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Running Header: UNSCHOOLING: AN EXAMINATION IN ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION

Unschooling: An Examination in Alternative Education

Deanna L. Martinez

Colorado State University

Abstract

This research investigated a niche group of homeschooling described as unschooling, or

child-led learning. This survey sought to explore the essence of child-led learning through

understanding educational and philosophical influences, personal experience and academic

perspective of parent(s) or primary home educator. Researcher sought to discover how child-led

learning replicated and rejected traditional learning styles, thought, practice, pedagogy and

curriculum. The philosophical influences guiding most child-led learning families reject the

traditional format of a classroom, yet certain key aspects in the human experience regarding

learning have endured since the origins of mankind: how does one learn? How is knowledge

transmitted? In what ways have these essential aspects of learning been preserved inside

classrooms in America today? How has education evolved? Has that evolution benefitted

students and educators? Are home educators, and specifically child-led homes preserving the

education as it existed initially inside America? Due to the large scope of these questions and the

lack of almost any academic research on child-led learning, the first logical step in this research

was to examine the basic aspects of child-led learning. This project served as a pilot study to lay

the groundwork for more in-depth understanding of child-led learning. Researcher designed data

collection tools such as email interview questions and Survey Monkey surveys for parent/teacher

and child/learner were the primary sources of information for this study. Parents and students

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participated actively in the study, providing detailed responses to the email interview and

multiple-choice answers to the Survey Monkey.

Keywords: unschooling, child-led learning, homeschooling.

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Unschooling: An Examination in Alternative Education

Background Information:

This study was an email questionnaire and an online survey, resulting in a study

performed remotely. The researcher did not have contact with the participants in person or via

phone. Questions were emailed out and collected by researcher via Gmail. The Survey Monkey

questionnaires were sent to parents and students and completed anonymously. I collected and

reviewed data. After collection, follow up questions were emailed to families to gather additional

data on background and demographics on families.

In this study I served as a data collector: I did not have direct contact with the families in

the study in an observational position. I approached this study through a Marxist lens, examining

the ways in which unschooling is similar to conventional schooling and where it differed and

why. My personal bias in this area of study was a history of homeschooling using a different

method, as well as a lifelong exposure to traditional schools, private schools and charter schools.

I am currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Education, which may or may not create a bias

affecting this study.

This study sought to address the educational role homeschooling, and unschooling

specifically, is filling in the educational system of today. Largely overlooked, unschooling is a

growing demographic within the homeschool educational environment. Due to a lack of

academic research and a preference on the part of unschoolers to fly under the conventional

academic radar, these students and their educational experiences are largely misunderstood. This

pilot study aims to address these students a lay the groundwork for a deeper understanding of

these families and the education they are providing their students.

Teachers who encounter these students in their classrooms as they transition or

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experiment with traditional school do not understand the philosophical approach with which

these students have been educated. This leaves them unable to differentiate for theses students

most effectively.

Critical factors examined in this research are the position held within the academic world

by child-led learners within a homeschool environment. This is relevant to students of education

and academics within education whose over-arching purpose of education is to serve all children

where and how they learn best. Often overlooked by those researching educational pedagogies

and best practices is the work being done outside the conventional world of education; parent-

educators and child-learners provide interesting context and perspective on education.

Educational successes in homeschooling are often overlooked by education academics. The work

and knowledge available in the homeschooling world is under-studied and often misunderstood.

This lack of knowledge leads to misrepresentations of students, their knowledge and their

experiences. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2012 three percent of

all students were homeschooled, and this may be an under-representation. While a small

percentage of student demographic, it ought not be overlooked, particularly as schools and

teachers look for new best practices and innovated teaching philosophies.

Due to time constraints, this study was limited to a pilot study. Focusing the scope of the

study on a smaller group of families and limiting data collection to interviews and surveys

altered the study’s original scope. This study hopes to lay the groundwork for another, more

comprehensive study. As a result, this study does not seek to propose new practices, but rather

encourages more study in child-led learning. It is my hope that greater understanding between

schools and homeschoolers, specifically child-led learners, will encourage more diversity in the

classroom and better resources for all students.

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Research Purpose/Rationale

The purpose of this study was to bridge the gap between traditional pedagogical academia

and unschoolers to gain a greater sense of understanding for the pedagogy involved in

unschooling and child-led learning. This is relevant to classroom teachers because child-led

learning often leads to unschooled students opting to attend a traditional school. Many of these

students are not prepared for the classroom environment. These students’ educations are

sometimes highly specialized with gaps of knowledge. In some cases these students require

differentiation and help catching up, while also requiring honors courses or gifted and talented

courses for areas of great academic strength. Classroom teachers are not always able to recognize

these students’ strengths or understand their educational backgrounds and are therefore

challenged to appropriately differentiate for these students. A greater understanding between

these pedagogies will empower teachers to assist these students more quickly and integrate them

into the classroom community more quickly.

Research Questions:

What qualities define unschooling?

Is there a shared set of experiences between one unschooling family and the next?

These questions will begin to address the sources of pedagogy between one homeschool

family and the next. Through the data collection tool it will become more clear the direction in

which this research ought to go. The ultimate goal of this project is to help teachers better

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understand the unschooled demographic inside their classroom and to better differentiate for

these students.

Literature Review

Homeschooling: A Brief History

Homeschooling, as an alternative to education in the United States, is often approached

by educators and researchers as a fringe educational phenomenon in today’s contemporary

school environment (Martin, 2002). However, the educational tradition in America was founded

in home education. Founding Fathers such as Thomas Jefferson emerged from the education

given to them in their homes as a leading thinkers of their times. With this in mind,

homeschooling is not new to the American school system, it is however commonly

misunderstood, under-studied and under-represented in educational discussions among

academics. (Collom, 2005).

Homeschooling has been growing since the 1960’s and 70’s as many Americans became

increasingly unhappy with standardized testing, curriculum and the tracking of students. This

rejection began with left-leaning educational critics who sought to reject the institutionalization

of the student. The religious right embraced homeschooling not long after, citing the ability to

teach their faith freely inside the home without government interference or oversight (Collom,

2005).

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Homeschooling Defined

As homeschooling has gained in popularity and become recognized as not only a legal

educational opportunity but also a valid one, many variations on homeschooling have emerged.

Because each vein of alternative educational thought varies in major and minor ways, it is

difficult to define homeschooling under one blanket definition (Martin, 2002). In most cases

each individual homeschooler seeks to define their own philosophy and pedagogical stance

(Griffith, 1999).

