decentralization
TRANSCRIPT
• Decentralization
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Network topology - Decentralization
1 This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-
failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a
central node (e.g., in star and tree networks)
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Network topology - Decentralization
1 A fully connected network, complete topology, or is a network topology in which there is a
direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are
n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due
to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant
links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.
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Decentralization
1 Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and
management science in private businesses and organizations,
political science, law and public administration, economics and
technology.
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Decentralization - History
1 In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began
with "a push towards decentralization...[but became,]in the end, an extension of
centralization." In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article
called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of
government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at
decentralization of government functions.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - History
1 All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or
decentralization."
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Decentralization - History
1 In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of
economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement
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Decentralization - History
1 Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is
from centralization to decentralization
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Decentralization - History
1 Bennett's Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare
Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized "welfarist" policy of
entitlements which now has become a "post-welfare" policy of
intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.
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Decentralization - History
1 According to a 1999 United Nations Development
Programme report:
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Decentralization - History
1 This trend is coupled with a growing interest in the role of civil society and
the private sector as partners to governments in seeking new ways of service delivery...Decentralization of governance and the strengthening of
local governing capacity is in part also a function of broader societal
trends
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 The United Nations Development Programme report applies to the topic of
decentralization "a whole systems perspective, including levels, spheres, sectors and functions and seeing the community level as the entry point at
which holistic definitions of development goals are most likely to emerge from the people themselves and where it is most
practical to support them
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 However, decentralization itself
has been seen as part of a systems approach
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 University of California, Irvine's Institute for Software Research's "PACE" project is creating an "architectural style for trust
management in decentralized applications." It adopted Rohit Khare's
definition of decentralization: "A decentralized system is one which
requires multiple parties to make their own independent decisions" and applies it to Peer-to-peer software creation, writing:
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 ...In such a decentralized system, there is no single centralized
authority that makes decisions on behalf of all the parties
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Decentralization - Goals
1 The following four goals or objectives are frequently stated in various
analyses of decentralization.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 According to one definition: "Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the
restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the
central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the
authority and capacities of sub-national levels."
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers
are the basis of decentralisation that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development.”
Columbia University's Earth Institute identified one of three major trends relating
to decentralization as: "increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs,
with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships."
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Decentralization has been described as a "counterpoint to globalization" which removes decisions from the
local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-
national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the
sub-national levels. Decentralization strategies must the interrelations of the global, regional, national, sub-
national, local levels.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Goals
1 Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the
agents have some ability to operate "locally.” Both decentralization and diversity are necessary attributes to
achieve the self-organizing properties of interest."
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Advocates of political decentralization hold that greater participation by better informed
diverse interests in society will lead to more relevant decisions than
those made only by authorities on the national level. Decentralization
has been described as a response to demands for diversity.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 In business decentralization leads to a “Management by Results" philosophy which focuses on definite objectives to be achieved
by unit results. Decentralization of government programs is said to increase
efficiency - and effectivness - due to reduction of congestion in communications, quicker
reaction to unanticipated problems, improved ability to deliver of services, improved
information about local conditions, and more support from beneficiaries of programs.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees
upper management for long term strategizing rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers
have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are
motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be
masked by the overall profitability of the company.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 The same principles can be applied to government. Decentralization promises to
enhance efficiency through both inter-governmental competition with market
features and fiscal discipline which assigns tax and expenditure authority to the lowest level of government possible. It works best where members of subnational government
have strong traditions of democracy, accountability and professionalism.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages
statewide parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the
power of regional parties.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 According to the United Nations Development Programme it is "more than a process, it is a way of life and a state of mind." The report provides
a chart-formatted framework for defining the application of the
concept ‘decentralization’ describing and elaborating on the "who, what, when, where, why and how" factors in any process of decentralization.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Some hold that decentralization should not be imposed, but done in a respectful manner.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 The appropriate balance of centralization and decentralization should be studied
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Gauging the appropriate size or scale of decentralized units has been
studied in relation to the size of sub-units of hospitals and schools, road networks, administrative units in
business and public administration, and especially town and city
governmental areas and decision making bodies.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 In creating planned communities ("new towns"), it is important to
determine the appropriate population and geographical size. While in earlier years small towns were considered appropriate, by the 1960s, 60,000 inhabitants was
considered the size necessary to support a diversified job market and an adequate shopping center and
array of services and entertainment. Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a
consideration.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even
the boundaries of governments according to physical and
environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must be considered. The unit
may be larger than many decentralist bioregionalists prefer.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 There is no one blueprint for decentralization since it depends on the initial state of a country and the power and views of political interests and whether they support or oppose
decentralization.
