data envelopment analysis (dea): theoryseminar.gunadarma.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/aam...why...
TRANSCRIPT
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DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS (DEA): THEORY
Aam Slamet Rusydianawww.dea-center.com
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• Ditinjau dari teori ekonomi, ada 2 macam pengertian efisiensi, yaitu efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi ekonomi.
• Efisiensi ekonomi mempunyai sudut pandang makroekonomi, sementara efisiensi teknis mempunyai sudut pandang mikroekonomi.
• Pengukuran efisiensi teknis cenderung terbatas pada hubungan teknis dan operasional dalam proses konversi input menjadi output. Sedangkan dalam efisiensi ekonomi, harga tidak dapat dianggap sudah ditentukan (given), karena harga dapat dipengaruhi oleh kebijakan makro (Sarjana, 1999).
PENDAHULUAN
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Why Efficiency?
Performance measurement
Serving Information
Input
Output
Financial Ratio
DEA
Dalam teori manajemen konvensional, kinerja organisasi dinilaidari seberapa bagus suatu organisasi mampu meminimalkan
biaya dan menciptakan kekayaan
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Efficiency Concept
• Microeconomics:a. Consumer Theory (maximize utility or satisfaction)b. Producers theory (maximize profits or minimize cost)• Producers theory:
Productivity = Output / Input= y / x
There is a production frontier which describe the relationship between input and output of production process.
Production frontier represents maximum output from the use of each input. It also represents the technology used by a business unit or industry.
A business unit that operates on the production frontier is technically efficient.
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Production Frontier and Technical Efficiency
• Production Process with singleinput (x) to produce single output(y) input• Production frontier F’ representsthe maximum output attainablefrom each level• Point B and C represent efficientpoints with productivity (y1/x0)and (y0/x1), respectively• Point A represent an inefficientpoint with productivity (y0/x0),since technically it could increaseoutput to y1 (the level associatedwith point B) without requiringmore input; or it could decreaseinput to x1 (the level associatedwith point C) to produce similar Y0.
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Types of Efficiency
Efficiency comprises of two components (Farrel, 1957):Technical efficiency (TE) describes the ability of a business unit to
maximize output given certain amount of input (Quantity)Allocative efficiency (AE) describes the ability of a business unit to utilize
inputs in optimal proportion based on their price (Price)Economic efficiency/cost efficiency/overall efficiency the combination of
those two types of efficiency .Overall efficiency = allocative efficiency x technical efficiency
OE = AE x TETechnical efficiency can be breakdown into Pure technical efficiency (PTE)
and scale efficiency (SE)Technical efficiency = Pure technical efficiency x scale efficiency
TE = PTE x SEOE = AE x PTE x SE
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Efficiency Measurement Approach• Input Approach
Pendekatan sisi input digunakan untuk menjawab berapabanyak kuantitas input dapat dikurangi secara proporsionaluntuk memproduksi kuantitas output yang sama. Pendekatanini digunakan apabila kondisi pasar sudah mengalami tingkat“jenuh” sehingga perusahaan perlu mengetahui tingkatefisiensi dari sumber daya yang ada saat ini.
• Output Approach
Pendekatan sisi output digunakan untuk menjawab berapabanyak kuantitas output dapat ditingkatkan secaraproporsional dengan kuantitas input yang sama. Pendekatanini digunakan pada saat kondisi pasar masih bagus sehinggaprodusen diharapkan dapat mempertahankan atau bahkanmeningkatkan output dengan input yang sama
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Input dan Output
• Penentuan input dan output harus berlandaskan padalandasan filosofis atau teori yang benar.
• Input adalah sesuatu yang menjadi tolak ukur untukmencapai tujuan
• Output dapat berupa barang maupun jasa yang dihasilkan atau ukuran seberapa efektifnya suatu unit telah mencapai tujuannya
• Input dan output dapat diklasifikasikan dalam bentukvariabel –variabel terkontrol (controlled variabel) dantidak terkontrol (uncontrolled variabel).