In some cases homeschoolers adopt a curriculum or teaching philosophy such as Waldorf

or Montessori and apply those methods at home. Some of these homeschool families strictly

replicate the school environment with rigid application of standards, grades and course work.

Many within religious communities use homeschooling alongside religious instruction.

Homeschooling allows absolute integration within a philosophical view. For these families

controlling the curriculum and outside information allows for a more pure presentation of their

world-view.

Other alternative educators create loose associations to encourage socialization and

opportunity for their children/students. Cooperative learning centers, Free Schools, and

Democratic Schools have evolved as learning environments, but are not strictly defined as

“schools” (Robb, 2006).

Still others have used the homeschooling environment to reject the standards imposed on

them and their children and have sought to recreate a more holistic approach to education, seeing

it as the development of the whole child. This philosophy incorporates cooking, farming,

handiwork and other skills not commonly associated with traditional education.

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In many cases aspects and ideas from one form of homeschooling will overlap with

another form. The fluid nature of homeschooling allows each family to define for themselves

their values and standards. It is not uncommon to meet religious homeschoolers who follow

unschooling as a teaching pedagogy, or very structured classroom atmosphere in a non-religious

home. Stronger focus on science, technology or literature might be seen in one home, while

holistic play and the outdoors are the focal point in another home.

The key defining attribute shared by homeschooling families according to Christa L.

Green in her study, “Why do Parents Homeschool?: A Systematic Examination of Parental

Involvement “ is parental involvement. Green (2007) examined the role parental involvement

played in the decision to homeschool alongside the logistical ability of a family member to

homeschool. In many cases, parental involvement may be strong, but it is not feasible for the

family to provide. Psychological motivational factors, according to Green (2007), such as

parental control, efficacy and beliefs associated with schooling tend to determine whether of not

a family would consider homeschooling. These factors explain the wide range of homeschooling

philosophy. Strongly invested parents with a particular world-view, and the means with which to

provide it, construct an educational environment in their home reflective of their values. Green

states, “The importance of a set of constructs not often included in the parent involvement

literature: parents’ personal beliefs about the values and teaching approaches their children

should experience in school.” (2007, p. 266). This reveals that most homeschooling families are

less concerned with a strict definition of school, but rather more focused on the educational

model that fits their philosophical, religious and political beliefs.

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Origins of Unschooling

With the tremendous growth in homeschooling nationwide, variations on the philosophy of

homeschooling have evolved leading to a very diverse group of self-identified home educators

(Martin, 2002). Among this diverse group are unschoolers also commonly known as child-led

learning families.

Unschooling, or child-led learning, is a philosophical rejection of standards based education,

assessment and structure of traditional school. Due to the rejection of one standard, each

individual unschooling family defines and adapts the structure of education in their own home to

suit the educational needs of their respective children and family. As a result, the definition of

unschooling is fluid and difficult to apply to more than one family (Griffith, 1999).

Unschooling evolved independently in the mid-nineteen seventies and eighties among a

number of educators, chief among these educators are John Taylor Gatto and John Holt (Gatto,

2005; Holt, 1989). Both men were former educators inside the public school system, who

ultimately became disillusioned with the educational system in the United States. Gatto and Holt

became convinced that the American Public School System could not be reformed and sought to

promote the evolution of education through a home-based educational philosophy (Gatto, 2005;

Holt, 1989).

John Holt, educator and author of several books, sought to reform education on a family-by-

family basis. He believed education to be a personal journey attained when the child was ready

to attempt and master a task. Holt resisted standards and rigid curriculums, believing rather that

children learned when they were ready and through practical means, such as building with blocks

and discovering literacy through the specific and relevant needs of each child. Children in Holt’s

educational philosophy are encouraged to direct their own learning, specializing in areas of their

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personal interest. The role of the parent/teacher is to encourage the student/child in their passions

and interests, not to push specific skills or ideas. Holt asserted that learning in a home-based

environment where students direct their own learning and pace, led to lifelong learners and

passionate students. (Holt, 1989).

John Gatto Taylor, educational revolutionist and author, rejects traditional education entirely.

He maintains that the purpose of the public school system is not to educate the child, but rather

to indoctrinate the child to become cogs in a large-scale wheel. Gatto writes that education ought

to return to a more pure purpose, focusing on skills such as homesteading, tending stock and

learning to sew and cook as basic skills. These skills are more applicable for real life needs.

(Gatto, 2005).

Unschooling Today

Independently, but almost simultaneously, many in the progressive educational model joined

Holt and Gatto, among these were Grace Llewellen and Linda Dobson, along with countless

others. Common among all of these educational revolutionists was a rejection of structured

academia in favor of a child-led learning model (Martin, 2002).

Mary Griffith, an author, unschooling parent and advocate for unschooling has identified the

three primary aspects of child-led learning: An environment conductive to exploration and

experimentation, Adults as models and facilitators and Trust that children will learn. These three

qualities appear to run across the unschooling community being asserted early on in unschooling

literature by Gatto and Holt. It is not to be assumed that in an unschooling family, the parent is

inactive. They are considered to be a the facilitator and tool to create educational opportunities

and invite their students to participate. A common misconception among outsiders to the

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community is that children are not doing anything. Rather, learning is at a personal pace and not

always completely apparent to the outsider.

Unschoolers typically reject common assessment tools, favoring the idea that children will

learn the knowledge when necessary. As a result, these students’ progress is not recorded or

tracked by the state or even by the parents themselves.

It is assumed that this demographic of homeschooling is under-represented in statistics on

homeschooling due to the former illegality of homeschooling. Many homeschoolers continue to

be concerned about government intervention in their home education. Although required by

many states to declare their intention to homeschool, many do not do this. As a result, it is to be

assumed that the statistics on the number of children unschooling in the United States is

seriously under-reported and under-represented.

Unschooling in Academia

Some research has been done surrounding why parents choose homeschooling, the

success of homeschooled children post-high school and socialization of homeschooled children.

(Medlin, 2013). Very little research has been performed on small niche groups within the

homeschooling community largely due to the small samples size and the ability for researchers to

gather conclusive evidence that could accurately represent that niche responsibly. Furthermore

there is either perceived or real reluctance on the part of many homeschoolers to be studied by

academics.