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Decentralization - Processes
1 A variation on this is "inadvertent decentralization", when other policy innovations produce an unintended
decentralization of power and resources
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Decentralization of responsibilities to provinces may be limited only to
those provinces or states which want or are capable of handling
responsibility
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Measuring the amount of decentralization, especially
politically, is difficult because different studies of it use different
definitions and measurements. Chanchal Kumar Sharma writes: "a true assessment of the degree of
decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive
approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of
characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy,
interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are
taken into account."
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Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 Hall review other works that detail these cycles, including works which analyze the concept of core elites
which compete with state accumulation of wealth and how
their "intra-ruling-class competition accounts for the rise and fall of states" and of their phases of
centralization and decentralization.
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Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 Rising government expenditures, poor economic performance and the rise of free market-influenced ideas
have convinced governments to decentralize their operations, to induce competition within their
services, to contract out to private firms operating in the market, and to privatize some functions and services
entirely.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 It has been called the "new public management" which has been described as decentralization, management by objectives,
contracting out, competition within government and consumer
orientation.
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Decentralization - Political
1 Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 Four major forms of administrative
decentralization have been described.
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 Deconcentration, the weakest form of decentralization, shifts
responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of
certain public functions from officials of central governments to those in
existing districts or, if necessary, new ones under direct control of the
central government.
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 Delegation passes down responsibility for decision-making,
finance and implementation of certain public functions to semi-
autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central
government, but ultimately accountable to it
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 Devolution transfers all responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public
functions to the sub-national level, such as a regional, local, or state
government.
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 Divestment, also called privatization, may mean merely contracting out
services to private companies
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Decentralization - Fiscal
1 Fiscal decentralization means decentralizing revenue raising and/or
expenditure of monies to a lower level of government while
maintaining financial responsibility
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Decentralization - Fiscal
1 Fiscal decentralization can be achieved through user fees, user participation through monetary or labor contributions, expansion of
local property or sales taxes, intergovernmental transfers of
central government tax monies to local governments through transfer
payments or grants, and authorization of municipal borrowing
with national government loan guarantees. Transfers of money may
be given conditionally with instructions or unconditionally
without them.
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Decentralization - Economic or market
1 Economic decentralization can be done through privatization of public owned functions and businesses, as
described briefly above
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Decentralization - Economic or market
1 Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like
banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and
lower prices
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Decentralization - Economic or market
1 Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about the "comparative benefits" of decentralization versus
government regulation in the setting of standards
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Decentralization - Environmental
1 Such decentralization has happened in India
and other third world nations.
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Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society without private property in
the means of production
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Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political
and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property and
enterprise (while retaining respect for personal property)
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Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist
include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-
syndicalism, and mutualism) as well as autonomism, Communalism, participism, libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council
communism and Luxemburgism, and some versions of "utopian socialism"
and individualist anarchism
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Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating "industrial democracy," a
system where workplaces would be "handed over to democratically organised workers' associations
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam
Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 There would be no difficulty about efficient control or planning were conditions so simple that a single person or board could effectively
survey all the relevant facts. It is only as the factors which have to be taken
into account become so numerous that it is impossible to gain a synoptic view of them that decentralization becomes
imperative.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 According to Bruce M
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 This also was true in banking and finance, which saw decentralization as leading to instability as state and local banks competed with the big
New York City firms
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the
various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by
centralized national governments: decentralization through the
"multiplication of sovereignties", i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to
secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to
produce wealth.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Technological decentralization
1 Technology includes tools, materials, skills, techniques and processes by which goals are accomplished in the public and private spheres. Concepts of decentralization of technology are
used throughout all types of technology, including especially
information technology and appropriate technology.