• Output merupakan variabel terkontrol• Input dapat berupa variabel terkontrol atau tidak
terkontrol
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How to choose input and output?
• Merujuk pada literature review (jurnal/paper/dsb)
• Menentukan pendekatan apa yang akan kitapilih
• Lihat karakteristik bank di Indonesia
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DEA for Banking
• The Banking industry has been the subject of DEA analysis by researchers in various areas and probably is the most heavily studied business
– Branches
– Banks across countries
Bank
Branch
Inputs
FTE in dollars
Premise/IT expenses
Other Expenses
Outputs
Loan Balances
Deposit Balances
Securities Balances
Gross Revenue
Bank
Branch
Inputs
FTE in dollars
Premise/IT expenses
Other Expenses
Outputs
Loan Balances
Deposit Balances
Securities Balances
Gross Revenue
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Measuring the Activity of Bank
• The efficiency measurement of financial institution like banks can be approached from their activities.
• There are three main approaches to explain the relationship between input and output of banks
• Production (operational) approach, intermediation approach, and modern (assets) approach.
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Measuring the activity of Bank
• PRODUCTION APPROACH describes banking activities as the productionof services to depositors and borrowers using all available factors of production, such as labor and physical capital
• This approach initiated by Benston (1965) and Bell and Murphy (1968), considers banks as producer of deposit accounts to depositors and loans to borrowers.
• Therefore this approach define input as number of workforce, capital expenses on fixed assets and other materials, and define output as the sum of all deposit accounts or other related transactions.
• Freixas and Rochet (1998), this approach suits well for local branch level banks
INPUT OUTPUT
• Labor• Fixed Asset• OtherMaterials
• Deposits• Financing• Services
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Production Approach
• Pendekatan ini melihat institusi finansial sebagai produser dari rekening tabungan dan kredit pinjaman, Pendekatan ini mendefinisikan output sebagai penjumlahan dari rekening-rekening tersebut atau rekening-rekening terkait.
• Sedangkan input dalam pendekatan ini dihitung dari jumlah tenaga kerja, pengeluaran modal pada aktiva tetap dan material lainnya.
• Pendekatan produksi melihat aktivitas bank sebagai sebuah produksi jasa bagi para depositor dan peminjam kredit. Untuk mencapai tujuan yaitu memproduksi output-output yang diinginkan, seluruh faktor-faktor produksi seperti tanah, tenaga kerja, dan modal dikerahkan sebagai input.
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Input-Output Production Approach
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Measuring the activity of Bank
• INTERMEDIATION APPROACH describes banking activities in charge of transforming the money borrowed from depositors (surplus spending units) into the money lent to borrowers (deficit spending units).
• Therefore this approach defines input as financial capital (the deposits collected and the funds borrowed), and define output as the volume of loans and investment outstanding.
• Freixas and Rochet (1998), this approach suits well for main branch level banks
INPUT OUTPUT
• Labor• Fixed assets• deposits
• Investments• Financing• Otherearnings
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Intermediation Approach
• Pendekatan ini melihat institusi keuangan sebagai perantara. Institusi keuangan ini merubah dan mentransfer aset-aset keuangan, dari unit-unit yang kelebihan dana ke unit-unit yang kekurangan dana. Output dalam pendekatan ini diukur melalui kredit pinjaman dan investasi keuangan. Sedangkan input institusional adalah biaya tenaga kerja dan modal serta pembayaran bunga pada deposit.
• Pada dasarnya pendekatan intermediasi bersifat komplementer dengan pendekatan produksi. Pendekatan intermediasi menerangkan aktivitas perbankan sebagai pentransformasian uang yang dipinjamkan dari depositormenjadi uang yang dipinjamkan kepada para debitor.
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Input-Output Intermediation Approach
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Measuring the activity of Bank
• MODERN APPROACH try to improve the first two approaches by incorporating risk management, information processing, and agency problems into the classical theory of the firm. This approach introduces a possible discrepancy between bank’s manager and owner in profit maximization behavior. If bank’s manager are not risk neutral, they will typically choose a level of financial capital that is different from the cost minimizing one.