Unschooling specifically as an educational phenomenon is understudied and commonly

ignored by the larger academic educational community. It is assumed this is a result of a strong

sense of privacy among unschoolers and a sense of protectiveness surrounding their educational

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philosophy. Misunderstood and disrespected by rigorous pedagogical thought, unschoolers tend

to be private in their explanations about what they are teaching and how (Griffith, 1999). This

study seeks to fill the knowledge gap between traditional pedagogy and that of the unschooler’s

world.

Method

Research Questions:

What qualities define unschooling?

Is there a shared set of experiences between one unschooling family and the next?

This study took place in a Fort Collins, Colorado, located on the Front Range of

Colorado, approximately 45 miles north of Denver. Fort Collins lies within the Poudre School

District, which is comprised of approximately 29,053 students, according to Poudre School

District website. Student demographics within Poudre School District reveal that PSD contains

73% White, 1.16% Black, 18% Hispanic, .52% Native American, Native Hawaiian/Pacific

Islander .14%, and 3% Asian.

Reliable data on the demographics of homeschoolers is difficult to come by due to

reticence to self-report to government agencies by most homeschool families. However, the

National Center for Education Statistics cites that approximately 68% of homeschooled students

are White, 8% are Black, Hispanic students make up 15% of homeschooled families, Asian or

Pacific Islanders make up 4% and all other races and ethnicities fall into the category of Other at

5%. There are no available statistics for the demographics of homeschooled families in Poudre

School District.

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This study consisted of all white families ranging in age from 3 to 45. Due to the nature

of homeschooling, most families consider education a family affair. As a result, this study

approached the families as a unit, recognizing each member inside the family as an integral

member of the study. Ages on all family members were collected and compiled within the study.

Three of the four families in this study reside within the Poudre School District. One

participating family in the study lives and homeschools in Illinois. Although out of state, they

continue to be active members of the online homeschooling community, Northern Colorado

Homeschooling Association. This homeschooling group contains approximately 100 families.

Fort Collins is a rich environment in which to perform this study due to a strong presence

of homeschooling in the area. Several homeschooling groups have a strong online presence,

creating an atmosphere of support and engagement for these families. Some groups are exclusive

to their religion or teaching style, others are open to all homeschooling families. This strong

homeschooling presence is felt even in the public schools were three alternative education

programs exist for students, one specifically geared to homeschooling families.

Participants:

Participants in this study were gathered from the homeschooling group Northern

Colorado Homeschooling Association, founded in Fort Collins, CO, through social media. This

eclectic homeschooling group welcomes and encourages a wide range of educational

philosophies, creating a rich environment for varying pedagogy. Several child-led

homeschooling families initially responded. Seven families were collected to participate. All

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seven were sent email questions and links to the survey monkey. Of the seven families, four

responded by the deadline.

The four families who agreed to participate in this pilot study ranged in size from 2-4

children/family, making the study size about 19 participants in all. These families represent a

diverse range in income and occupation. Children in these families ranged in age from ages 3

through 19. Parents ranged in age from 36-55. All of these families identified with being child-

led learning environments. Email survey and links to an online survey were emailed out to all

participants. All responses to surveys and interviews were strictly confidential.

Study Design:

This study was an exploratory pilot study for a larger and more comprehensive study to

be completed during a second Master's program. The objective of this study was to guide inquiry

and gather data to direct future research on child-led learning inside the home. Due to the scarce

amount of academic literature on child-led learning at home, a pilot study was necessary to

ascertain a strong starting point in building on this educational practice. The purpose of this

study was to help define child-led learning in an academic framework and to lay the foundation

for academic work in this area.

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2012, three percent of

school-aged children in the United States were homeschooled. This number is likely a low

representation because many homeschooling families do not report to school districts their

intention to homeschool due to concerns over regulation and monitoring by school officials or

government. This study sought to reveal the ways in which unschooling is resisting and

replicating traditional school. Through a Marxist theoretical framework, this study examined the

power structure rejected by unschoolers and their attempts to create a new, more equitable

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model.

This research was a mixed methods research project based on explanatory sequential

design, (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) incorporating qualitative methods through interview as well

as quantitative methods through the use of a researcher-completed online survey for both parent

participants and student participants. These data were collected simultaneously. This study

included both ethnographic and phenomenological aspects. Phenomenology is a relevant

philosophy to this study because I wanted to “focus on the experience (unschooling) itself and

how experiencing something is transformed into consciousness.” Ethnography provided a

philosophical framework with which I was able to examine the culture surrounding unschooling.

Through ethnography, I sought to understand the “Beliefs, values, and attitudes that structure the

behavior patterns of a specific group of people” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

This study was an practical Action Research project because it sought to address the real

issue confronting teachers who are increasingly encountering students who come from diverse

educational backgrounds, including child-led learning environments. These students are

integrating the classroom without accommodation or complete assessment on their academic

levels. Teachers are not able to properly differentiate for these atypical students because they

lack background knowledge on the child-led learning model or the learning environment from

which these students have come. Due to the small scale of this initial study it is unlikely to offer

a great deal of data to the educational community, but it will direct future study in this area. This

study seeks to lay the groundwork for understanding of alternative educational models will help

teachers access the foundational background of these students and their families. Through this

research I hoped to educate practitioners about unschooling, and the essential aspects of this

educational philosophy in an effort to enhance teacher practice in the classroom when

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encountering students with this educational background.

Data Sources

The intention behind data collection was to establish a baseline understanding of the

unschooling demographic. Through purposeful, critical, homogeneous sampling, individuals

with a wide-range of differences, including age, race, ethnicity and socio-economic status with

the shared commonality of unschooling as an educational philosophy have been examined. Due

to time constraints and the smaller nature of a pilot study as action research, interview data was

the chief data collection tool. Originally I had hoped to incorporate observation into my data

collection, but due to time constraints and the lack of IRB approval for this study, I opted for

online interviews (See Appendix A) and a survey (See Appendix A).

The survey was created through Survey Monkey. There were two tools: one for adults

and another for students. These interviews were naturally biased due to their multiple choice

nature and having only one question with ‘other’ and the opportunity for the participant to write

more. I opted for the multiple-choice format because I wanted a simple quantitative method with

which to triangulate data. I worked hard to ensure that the questions were not written from a

biased point of view. The survey, although inherently biased, was an important data collection

tool for this study as it served to triangulate the data collected via email interview. I opted for

multiple-choice questions for students to simplify their responses and encourage participation.