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Decentralization - Technological decentralization
1 Technologies often mentioned as best implemented in a decentralized manner, include: water purification, delivery and waste water disposal, agricultural technology and energy
technology
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Decentralization - Appropriate technology
1 "Appropriate technology", originally described as "intermediate technology" by economist E
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Decentralization - Critiques
1 If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or
resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control
over financial resources.
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Decentralization - Critiques
1 Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or
local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel
compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied;
incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to
frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.
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Decentralization - Critiques
1 It has been noted that while decentralization may increase "productive efficiency" it may
undermine "allocative efficiency" by making redistribution of wealth more difficult. Decentralization will cause greater disparities between rich and poor regions, especially during times
of crisis when the national government may not be able to help
regions needing it.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Further reading
1 Furniss, Norman (1974). "The Practical Significance of
Decentralization". The Journal of Politics 36 (4): 958–82.
doi:10.2307/2129402. ISSN 0022-3816.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Merilee Serrill Grindle, Going Local: Decentralization, Democratization,
And The Promise of Good Governance, Princeton University Press, 2007, ISBN 069112907X,
9780691129075
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Daniel Treisman, The Architecture of Government: Rethinking Political
Decentralization, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN
0521872294, 9780521872294
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Richard M. Burton, Børge Obel, Design Models for Hierarchical Organizations: Computation,
Information, and Decentralization, Springer, 1995, ISBN 079239609X,
9780792396093
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of
decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration,
32(8): pp. 704–727.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Miller, Michelle Ann & Tim Bunnell. (2012), guest editors. 'Asian Cities in
an Era of Decentralisation', Space and Polity, Vol.16, No.1.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2006), Decentralization Dilemma: Measuring
the Degree and Evaluating the Outcomes, The Indian Journal of
Political Science, Vol.67, No.1, pp. 49–64.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2008), Emerging Dimensions of
Decentralization Debate in the Age of Glocalization, MPRA Paper 6734,
University Library of Munich, Germany; revised version Published
as "Emerging Dimensions of Decentralization Debate in the Age of
Globalization" in Indian Journal of Federal Studies Vol. 19 No.1 pp 47–
65( year 2009).https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Further reading
1 Schakel, Arjan H. (2008), Validation of the Regional Authority Index],
Regional and Federal Studies, Routlege, Vol. 18 (2).
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Decentralization, article at the “Restructuring local government project” of Dr. Mildred Warner,
Cornell University includes a number of articles on decentralization trends
and theories.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Peter Aucoin, Herman Bakvis, The Centralization-Decentralization Conundrum: Organization and Management in the Canadian Government, IRPP, 1988, ISBN 0886450705, 9780886450700
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Jean-Paul Faguet, Decentralization and Popular Democracy: Governance from Below in Bolivia, University of
Michigan Press, 2012, ISBN 0472118196, 9780472118199
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Harvey S. Rosen, Editor, Fiscal Federalism: Quantitative Studies
National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report, NBER-
Project Report, University of Chicago Press, 2008, ISBN 0226726231,
9780226726236
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Tim Campbell, Quiet Revolution: Decentralization and the Rise of
Political Participation in Latin American Cities, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003, ISBN
0822957965, 9780822957966
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Fisman, Raymond and Roberta Gatti (2002), Decentralization and Corruption: Evidence Across Countries, Journal of Public
Economics, Vol.83, No.3, pp. 325–45.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Frischmann, Eva (2010), Decentralization and Corruption. A
Cross-Country Analysis, Grin Verlag, 978-3640710959.
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Decentralization - Further reading
1 Miller, Michelle Ann, ed. (2012). Autonomy and Armed Separatism in
South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: ISEAS).
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XMPP - Decentralization and addressing
1 The XMPP network uses a Client–server model|client–server
architecture (clients do not talk directly to one another). However, it is decentralized—by design, there is no central authoritative server, as there is with services such as AOL
Instant Messenger or Windows Live Messenger. Some confusion often arises on this point as there is a public XMPP server being run at
jabber.org, to which a large number of users subscribe. However, anyone may run their own XMPP server on
their own domain.
