfor questions early in a test, an expectation that questions about which one has stronger views may follow, such that on earlier questions one "leaves room" for stronger responses later in the test.Acquiescence biasAgree with statements as presented

which expectation creates bias that is especially pernicious in that its effects are not uniform throughout the test and cannot be corrected for through simple across-the-board normalization;

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Disagree with sentences as presented out of a defensive desire to avoid making erroneous statements and/or avoid negative consequences that respondents may fear will result from their answers being used against themProvide answers that they believe will be evaluated as indicating strength or lack of weakness/dysfunction- faking goodProvide answers that they believe will be evaluated as indicating weakness or presence of impairment/pathology - faking bad

Adv Easy to administer and scoreWidely used in Nursing researchEasier to make and less time consumingCan be used for a large groupAlso used in quantitative methodsEvaluate skillsAdaptable and flexible

Dis advDifficult and dangerous to fix rating about many aspects of an individualMisuse can result in decrease in objectivityChances of subjectivity- unscientific and unreliable scales

Likert scalesLS is a composite measure of attitudes that involve summation of scores on the set of items to which respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreementLikert scale is a psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires.A Likert item is simply a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate by giving it a quantitative value on any kind of subjective or objective dimension, with level of agreement/disagreement being the dimension most commonly used.

Features SymmetryBalanceThe format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be:Strongly disagreeDisagreeNeither agree nor disagreeAgreeStrongly agree

Bipolar scaling method, measuring either positive or negative response to a statementThe five response categories are often believed to represent an Interval level of measurement.

Uses Measure attitudes, values and feelings of people about specific concepts Quantifying a qualitative attributeOpinion about an abstract concept

Characteristics Psychological measurement toolIllustrative in natureNeutral statementsBipolar scaling method- alternative pos and neg statementsPositive- high score with agreement and vice versaMeasurement of specific number of scaling categories

Adv Easy to constructMore reliable and valid to measure psychosocial variablesEasy to administer since respondents only have to tickLess time consuming for construction and administration

Dis advForced choiceReal feelings of the researchers may not be assessedDifficulty in justifying the number of categories and numerical assignments to these categoriesCasual approach can provide misleading data

VASVAS is a bipolar scale used to determine the degree of stimuli a patient is experiencingUsually 10 cms in lengthHorizontal or vertical lineTwo extremes at either endEg: no pain to worst pain

Uses Measure level of pain, anxiety and moodMeasure alertness, quality, severity of clinical symptoms, functional ability and attitude Choose right dose of medicine . Eg: for painRating soft variables like skills, confidence, quality of team work

Adv Reliable and valid tool to measure intensity of certain sensations and feelings. Pain and anxietyQuantifying a qualitative attributeCan see changes within the individual

Dis advCannot be used for comparing results across a group of individuals at the same timeReliability may be low in measuring sensations like pain as the patient has to recall their initial pain severity.

CHECKLISTSPerformance evaluationIt is a simple instrument consisting of a prepared list of expected items of performance or attributes which are checked by a researcher for their presence or absence.

Characteristics One at a timeClearly specify the characteristics of behavior to be observedObserver should be trained

Construction Express each item in clear and simple languageType is determined by an intensive survey of literatureList of items should be continuous and divided into groups of related itemsGet advice from expertsAvoid negative statements Clear responses should be there like yes or no, true or falseCompleteness and comprehensiveness should be there

Adv Adaptable to subject matter areasUseful in evaluating learning activities, procedural workHas objectivity to evaluate characteristicsDecreases chances of error of observation

Dis advDoes not indicate quality of performanceLimited useOnly a limited component of overall clinical performance can be evaluatedLimited use in qualitative studies

Stapel Stapel scales ask consumers to rate entities along an ordered continuum.

Semantic differential ScaleSemantic differential is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event or concept.The respondent is asked to choose where his or her position lies, on a scale between two bipolar adjectives.Eg: Adequate-Inadequate, Good-Evil or Valuable-Worthless. Semantic differentials can be used to measure opinions, attitudes and values on a psychometrically controlled scale.

Dimension of affective meaningEvaluation, potency, and activity. Evaluation loads highest on the adjective pair 'good-bad'. The 'strong-weak' adjective pair defines the potency factor. Adjective pair 'active-passive' defines the activity factor.10-12 adjective pairs not more than 20

Strong ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ WeakDecisive ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Indecisive Good ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Bad Cheap ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ ExpensiveActive ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ PassiveLazy ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Industrious The respondent is asked to rate an object, person or any concept, by putting a mark on one of the 7 spaces along each dimension.

Results can be presented in a figure or list the average scores on each dimension, and then draw conclusions.