The multiple-choice questions for parents were designed to gather background information and

to serve as triangulation to ensure that the study was credible.

The unstructured format of the email interview was intended to capture the essence of

unschooling through the description of those for whom this is their educational choice. The email

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interview is categorized as asynchronous because there was a lag time between the distribution

of the questions and the data collected. All interview questions were sent out to personal email

addresses. Participants were included as blind ccs on the email to all participants. I kept all

responses starred and in their own file within my Gmail account. The asynchronous nature of the

study was flawed in that there was not built into the study the ability to ask follow up questions.

In some cases participants responded less than was hoped for, leaving somewhat incomplete

responses. Visual cues, such as physical responses and clues about the respondents were also not

able to be tracked. For one participant, after providing lengthy answers, the email server lost her

responses.

Researcher’s Role

From my position as researcher and former homeschooler, I approached this study in

mixed positionality. I was both an insider and an outsider. I was an insider because I had

homeschooled for several years and was familiar with unschooling and its philosophies. Yet I

was also an outsider due to my return to academia and my role in the Department of Education.

Having left homeschooling to return to the traditional classroom created a dual role in my

positionality when approaching this subject. Many unschoolers consider themselves to be

oppressed by the status quo in education. My return to academic education could have created a

wariness and concern on the part of participants in regard to my objectivity and biases while

conducting the study.

Validity, Reliability, and Credibility

Due to the qualitative nature of the study and the wide range of variables, concerns about

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the validity and reliability of the data were wide ranging. Much of unschooling and

homeschooling is very subjective on the part of the families who live and learn in this manner.

Limited by time and scope, this project was a snapshot of four very different families, which may

not provide any credible or reproducible data. As a result, it is impossible for these four families

to speak collectively for the community of unschoolers. To determine the essence of unschooling

and to provide an understanding of where unschooling and child-led learning differ and resemble

traditional school likely requires a more in-depth examination with large study sample, more

time.

According to Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher, serious concerns

guiding credibility arose in this study. Prolonged participation at the study site, persistent

observation, peer debriefing, practice triangulation, artifacts and member checks were all were

either too time consuming for the scope of this project or unrealistic. (Mills, 2014). Additionally,

extensive observation, artifact collection and member checks were also necessary to gain

credibility. Triangulation was attempted through multiple-choice surveys, although imperfect,

these offered quantitative data with which to compare and triangulate the qualitative data

gathered. Triangulation requires multiple measurement points. Best explained by Denzin (1978)

in Merriam & Tisdell’s Qualitative Research, triangulation relies on four points: multiple

methods, multiple sources of data, multiple investigators or multiple theories. (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016). I pursued two of the four of these methods: Multiple sources of data and multiple

theories. Relying on the email interview and the survey and drawing from ethnography and

phenomenology for theories, combined with my Marxist lens achieved what Mills refers to as

"internal validity. (Mills, 2014). Because of the lack of research in this area, there is value in

examining small groups in the pilot study format. Finding points of commonality in a small

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group can extend beyond into larger groups. The uniqueness of the child-led learning community

and the rich set of data therein requires a gradual approach to study, beginning with a small

sample size and growing that group as research grows. Focusing on a small group first allows for

me to begin with the broad and basic questions. These questions were formulated to reveal

themes and questions on a deeper level. Because I approached this study understanding that my

results would be difficult to replicated and may not be credibly, I worked to promote reliability

and validity in my results.

Strategies such as: triangulation, member checks, adequate engagement, researcher’s

position, peer review, audit, thick description and maximum variation were recommended to

ensure validity and reliability. In this study I was able to pursue member checks, engagement

postionality audit trail, and careful description. Member checks with the participants of the study

helped me understand that the multiple choice survey contained inherent bias, while necessary

for triangulation in this study, it has provided me the feedback to ensure this study maintains

maximum validity and reliability. Through this, "numerically based research conducted in the

positivistic tradition" internal validity and triangulation were demonstrated in this study.

Ethics

Due to the highly personal nature of homeschooling, ethical considerations in this study

were tantamount to how I phrased questions and what information I sought. Merriam and Tisdell

(2016) warn that the interview process can be invasive and open up participants to information

they never intended to disclose. The email interview I designed provides a safe format for

participants review and edit their responses to ensure they are reflective of what information

participants felt comfortable sharing. In construction of the interview questions I sought to define

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the very basic aspects of unschooling to help formulate the more in-depth questions I hope to

pursue in a follow up study. In many ways these question were somewhat too surface level,

however I approached this study as laying the groundwork and establishing through study the

essential aspects that define unschooling. While I could not ensure my participant’s responses

were anonymous, I was able to promise the study would protect their identity and that any

identifying characteristics would be removed. Consent was given through opting to participate in

the email interview.

In keeping with the Ethical Checklist offered by Mirriam and Tisdell (2016), I was clear

about the purpose of the study and lack of compensation for participation. I assured my

participants of their confidentiality. I did not discuss informed consent, nor did I offer ethical or

legal advice. I offered participants an opportunity to read the study when completed. I did not

consider ownership of the data or the role my mental health might play in the study. Nor did I

think participants would be interested in the philosophical approaches this study took in

processing data or reflecting results.

I did not offer consent forms to participants as I felt they were redundant and not

essential. The email interview was sent to six families who expressed initial interest. Of the six,

four completed the email and survey.

Because this pilot study will not be published, I did not seek IRB approval. There were

no concerns about physical risk to the participants. Any potential emotional harm brought

forward through interview questions ought to have been guarded against through the email

aspect of the study, allowing participants the opportunity to edit their responses, or opt out

completely.

The largest ethical concern inside this study is my relationship with participants outside

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of the study. Because I am a former homeschooler, I know most of the participants in the study

personally. I solicited other families, but was unable to garner participation from many families

unknown to me. I think this is partially due to suspicion on the part of unschoolers about being

‘studied.’ There is significant and justified concern in this community that their philosophy will

be disregarded and not taken seriously as a valid approach to education. Additionally, most

homeschooling families are very busy. Even for those potentially interested in participating, time

constraints on homeschooling families are real considerations. I have worked in my collection of

data and my interpretation of results to recognize my biases and to account for them as I worked

through my data.

Procedure and Timeline

Email interviews and surveys were sent out October 30th. I asked participants to submit

their responses by November 12 in order to ensure timely collection of data. All four participants

returned their data by the 12th and data analysis began then. Surveys were posted on Survey

Monkey and were completed by the 12th of November as well.