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Modern/Asset Approach
• Pendekatan asset melihat fungsi primer sebuah institusi keuangan sebagai pencipta kredit pinjaman.
• Efisiensi asset mengukur kemampuan perbankan dalam menanamkan dana dalam bentuk kredit, surat-surat berharga danalternatif asset lainnya sebagai output.
• Input diukur dari harga tenaga kerja, harga dana dan harga fisik modal.
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Most used I-O in Banking
Anouze & Bou-Hamad (2019). “Data envelopment analysis and data mining to efficiency estimation & evaluation”, International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance & Management, Vol. 12 No.2, pp.169-190
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Parametric vs Nonparametric
• Pendekatan parametrik melakukan pengukuran dengan menggunakanekonometrik yang stokastik dan berusaha untuk menghilangkan gangguan dari pengaruh ketidakefisienan. Ada tiga pendekatan parametrik ekonometrik, yaitu:
1. Stochastic Frontier Approach (SFA);
2. Thick Frontier Approach (TFA); dan
3. Distribution-free Approach (DFA)
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Parametric vs Nonparametric
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Parametric vs Nonparametric
1. Stocastic Frontier Approach (SFA)• Merupakan metode ekonometrik yang mengasumsikan efisiensi mengikuti
distribusi asimetrik, biasanya setengah normal (half normal), sementara randomerror diasumsikan mengikuti distribusi standar simetrik.
2. Thick Frontier Approach (TFA)• Model yang dikembangkan oleh Berger dan Humprey (1991) ini membandingkan
rata-rata efisiensi dari kelompok perusahaan dan bukannya mengestimasi frontier.3. Distribution Free Approach (DFA)• Model ini menggunakan residual rata-rata dari fungsi biaya yang diestimasi pada
panel data untuk membangun suatu ukuran cost standard efficiency. Metode ini tidak memaksakan suatu bentuk spesifik pada distribusi dari efisiensi rata-ratauntuk setiap perusahaan yang besarnya konstan dari waktu ke waktu.
4. Free Disposal Hull (FDH)• Metode ini merupakan generalisasi dari DEA dengan model variable return to
scale. Metode ini tidak mensyaratkan estimasi frontier yang berbentuk cembung(convex).
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What is DEA?
• DEA adalah suatu teknik pemrograman matematika yang mengukur tingkat efisiensi dari unit pengambil keputusan (UPK) atau decision-making unit relatif terhadap UPK yang sejenisdimana semua unit-unit ini berada pada atau dibawah ”kurva” efisien frontiernya.
• Pendekatan ini pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Charnes, Cooper, dan Rhodes pada tahun 1978. Semenjak itu penerapan pendekatan ini semakinberkembang dengan pesat (Cevdet et.al., 2000).
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What is DEA?
• Pemrograman linier sangat tergantung kepada populasi yang dijadikan sampel sehingga cenderung jauh dari kesalahan spesifikasi (Lovell, 1993).
• Selanjutnya, kinerja dari suatu UPK sangat relatif terhadap UPK lainnya, khususnya yangmenyebabkan ketidakefisienan.
• Pendekatan ini juga dapat melihat bagaimana suatu UPK itu melakukan penyempurnaan kinerja keuangannya sendiri sehingga menjadi efisien.