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XMPP - Decentralization and addressing
1 Every user on the network has a unique Jabber ID (usually abbreviated
as JID). To avoid requiring a central server to maintain a list of IDs, the
JID is structured like an email address with a username and a domain name
(or IP addressRFC 6122) for the server where that user resides,
separated by an at sign (@), such as [email protected].
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XMPP - Decentralization and addressing
1 Since a user may wish to log in from multiple locations, they may specify a 'resource'. A resource identifies a
particular client belonging to the user (for example home, work, or mobile).
This may be included in the JID by appending a slash followed by the
name of the resource. For example, the full JID of a user's mobile account
would be [email protected]/mobile.
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XMPP - Decentralization and addressing
1 Each resource may have specified a numerical value called 'priority'.
Messages simply sent to [email protected] will go to the client with highest priority, but
those sent to [email protected]/mobile will
go only to the mobile client. The highest priority is the one with
largest numerical value.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
XMPP - Decentralization and addressing
1 JIDs without a username part are also valid, and may be used for system messages and control of special
features on the server. A resource remains optional for these JIDs as
well.
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XMPP - Decentralization and addressing
1 The means to route messages based on a logical endpoint identifier - the
JID, instead of by an explicit IP Address present opportunities to use
XMPP as an Overlay network implementation on top of different
underlay networks.
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Decentralization
1 Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and
management science in private businesses and organizations,
political science, law and public administration, economics and
technology.
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Decentralization - History
1 Schmidt, Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of
Decentralization, Cambridge University Press, 2007,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUCpg=PA22dq=word+centralizationhl=ensa=Xei=58sSUc_MFfKB0QHC6oFQved=0CFoQ6AEwBw
#v=onepageq=word%20centralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - History
1 In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called
“Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics
of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French
efforts at decentralization of government functions.Robert Leroux,
French Liberalism in the 19th Century: An Anthology, Chapter 6: Maurice Block on Decentralization,
Routledge, 2012, [http://books.google.com/books?
id=Hhf1iGshBKECpg=PA255dq=19th+century+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=csUSUaWxJYHj0gHnuoCoBQved
=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepageq=19th%20century
%20decentralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - History
1 And from the accumulation of these local, active, persnickety freedoms, is
born the most efficient counterweight against the claims of the central government, even if it were supported by an impersonal,
collective will.[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/history_fao.html A History of Decentralization], Earth
Institute of Columbia University website, accessed February 4, 2013
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Decentralization - History
1 * wrote: All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can
be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All
my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization.Du principe Fédératif
(Principle of Federation), 1863.
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Decentralization - History
1 In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of
economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - History
1 Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is
from centralization to decentralization.Sam Inkinen, Mediapolis: Aspects of Texts, Hypertexts and Multimedial
Communication, Volume 25 of Research in Text Theory, Walter de
Gruyter, 1999, [http://books.google.com/books?
id=UdOg403f5ykCpg=PA272dq=Naisbitt+Megatrends+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=JRcUUfDQDO630QHN2YHoDgved=0CGsQ6AEwCw#v=onepa
geq=Naisbitt%20Megatrends%20decentralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - History
1 Bennett's Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare
Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized welfarist policy of
entitlements which now has become a post-welfare policy of
intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 It involves seeing multi-level frameworks and continuous,
synergistic processes of interaction and iteration of cycles as critical for
achieving wholeness in a decentralized system and for
sustaining its development.””Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”,1999, p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Systems approach
1 However, decentralization itself has been seen as part of a
systems approach
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 Los Alamos National Laboratory, for University of California Los Angeles 1999 conference Decentralization
Two.
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Decentralization - Systems approach
1 University of California, Irvine's Institute for Software Research's
PACE project is creating an architectural style for trust
management in decentralized applications. It adopted Rohit Khare's
definition of decentralization: A decentralized system is one which requires multiple parties to make
their own independent decisions and applies it to Peer-to-peer software
creation, writing:
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Goals
1 ISBN 1402047002, 9781402047008 The following four goals or objectives
are frequently stated in various analyses of decentralization.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Goals
1 According to one definition: Decentralization, or decentralizing
governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of
authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions
of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to
the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and
effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-
national levels.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Goals
1 Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of
decentralisation that can lead to local efficiency, equity and
development.” Columbia University's Earth Institute identified one of three
major trends relating to decentralization as: increased
involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of
their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and
partnerships.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Decentralization has been described as a counterpoint to globalization which removes decisions from the
local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-
national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the
sub-national levels. Decentralization strategies must the interrelations of the global, regional, national, sub-
national, local levels.”Decentralization: A Sampling
of Definitions”, 1999, p. 12-13.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in
decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems. Diversity is defined to be unique properties of entities, agents, or
individuals that are not shared by the larger group, population, structure.
Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the
agents have some ability to operate locally.” Both
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Goals
1 Quote: ...if demographic diversity promotes greater decentralization, the size of the public
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Goals
1 sector is not affected 10
consequently.
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs,
Volume 188, World Bank Publications, 1992, [
http://books.google.com/books?id=XtoXuSHMclICpg=PA4dq=efficiency+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=Q90ZUZC3F4rV0gG86IGIBwved=0CEUQ
6AEwBA#v=onepageq=efficiency%20decentralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - Goals
1 Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages statewide
parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the power of regional parties.Dawn
Brancati, [ http://books.google.com/books/about/Peace_by_Design_Managing_Intrastate_Conf.html?
id=g7eLksrA8LAC Peace by Design:Managing Intrastate Conflict through Decentralization], Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 0191615226, 9780191615221
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Processes
1 The report provides a chart-formatted framework for defining the
application of the concept ‘decentralization’ describing and
elaborating on the who, what, when, where, why and how factors in any
process of decentralization.”Decentralization: A
Sampling of Definitions, 1999, p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Processes
1 Some hold that decentralization should not be imposed, but done in a respectful manner.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Processes
1 182], ISBN 0203219996, 9780203219997Aaron Tesfaye,
Political Power and Ethnic Federalism: The Struggle for Democracy in
Ethiopa, University Press of America, 2002,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=XD9oFjvFurACpg=PA44dq=
%22appropriate+size%22+government+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=Gr0bUerHCofB0QG6v4Agved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=
%22appropriate%20size%22%20government
%20decentralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a
consideration.Harry Ward Richardson, Urban economics,
Dryden Press, 1978, [http://books.google.com/books?
ei=Gr0bUerHCofB0QG6v4Agid=d9YpAQAAMAAJdq=%22appropriate+size%22+government+decentralizationq
=%22appropriate+size%22+#search_anchor p
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Decentralization - Processes
1 Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even
the boundaries of governments according to physical and
environmental features, including Drainage basin|watershed
boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must
be considered
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Processes
1 Fattore, [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/
10.1080/01900690902908760 Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of
decentralization], International Journal of Public Administration,
Volume 32, Issue 8, 2009, pp
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Decentralization - Processes
1 A variation on this is inadvertent decentralization, when other policy innovations produce an unintended
decentralization of power and resources. In both China and Russia,
lower level authorities attained greater powers than intended by
central authorities.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p.
19–20.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Processes
1 Some privatization may be more appropriate to an urban than a rural
area; some types of privatization may be more appropriate for some
states and provinces but not others.”Decentralization: A Sampling
of Definitions”, 1999, p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Processes
1 Chanchal Kumar Sharma writes: a true assessment of the degree of decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of
characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy, interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are taken into account.Chanchal
Kumar Sharma, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?
abstract_id=955113 Decentralization Dilemma: Measuring the Degree and Evaluating the
Outcomes], The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 Hall, Rise and Demise: Comparing World Systems, Westview Press,
1997, [http://books.google.com/books?
id=sIpw_9oI0RgCprintsec=frontcoverdq=Chase-
Dunn+Hall+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=8Q0TUcCODofA9QTR-
oGYCwved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=decentralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 Chaturvedi, Mittal Publications, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?
id=kpohGPGIyYMCpg=PA229dq=neo-
liberalism+Mishra+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=2xYpUeuBNsXw0QGC8oEIved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq
=neo-liberalism%20Mishra%20decentralizationf=false p
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Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 Government decentralization has both political and administrative
aspects. Its decentralization may be territorial, moving power from a
central city to other localities, and it may be functional, moving decision-making from the top administrator of any branch of government to lower
level officials, or divesting of the function entirely through
privatization.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p. 5-
8.