I followed up with participants on December 7th to ask for a small amount of additional

information, including their ages and the ages of their children, how many children they had and

their ethnic backgrounds. I chose not to ask about socio-economic data because I do not think it

is relevant to this study or necessary to divulge.

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Results

Data Analysis

In examining my data on unschooling as an educational phenomenon, I sought, through

qualitative data and quantitative data, commonalities between participants in pedagogical

approach, philosophical perspective, practice and application. Although collected

simultaneously, qualitative and quantitative data were initially considered separately. All data

was stored on my personal laptop and protected with a password. I drafted word documents to

store and save the results of the interview data. Participant names were removed to protect their

identities.

All qualitative interview data was analyzed by hand. Researcher did not use a computer

to analyze or record research. Survey data was analyzed through computer programming

provided by Survey Monkey. This site processed the numerical data to reveal percentage of

responses to various questions.

Creswell (2012) presents a helpful model for how researcher approached data: general

overview, divide text, label, reduce overlap, collapse codes into themes. In addition to this

strategy, researcher carefully noted observations in readings of interviews and took time to write

down personal reflections regarding data as recommended in Mills (2014). Mills (2014) states

good qualitative analysis researchers need to spend a lot of time with their data. Categorizing and

coding interview responses and looking through the data over the course of several days allowed

me to spend time with the data and sort the data to reveal categories within the data.

I used email interviews and two Survey Monkeys: one for parents and the other for

students. Surveys and interview questions were collected and compiled into two groups. Surveys

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were graphed according to responses to each question. One graph reflected child responses and

the other graph reflected parental responses. The research addressed questions such as

homeschooling motivation, educational influences and curriculum. Survey questions were

designed to address the specific aspects of child-led learning through the perspective of the

respective participant. Questions directed at students sought to reveal their personal feelings

toward unschooling and if they found it reflective of their needs and personalized. Questions

directed at the parents sought to reveal the practical application of unschooling, such as hours

spent in academics, logistics of who provided the education, when education stopped and started.

Interview questions were designed to reveal more specific aspects of unschooling. The

purpose of the study was to reveal the essence of child-led learning and to establish a set of

cultural commonalities inside this community. Interview questions were designed to reveal these

cultural commonalities or differences. Because there is so little academic research surrounding

unschooling, these questions were designed to establish a baseline of understanding between

researcher and families. Responses to the email interview were read carefully, coded and

compiled. Responses were collected and examined by hand through a Marxist lens and then

qualitatively considered using phenomenology and ethnography. Through discourse analysis I

looked for common vocabulary and themes throughout the conversation. The transcripts of the

texts were coded and highlighted, allowing of extraction of key words and ideas. I inserted

comments and made observations on the documents I created containing the interviewee

responses. I coded words that popped out inside the data revealing phenomenology and

ethnography. If I found a word cropping up a lot inside one interview, I searched the other

interviews for the same word. Axial coding, the process of identifying codes and grouping these

open codes to reveal patterns allowed me to keep a running list of words I identified in

23


participant responses.

Data collected from the Survey Monkey was analyzed with the computer software

provided by the site. Questions were broken down according to percentage of participant

response. Researcher made 2 copies of all data to ensure that no information was lost.

I triangulated data collected in the email interviews through the Survey Monkey surveys.

Member checking took place with 1 out of the four families participating in the study. Data

attained through quantitative surveys was compiled and broken down into percentages to indicate

how unschoolers and their children define their academic life.

Findings

Email Interview

The email interview revealed the commonalities between unschooling families through

the choice of the words. The essence of unschooling is revealed through phenomenon, or shared

experience of study participants. Of the four families interviewed, all four revealed their primary

motivation to unschool was to achieve more time together as a family. Every single participant

cited ‘togetherness’ at least once in the interview and some participants stated it up to four times.

The word, ‘interest’ cropped up a great deal in the study. Parent participants explained

throughout the study that a major benefit of child-led learning is the pursuit of personal interest

on the part of the students. The word most commonly used with all participants in the study was,

‘play.’ Inside the phenomenon of unschooling and child-led learning, it is clear that learning is

directly associated with play. Participant A went so far as to explain that play extended beyond

early childhood years, but well into adolescence and beyond as a key aspect of discovery and

learning. The word, ‘wanted’ appeared in every interview as well. This correlates with the word,

24


‘interested,’ revealing that students’ wants, needs and interests were the driving force behind

child-led learning. Interestingly, the final most commonly occurring word was the word,

‘library.’ Each family cited the library as a great source of learning for their families through the

pursuit of formal and informal material for students.

Two of the participants cited John Holt specifically as an influence in their way of

thought. Other names cropped up as well in the development of philosophy, however not with

any frequency. ‘Traditional’ was another word that appeared within the text a great deal. It was

used in reference to traditional teaching practices and the participants’ rejection of these ideas.

The connotation with the word traditional was somewhat negative.

Virtually every email described in detail the great enjoyment families find in the pursuit

of their educational practice. A common theme emerged, revealing that unlike the traditional

public school setting in which education is both an end and a means, child-led learning is a

lifestyle. Not entirely fixated on reaching benchmarks at a certain age or grade-level, but rather

pursuing education as part of life. Many participants describe their approach to schooling in

their home in the same way they describe parenting, a natural progression in life. Participants

describe learning to read in the same way as weaning from breast-feeding or learning to walk and

talk, developmental milestones in their child’s lives achieved at the rate and interest of the child.

The general sense in reading the responses from participants is that education in these

homes is an integral aspect of everyday life. It is not a process achieved only at school between

the hours of 7:30 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. Furthermore, education is presented as pleasurable and

experienced throughout the entire family as a whole, not on an individual basis or on a personal

level entirely. Throughout the study various aspects of formal education would emerge

addressing the desires and interests of the students. For example one student is pursuing Algebra

25


in an effort to prepare to attend a school of her choice next fall. Parents of these children seem

open to students attending traditional school if and when the student expresses the interest and

desire. Every single family in the study had at least one student attending a traditional school

while other student(s) remained at home inside the child-led learning model. This is reflective of

the open attitude toward education of all kinds and an openness on the part of child-led learning

families to expose their children to pedagogy they personally do not find the most effective.