Biophysiological methodsPurposes Basic physiology with relevance for nursing careWays that nursing actions or medical interventions affect patient health outcomesEvaluation of specific nursing procedures or interventions testing a hypothesisImproving measurement and recording of bio physiologic data collected by RNCorrelation of physiologic function in patient with health problems

USE OF BIOPHYSIOLOGIC MEASURES IN NURSING RESEARCHStudy of biophysiologic processesEffect of nursing intervention on human physiological processCorrelate physiologic functioning with health outcomes

Major typesIn vivoMeasurements performed directly with in or on living organisms themselvesMay use complex instrumentation system with computersMay be simple thermometer, pulse oximeter, stethoscope

In vitroMeasurements performed outside the organisms bodySpecimens collected and tested outside bodyBlood chemistries, microbiologic, cytologic specimens

Considerations for physiologic measurementsWill measure yield good information? Does it fit research questions/hypotheses and variables of study?What other methods of measurement could be used? Invasive & noninvasiveEquipment and supply costs; reliability of equipment and complexity of operationTraining of personnel

ADVANTAGESAccurate precise & sensitiveObjectiveInstrument used are valid and reliableBiophysiologic measures are not expensive but there can be expensive tests

DISADVANTAGESInterferences that create artifacts in Biophysiologic measuresHigh degree of interaction among the major Biophysiologic system

Projective techniquesRorschach inkblot test; thematic apperception test (tell a story based on a picture)

Eg The associative imagery technique is a qualitative tool with which researchers use carefully selected photographs or images to trigger participants responses to explain difficult behavioural and social concepts.

Researchers describe the development and implementation of the associative imagery method in focus groups to understand the complex relationships between homecare workers and their clients as part of a larger health and safety intervention project. 116 homecare workers and clients were recruited They found that participants used images mainly in two ways. The images served to remind participants of specific persons, events, and/or objects. The images facilitated recollections and reflections that allowed participants to metaphorically describe their experiences, feelings, and emotions. Both usages of imagery generated comments that answered the research question in a more relevant, descriptive, and vivid way.

Q sortsWilliam Stephenson introduced Q Method in 1935.He said it offered psychology as a scientific approach through which a systematic examination & understanding of individuals subjectivity could be achieved.His contemporaries disagreed and there was severe criticism of the method, due to its departure from traditional factor analysis.Q Method fell out on 1940-1960,but revived by US in 1970 & and UK in 1980

Q sortsIt consists of cards often as many as 40 or 50.The goal is to sort the cards into one of five columns.The qualities in each column are then recorded and the results are used to assist the patient in determining issues he or she wishes to work in treatment. Subject asked to sort statements into piles according to importance to subject or most positive to least positiveForced choice arrangement distributed into piles of bell-shaped curveTime-consuming and difficult for some respondents

It is a ranking of variablespresented as statements printed on small cardsaccording to some "condition of instruction." For example, in a Q study of people's views of a nursing, a subject might be given statements like It is a deeply noble profession" and It is altruistic in nature," or It is submissive and asked to sort them from "most like how I think about this profession" to "least like how I think about this profession." The use of ranking, rather than asking subjects to rate their agreement with statements individually, is meant to capture the idea that people think about ideas in relation to other ideas, rather than in isolation.

Q sort

Delphi or nominal techniqueMeasures the judgments of a group of experts, assess priorities or make forecasts

StepsIdentify panel of experts to answer questionsDevelop questionnaire mostly closed-endedQuestionnaires completed and returned by experts and results analyzedStatistical analysis and 2nd questionnaire sent to experts and returnedSteps 3 & 4 repeated until data reflects the consensus of the experts

Vignettes Vignettes are simulations of real events which can be used in research studies to elicit subject's knowledge, attitudes or opinions according to how they state they would behave in the hypothetical situation depicted. validity.

Advantagesthe ability to collect information simultaneously from large numbers of subjects, to manipulate a number of variables at once in a manner that would not be possible in observation studies, absence of observer effect avoidance of the ethical dilemmas commonly encountered during observation.

Difficulties include problems establishing reliability and validity, especially external validity

Pilot studySmall scale version or trial run designed to test the methods to be used in a larger, more rigorous studyPurpose is to prevent an expensive fiasco- that is a costly but flawed large scale studyCalled feasibility studies

FunctionsAdequacy of study method and proceduresLikely success of a participant recruitment strategyAppropriateness and quality of instruments- validity and reliability of toolsStrength of relationships between key variables so that sample size can be estimatedIdentification of confounding variables

FunctionsPotential problem of losing participantsExtent to which the preliminary evidence justifies more rigorous researchRefine methodologyPlan for data analysis and interpretationProject costs for budgeting purposeTest for the intervention itself

Pilot testing an interventionAcceptability of the intervention to the intended beneficiaries, intervention agents and administratorsAdequacy comprehensiveness and clarity of intervention protocols Appropriateness of the dose of interventionExtent to which intervention fidelity can be maintained- faithfulnessRate of retention in the interventionSafety of the intervention: any unforeseen side effects

Pilot study gives us lessonsShould seek funding only after pilot

Validity

Reliability