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Decentralization - Government decentralization
1 It has been called the new public management which has been described as decentralization, management
by objectives, contracting out, competition within government and consumer orientation.Managing
Decentralisation: A New Role for Labour Market Policy, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, Local Economic and Employment Development (Program), OECD Publishing, 2003,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=LJh1onzfJMICpg=PA135dq=New+Public+Management+Decentralisationhl=ensa=Xei=6WgUUcjVJevW0gHs3
oH4AQved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=New%20Public%20Management%20Decentralisationf=false
p 135], ISBN 9264104704, 9789264104709
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Decentralization - Political
1 Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected
representatives more Power (sociology)|power
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 Four major forms of administrative decentralization have been
described.[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/
Different_forms.html Different forms of decentralization], Earth Institute of
Columbia University, accessed February 5, 2013.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p.
8.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Administrative
1 * Deconcentration, the weakest form of decentralization, shifts
responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of
certain public functions from officials of central governments to those in
existing districts or, if necessary, new ones under direct control of the
central government.
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 *Delegation passes down responsibility for decision-making,
finance and implementation of certain public functions to semi-
autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central
government, but ultimately accountable to it
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 *Devolution transfers all responsibility for decision-making,
finance and implementation of certain public functions to the sub-national level, such as a regional,
local, or state government.
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Decentralization - Administrative
1 *Divestment, also called privatization, may mean merely
contracting out services to private companies
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Decentralization - Fiscal
1 It actually can be a way of increasing central government
control of lower levels of government, if it is not linked to
other kinds of responsibilities and authority.David King, Fiscal Tiers: The Economics of Multilevel Government, George Allen and Unwin, 1984.Nico
Groenendijk, Fiscal federalism Revisited paper presented at
Institutions in Transition Conference organized by IMAD, Slovania
Ljublijana.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Fiscal
1 Transfers of money may be given conditionally with instructions or
unconditionally without them.http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/decentralization/fiscal.htm Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations],
Decentralization and Subnational Economies project, World Bank
website, accessed February 9, 2013.
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Decentralization - Economic or market
1 Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like
banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and
lower prices
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Decentralization - Economic or market
1 Some argue that government standardisation in areas from
commodity market, inspection and standardized testing|testing
Procurement|procurement bidding, Building codes, Professional degree|
professional and vocational education, trade certification, safety,
etc. are necessary. Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about
the comparativehttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Economic or market
1 benefits of decentralization versus government regulation in the setting of
standards
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Decentralization - Environmental
1 Such decentralization has happened in IndiaI
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Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophy|political
philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society
without private property in the means of production
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Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 The Growth of Economic Thought Duke University Press (1991) p.446 Adherents propose achieving this
through decentralization of political and economic power, usually
involving the socialization of most large-scale private property and
enterprise (while retaining respect for personal property)
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist
include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, Collectivist anarchism|anarchist
collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism, and mutualism (economic theory)|
mutualism[http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html A Mutualist FAQ: A.4
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 For Proudhon, Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism involved creating
industrial democracy, a system where workplaces would be handed
over to democratically organised workers' associations
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam
Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 According to Bruce M
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 *Tibor R. Machan, Private Rights Public Illusions, Transaction
Publishers, 1995, [http://books.google.com/books?id=W1WFgQLS-RcCpg=PA99dq=
%22Big+Business+and+the+Rise+of+American+Statism
%22hl=ensa=Xei=htkjUZ2bIMHB0AGC6oGYCQved=0CD4Q6AEwAw#v=on
epageq=%22Big%20Business%20and%20the%20Rise%20of
%20American%20Statism%22f=false p. 99], ISBN 141283192X,
9781412831925
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Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 Taft and Woodrow Wilson passed as progressive reforms centralizing laws like The Federal Reserve Act of 1913
that gave control of the monetary system to the wealthiest bankers; the formation of monopoly public
utilities that made competition with those monopolies illegal; federal
inspection of meat packers biased against small companies; extending Interstate Commerce Commission to regulating telephone companies and
keeping rates high to benefit ATT; and using the Sherman Anti-trust Act
against companies which might combine to threaten larger or
monopoly companies.Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A
Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916, Chapter Two:
Competition and Decentralization: The Failure to Rationalize Industry,
Simon and Schuster, 2008, [http://books.google.com/books?id=jTyfQk1zMTYCpg=PA309dq=
%22Gabriel+Kolko%22+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=60UkUeCWGbG80QHOjICICQved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=decentr
alizationf=false p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Free market decentralization
1 2], ISBN 0754674150, 9780754674153 Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported
secession of Quebec from Canada.Jane Jacobs, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty, (1980
Random House and 2011 Baraka Books), ISBN 978-1-926824-06-2 Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the
various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the
multiplication of sovereignties, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability
to produce wealth.Gopal Balakrishnan, Mapping the Nation, Verso, 1996, [http://books.google.com/books?