Qualitative Research Results

Table 1

Discourse Analysis for Email Interview:Family K Family A Family L Family T

Sometimes 8 0 0 2Independently 3 0 0 0Together 4 1 1 3 (+1 with our

kids).Choose 5 0 0 0Interested 1 3 3 5Library 2 1 1 2Wanted 4 2 2 1Play 4 4 4 1Freedom 0 1 1 2Respect 0 0 0 0John Holt 0 1 2 0Traditional 2 0 3 3Experiences 0 0 3 1Creative/artistic 0 0 1 1Activities 0 0 0 3Flexible 0 2 0 2

Table 2

Key Words from interview

Family K Respect Freedom KindnessFamily A Curiosity Fun Flexible

26


Family T Together Interest HobbiesFamily K Eclectic Personal True

Survey Results

Parent Survey Results: The parent survey was designed to offer quantitative

triangulation to the data given in the email interview. I tried to give the responses from the email

questions context by creating a backdrop of information such as hours of instruction, assessment

techniques and an overview on how parents felt about their educational experience inside the

home.

The results reveal that parents following the child-led model value flexibility and a strong

sense of family investment in the educational model of unschooling. Results indicate that these

parents are not satisfied with the education offered in a traditional school setting, revealing that it

is too restrictive and a ‘disappointment.’ Seventy-five percent of families stated that they chose

child-led learning due to their own philosophical beliefs, not as a result of their negative

experiences or those of their children. While this multiple-choice survey was biased in

construction, I saw it as a necessary tool to offer quantitative triangulation of the data collected

in the qualitative portion of the study. With this bias acknowledged, the data supports the

findings revealed in the email interview to establish as baseline understanding of the culture and

phenomenon of child-led learning.

Student Survey: The student survey on Survey Monkey revealed an overall positive

response. Every family in the study had at least one middle school student being educated at

home in the child-led learning model. This survey revealed universally that students enjoy this

27


educational model and are supportive of their parents’ choice in this lifestyle. Students feel

positive and optimistic about their futures and the value of their education inside that future.

Challenges faced by students are primarily derived from having too many interests, rather than

educational struggles. One student cited math as a source of frustration and one indicated they

were sometimes bored. All other students replied that their primary problem with child-led

learning was being distracted or having too many interests to pursue. Student responses indicated

that the togetherness their parents indicated as important in the email interviews is universally

important to students. The flexible and open learning environment allowed in unschooling, is

enjoyed by all students in the survey. Every student who participated in the study took ownership

for his or her own learning. When asked a follow up question: True or False, My parents direct

my learning, 60% indicated their parents did not direct their learning. Only forty percent

indicated their parents were involved in the direction of their learning. Every single student in

the survey indicated they had more learning opportunities inside the home, rather than outside.

These finding reveal an interesting phenomenon. As a researcher, I expected to find that

the parents were primarily satisfied with the learning experience, but it was interesting to see that

the students themselves find value in their educational experience. The student survey contained

one error that may affect results. The survey could only be taken once. Multiple entries were not

allowed. In families with multiple children this survey could either reflect the universal feeling

of all of the children in the home, or of one specific child. In future studies a better survey model

would need to be created. As stated above this survey contains a bias, but it was deemed

necessary to triangulate other data collected. Additionally, I chose a survey specifically for

students to increase participation by keeping the survey quick and easy.

28


Discussion

Summary of Findings

The essence of child-led learning is the idea that learning and education are not separate

from everyday life. Families who pursue unschooling or child-led learning perceive it as an

integral part of the human experience. Whether or not students are in a traditional school,

learning is taking place. A commonality among all of the participants is the creation of the home

as a place of learning. Learning is not restricted to time reading or engaged in academics

specifically. Parents perceive all activities of the home as tools with which to educate their

children. The environments of these homes are conducive to learning. Parents describe

monitored screen time, balanced with household chores, learning and most importantly play.

Commonalities extend to a lack of focus on academic assessment and more on trial and error.

Learning is done through unstructured experimentation. Unlike the perception of this educational

philosophy, children are not allowed to run wild without guidance or attention to safety. Rather,

each parent commented in their interview that they see themselves as less of an educator and

more of a facilitator. The idea being that children need adults to ensure safety, good decision

making and assistance in attaining all of their ambitions and even just in the simple execution of

their ideas.

Those pursuing degrees in educators spend a great deal of time discussing the role of

student investment and engagement as strategies for academic success. While those in the

traditional teaching environment may not agree with every aspect of the unschooling model,

these families are achieving a positive and engaged learning environment. Students are

motivated to pursue their own objectives and that motivation creates an attitude of success.

29


Learning inside these homes is fun and playful. Students are positive and excited to learn.

Educators may have lessons that could be learned from this educational model.

One observation I made while reviewing this data is that all participants are in a two-

parent home with one parent as a stay-at-home parent whose full-time occupation is the

education and wellbeing of the children. All families are financial stable. This is a consideration

when one looks at the data and seeks to understand the phenomenon of homeschooling and

unschooling specifically.

Some of my data may be biased, and mistakes in collection on the student survey may

have affected the data. However, this pilot study lays the groundwork for helping establish a

sense of understanding between those who advocate and practice child-led learning and those

within the traditional schooling system. Further research on the phenomenon of unschooling,

complete with observation and collection of artifacts will offer a more comprehensive

understanding of the culture of unschooling and child-led learning.

Dissemination Plan

I plan to distribute my findings to the participants in my survey in an effort to achieve full

disclosure of my work and to build trust between the unschooling community and educational

academia. The hope is to inspire and encourage them to be open to further study to allow the

schools of education a better understanding of what is working in the child-led learning model

inside the home and how educators can replicate that environment in the classroom.

I will offer to distribute this study to those within the Northern Colorado Homeschooling

Association and to any teachers, administrators or educators. While this particular study will not

be published, it will be used to direct my further study in this subject area. I will post this project

on my professional education site for those who are interested to access.

30


Action Plan

This action research plan will be produced on an individual level. Because there is almost

no literature on unschooling in academia, this pilot study will form my personal study within the

child-led learning community. As I go on to pursue my Master’s in English Education, this

project will be the cornerstone of my research. I learned in creating data tools and collecting data

that there is an art to the creation of these tools. They are most effective when the questions are

constructed in such as way as to encourage in-depth answers and accurately collect the correct

data.

Beyond my pilot study, I hope to use my research to engage alternative educators and

traditional educators in a mutually beneficial dialog on how to provide the best education

possible for students. This action research and subsequent work will hopefully formulate team,

school, district and hopefully national research and comprehensive study of child-led learning. A

better understanding of this educational philosophy will better prepare teachers in the classroom

to engage, encourage and understand a student with this educational background.