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Why DEA?DEA Best-Practice
Frontier
Input
Output
6
66
6
6
66
6
66
6
6
6predicted
average
behavior
- Regression can accommodate
Multiple inputs or
outputs but not both
- Regression requires a
functional relationship
between in/outputs
- Regression provides only
average relationships
not best practice
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Basic DEA Benchmarking Information
• DEA gives– Efficiency rating, or score, for each DMU
– Efficiency reference set: peer group
– Target for the inefficient DMU
– Information on how much inputs can be decreased or outputs increased to make the unit efficient – improving productivity & performance
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DEA and Performance Improvement
Data Envelopment Analysis Joe Zhu 28
DEA Best-Practice
Frontier
Input
Output
66
6
6K
Input reduction
6
D
Output
augmentationD
D
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DEA Tools
• Banxia Frontier Analyst (BFA)
• DEAP (DEA Program)
• DEAFrontier
• Warwick for DEA (WDEA)
• PIM-SoftDEA
• MaxDEA
• LINDO
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BENEFITS
• The establishment of the efficient frontier consisting of the best performing DMUs
• A projection to the efficient frontier - a guide to “what to do” for the DMU managers
• The identification of the peer group, a reasonable argument why it is a FAIR comparison
• An indication of how important a particular DMU is as a role model
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Decision Making Unit (DMU)
• DMU merepresentasikan operasional unit (unit bisnis) yang akan dinilai.
• Pengukuran DEA adalah analisis pengukuranberdasarkan proses (process based analysis), ataudengan kata lain dapat diaplikasikan pada unit perusahaan apapun.
• DMU berupa entitas (jenis organisasi) apapun yang mampu merubah input menjadi output (hasil).
• DMU can include manufacturing units, departments of big organizations such as universities, school, bank branches, hospitals, power plants, police stations, tax offices, prisons, defense bases, a set of firms or even practicing individuals such as medical practitioners.
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Kumpulan Data dan Variabel pada DEA
• Merupakan kumpulan semua unit DMU dan nilaidari input dan output setiap DMU yang nantinyamerupakan variabel penelitian.
• Pada umumnya, data diperoleh dari hasil laporankeuangan suatu organisasi (data sekunder).
• Kumpulan data biasanya disiapkan dalam bentuktabel, spreadsheet, dengan tampilan dimananama-nama unit ditampilkan dalam baris, sedangkan varabel input dan input ditampilkandalam kolom
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DEA Models
• CCR (Charnes, Chooper, and Roodes [1978])The CCR (ratio) model is the DEA model used in Frontier Analyst when a constant returns to scale (CRS) relationship is assumed between inputs and outputs. (Overall Efficiency)
• CRS = peningkatan input secara proporsional dengan presentasetertentu akan meningkatkan output dengan presentase yang sama.
• BCC (Banker, Charnes, and Chooper [1984])The BCC (ratio) model is the DEA model used in Frontier Analyst when a variabel returns to scale (VRS) relationship is assumed between inputs and outputs (Technical Efficiency)
• VRS = Peningkatan 1 unit input tidak akan menghasilkanpeningkatan output secara proporsional, tergantung kondisi return to scale nya, apakah decrease/increase
• CCR/BCC*100 = Scale Efficiency
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Return to Scale• Increasing Return to Scale (IRS)
kondisi IRS bilamana nilai λ > 1.00 λ = nilai hasil perhitungan DEAjika suatu DMU berada pada kondisi IRS, itu berarti bahwamemungkinkan untuk terus meningkatkan kapasitas output-nyadengan mempertahankan input yang ada, karena penambahan input justru tidak efektif mengingat sumber daya yang digunakan masihbelum berfungsi secara optimal
• Constant Return to Scale (CRS) kondisi CRS bilamana nilai λ = 1.00jika suatu DMU berada pada kondisi CRS, itu berarti bahwa DMU tersebut pada kondisi normal/efisien.
• Decreasing Return to Scale (DRS) kondisi CRS bilamana nilai λ < 1.00menuntut adanya pengurangan input, karena jumlah input dengan
output yang dihasilkan sudah tidak ideal
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Return to Scale6.4
When a firm’s production process exhibits
constant returns to scale as shown by a
movement along line 0A in part (a), the
isoquants are equally spaced as output
increases proportionally.
Returns to Scale
Figure 6.9
However, when there are increasing
returns to scale as shown in (b), the
isoquants move closer together as
inputs are increased along the line.
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DEA Reference Set
• Sekumpulan DMU yang ditentukan sebagai DMU yang efisien akan menjadi reference (rujukan) bagi sekumpulan DMU yang tidak efisien
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Steps of Researching Using DEA
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