Inside my own classroom, I will make a point to learn the background of my students.

Understanding if a student has a fundamentally different belief regarding educational

background will enable me to help support them in a traditional educational environment. For

those students who enter my classroom with an unschooling background, I will work hard to help

them carry that enthusiasm for education forward into my traditional classroom. I will also

provide support where needed and seek out challenges when appropriate for these students.

31


Appendix A

Data Collection Instruments: Unschooling

32


Email Interview:

Dear Study Participants,

If you are receiving this email, you have indicated an interest in taking part in my Action

Research study: Child-led Learning: An Examination in Alternative Education. Because this is a

pilot study, the findings will not be published. Your responses will help formulate the next step

in my research and the design of my full thesis project. All responses will be strictly confidential.

Please do not respond "Reply All." If you could please complete and return the interview and

surveys by Saturday, I would really appreciate it.

As you complete the following interview questions, please feel free to give me as much

information as you like. My objective in this study is to gain an understanding of child-led

learning from the perspective of the families who live this learning lifestyle. I know that as a

homeschooling parent your time is limited, I am so grateful for the opportunity to work with you

and with your family.

Along with the interview, there are two Survey Monkey surveys. One survey is to be

completed by the parent and the other to be completed by the student(s). These surveys will take

only a few minutes and will provide very helpful information to me in my work.

Thank you in advance,

33


Email Questions

1.Please describe the typical ‘school’ day in your home.

2. How does child-led learning differ from traditional schooling? In what ways is it similar?

3. What texts (including classical literature, curriculum, modern literature, poetry, text books,

math books) do you use in your day?

4. Please describe your personal experience with school? Did you love school? Hate it? Feel

alienated from learning? Thrive?

5. Did you have prior experience with child-led learning before taking this philosophical

educational approach?

6. How did you learn about child-led learning?

7. What factors contributed to your decision to homeschool and use child-led learning

specifically?

8. What are the three primary attributes of learning inside your home?

34


9. Please describe the ideal learning environment for your family.

10. Who or what is the largest influence over your educational approach? This can be someone

you know personally, or a leader in an educational movement, or simply any person who has

inspired and formed your educational perspective.

11. What are the most common misrepresentations/misunderstandings do you encounter about

child-led learning?

12. What role does technology play in your educational approach?

Thank you again for taking the time to participate in this interview. All responses are

strictly confidential and will be used for the purpose of this study exclusively. If you would like

to see the results of this study, or the final paper, please let me know and I will be sure to send

you a copy.

Please take just a few moments and complete the following Survey Monkey surveys.

Sincerely,

Deanna Martinez

M.Ed. Candidate Colorado State University

Parent survey: https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/YJYJ8LT

Student survey: https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/Y23F6VN

35

https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/Y23F6VN

https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/YJYJ8LT


Student survey as seen on Survey Monkey:

1. Homeschooling is

my first choice for my education.

my parents' choice for my education.

2. I find learning from home to be primarily a positive experience

True

False

3. My biggest challenge in child-directed learning is...

Knowing what to do.

Feeling motivated to learn or participate in activities presented to me.

Distractions.

Boredom.

Having so many interests I can't decide what to do.

Other (please specify)

4. I feel confident about my future

True

36


False

5. I enjoy being with my family and learning in a family environment.

True

False

6. I enjoy learning outdoors, at home or in non-traditional environments.

True

False

7. I direct my own learning.

True

False

8. My parents direct my learning.

True

False

9. I have more educational opportunities schooling at home.

True

False

10. I learn best

37


with a professional teacher

alone

with my parent

with my siblings or friends

38


Parent Survey as it appears on Survey Monkey:

1. How long have you been homeschooling?

One to three years

Four to six years

More than six years

2. What was the greatest contributing factor to your decision to homeschool?

Standardized testing

Religious preference

Difference in beliefs regarding education

Special needs for students

3. When I consider my homeschooling experience I feel...

Stressed and overworked, wondering how to get it all in.

Happy and relieved to have time with my children learning in a home environment.

It varies day to day. Mostly positive.

I continue to persevere although I am unsure if it is effective.

4. I assess my child(ren)'s academic success by...

An annual assessment such as standardized testing

39


By assessing how far my child(ren) progressed through the material over the course of the year.

An overall sense of how they have grown emotionally, academically, socially and within the family unit.

I do not assess my child(ren) either formally or informally, rather I trust the natural learning process.

5. Our average school day consists of

Zero to three hours of academics or learning each day.

Four to five hours of academics or learning each day.

Six or more hours of academics or learning each day.

6. In my educational approach I emphasize most

Language Arts and Humanities

Music and the Arts

Math and Science

Technology

Home skills and working with the land

Other (please specify)

7. In my homeschooling philosophy I....

40


Do not structure my day at all, but wait for my child to direct the learning and plan for the day.

Vary the structure of our day depending our needs and the needs of the family.

Plan ahead and carefully structure our day with a set of objectives going into each day.

Have a loose plan that I hope to achieve, but I don't sweat it if we don't get to everything on the list.

8. When I think about public or traditional schooling I feel...

Frustrated by a lack of personal education.

Bored by the structure and rigor.

Disappointed by the lack of creative approaches to learning.

Angry about a focus on standardized testing.

Indifferent. What traditional schools are doing is not of interest to me.

Excited. Traditional school is succeeding at its objectives.

9. Homeschooling/unschooling is a family affair

No. Schooling at home is between my children and myself.

Yes. We're all in it together. We work and plan together for a total family learning experience.

Somewhat. I plan and prepare, my family participates and supports the learning inside the family, but I am the primary source of motivation and execution.

41


It depends on the day.

10. I chose child-directed learning as my method to homeschool because...

I had a negative experience in school and want something different for my children.

My child(ren) had a negative experience in school and we needed a different approach at home.

I developed my educational approach based on my philosophical beliefs about family and childrearing.

I believe my child(ren) will learn all they need through their experiences and interests.

42


Student Responses to Survey

Homeschooling is Answered: 5 Skipped: 0

5 (100.00%)Answer Choices–

Responses–

–my first choice for my education.

100%

–my parents' choice for my education.

Q2I find learning from home to be primarily a positive experienceAnswer Choices–

Responses–

–True

100%

–False

Q3My biggest challenge in child-directed learning is...

Answered: 5 Skipped: 0

Answer Choices–

Responses–

–Knowing what to do.

43


–Feeling motivated to learn or participate in activities presented to me.

–Distractions.

40%

–Boredom.

20%

–Having so many interests I can't decide what to do.

20%

–ResponsesOther (please specify)

20% Math

Q4ExportCustomize

I feel confident about my futureAnswered: 5 Skipped: 0

Answer Choices–

Responses–

–True

100%

–False

Q5I enjoy being with my family and learning in a family environment.


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–True

100%

44


–False

Q6I enjoy learning outdoors, at home or in non-traditional environments.


Answer Choices–

Responses–

True 100%

1100.00%

–False

0%

Q7I direct my own learning.

Answered: 5 Skipped: 0%Answer Choices–

Responses–

–True

100%

–False

Q8ExportCustomize

My parents direct my learning.Answered: 5 Skipped: 0

TrueFalse

45


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–True

40%

–False

60%

Q9ExportCustomize

I have more educational opportunities schooling at home.


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–True

100%

–False

Q10I learn best


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–with a professional teacher

–alone

40%

–with my parent

40%

46


–with my siblings or friends

20%

47


Discourse Analysis for Email Interview:Kelly April Laura Tara

Sometimes 8 0 0 2Independently 3 0 0 0Together 4 1 1 3 (+1 with our

kids).Choose 5 0 0 0Interested 1 3 3 5Library 2 1 1 2Wanted 4 2 2 1Play 4 4 4 1Freedom 0 1 1 2Respect 0 0 0 0John Holt 0 1 2 0Traditional 2 0 3 3Experiences 0 0 3 1Creative/artistic 0 0 1 1Activities 0 0 0 3Flexible 0 2 0 2

Key Words from interview

Kelly Respect Freedom KindnessApril Curiosity Fun FlexibleTara Together Interest HobbiesKelly Eclectic Personal True

48


Analysis of Data from online survey:

How long have you been homeschooling?Answered: 4 Skipped: 0

Answer Choices–

Responses–

–One to three years

25%

–Four to six years

–More than six years

75%

Q2ExportCustomize

What was the greatest contributing factor to your decision to homeschool?Answer Choices–

Responses–

–Standardized testing

–Religious preference

–Difference in beliefs regarding education

75%

–Special needs for students

25%

Q3When I consider my homeschooling experience I feel...

49



Answer Choices–

Responses–

–Stressed and overworked, wondering how to get it all in.

–Happy and relieved to have time with my children learning in a home environment.

–It varies day to day. Mostly positive.

100%

–I continue to persevere although I am unsure if it is effective.

Q4I assess my child(ren)'s academic success by...


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–An annual assessment such as standardized testing

–By assessing how far my child(ren) progressed through the material over the course of the year.

–An overall sense of how they have grown emotionally, academically, socially and within the family unit.

75%

–I do not assess my child(ren) either formally or informally, rather I trust the natural learning process.

25%

Q5ExportCustomize

50


Our average school day consists of Answered: 4 Skipped: 0

Answer Choices–

Responses–

–zero to three hours of academics or learning each day.

75.00%75%

–Four to five hours of academics or learning each day.

–Six or more hours of academics or learning each day.

25%

Q6In my educational approach I emphasize most


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–Language Arts and Humanities

–Music and the Arts

–Math and Science

–Technology

–Home skills and working with the land

–ResponsesOther (please specify)

100%

Q7

51


In my homeschooling philosophy I ....Answered: 4 Skipped: 0

Answer Choices–

Responses–

–do not structure my day at all, but wait for my child to direct the learning and plan for the day.

–vary the structure of our day depending our needs and the needs of the family.

75%

–plan ahead and carefully structure our day with a set of objectives going into each day.

–have a loose plan that I hope to achieve, but I don't sweat it if we don't get to everything on the list.

25%

Q8When I think about public or traditional schooling I feel...


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–Frustrated by a lack of personal education.

–Bored by the structure and rigor.

25%

–Disappointed by the lack of creative approaches to learning.

75%

–Angry about a focus on standardized testing.

–

52


Indifferent. What traditional schools are doing is not of interest to me.

–Excited. Traditional school is succeeding at its objectives.

Q9Homeschooling/unschooling is a family affair


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–No. Schooling at home is between myself and my children.

–Yes. We're all in it together. We work and plan together for a total family learning experience.

75%

–Somewhat. I plan and prepare, my family participates and supports the learning inside the family, but I am the primary source of motivation and execution.

–It depends on the day.

25%

Q10I chose child-directed learning as my method to homeschool because...


Answer Choices–

Responses–

–I had a negative experience in school and want something different for my children.

–My child(ren) had a negative experience in school and we needed a different approach at home.

25%

– 50%

53


I developed my educational approach based on my philosophical beliefs about family and childrearing.

–I believe my child(ren) will learn all they need through their experiences and interests.

25%

54


References

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Examining Claims of Family Process Differences Ensuing From the Choice

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Collum, E. (2005). The Ins and Outs of Homeschooling: the

determinants of parental motivations and student achievement.

Education and Urban Society, 37 (3). May 2005.

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Criswell, J. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

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Gatto, J. T. (2005). Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of

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Green, C. L. & Hoover-Dempsey, K. V. (2007). Why Do Parents

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17-21.

Holt, J. (1989). Learning all of the Time. United States of America : Da Capo

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Martin, R. A. (2002). Alternatives in Education: an exploration of

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the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research

Association. Pages 1-31.

http://www.pathsoflearning.net/archives/aera2002.htm.

Medlin, R. G. (2013). Homeschooling and Question of Socialization

Revisited. Peabody Journal of Education, 88:3. 19 June 2013. Pages: 284-

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297. DOI: 10.1080/0161956X.2013.796825.

Merriam, S. & Tisdell, E. (2016). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and

Implementation. San Francisco, CA, United States of America: Jossey-Bass

Higher.

Mills, G. (2014). Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher, 5th

Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ, United States of America: Pearson

Education.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2011-2012).

Homeschooling Statistics Nationwide (data file). Retrieved from

http://nces.ed.gov/FastFacts/display.asp?id=91

Poudre School District Demographics. (2015).

Student demographics (data file). Retrieved from

https://www.psdschools.org/about-us/psd-demographics

Robb, D. (2006). Don’t Call It School. Teacher Magazine, 18, (3).

Pages 24-31.

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