id=hdrfDqF3fLoCpg=PA277dq=Jane+Jacobs+Cities+and+the+wealth+of+nations+multiplication+of+sovereigntieshl=ensa=Xei=y-
EbUdzvOcLi0gHkvoCIAQved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=Jane%20Jacobs%20Cities%20and%20the%20wealth%20of%20nations
%20multiplication%20of%20sovereigntiesf=false p
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Decentralization - Technological decentralization
1 Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New
Technology Affects Old Policy Issues NYU Press, 2003,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUCpg=PA184dq=Half-
Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=wRwtUY7NKeqw0AHElIGACAved=
0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=Half-Life%20Policy%20Rationales
%20Decentralizationf=false phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 Information technology encompasses computers and computer networks, as well as information distribution
technologies such as television and telephones. The whole computer industry of computer hardware, software, electronics, internet,
telecommunications equipment, e-commerce and computer services
are included. https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 Decentralization is particularly applicable to business or
management units which have a high level of independence, complicated
products and customers, and technology less relevant to other units.John Baschab, Jon Piot, The Executive's Guide to Information
Technology, John Wiley Sons, 2007, [ http://books.google.com/books?
id=YokHUkRBZoACpg=PA119dq=decentralization+information+technologyhl=ensa=Xei=OtwqUYr3CMzH0AHs94CIBAved=0CHsQ6AEwCw#v=onep
ageq=decentralization%20information
%20technologyf=false p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 David Garson, Modern Public Information Technology Systems: Issues and Challenges, IGI Global,
2007, [ http://books.google.com/books?
id=mf_kb6MKrOYCpg=PT128dq=information+technology+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=D7cqUbnwLtCr0AGw
0IDgBwved=0CFgQ6AEwBQ p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 316], ISBN 0596553897, 9780596553890 Wikipedia itself has been described as decentralized.Axel Bruns, Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life,
and Beyond: From Production to Produsage, Peter Lang (publishing
company)|Peter Lang, 2008, [ http://books.google.com/books?
id=xWxmFNMKXhECpg=PA231dq=wikipedia+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=JMsqUbfjJJC70AGyjIHYDwved=0CEs
Q6AEwBA p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 Decentralization continues throughout the industry, for example as the decentralized architecture of wireless routers installed in homes and offices supplement and even
replace phone companies relatively centralized long-range cell towers.Adi
Kamdar and Peter Eckersley, [https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/02/fcc-public-super-wifi-networks Can
the FCC Create Public Super WiFi Networks?], Electronic Frontier Foundation, February 5, 2013.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 Related ideas coming out of Silicon Valley included the free software and creative commons movements which
produced visions of a networked information economy.Jennifer Holt,
Alisa Perren, Media Industries: History, Theory, and Method, John
Wiley Sons, 2011, [ http://books.google.com/books?
id=SJ1ZYY-8kj4Cpg=RA4-PA1996dq=%22free+market
%22+decentralization+of+corporations+libertarianhl=ensa=Xei=R9QjUfyxJNO20AGUnYA4ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=%22free%20market
%22%20decentralization%20of%20corporations
%20libertarianf=false p
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Information technology
1 Because human interactions in cyberspace transcend physical
geography, there is a necessity for new theories in legal and other rule-
making systems to deal with decentralized decision-making
processes in such systems
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet
1 The New Yorker reports that although the Internet was originally
decentralized, in recent years it has become less so: a staggering
percentage of communications flow through a small set of corporations—
and thus, under the profound influence of those companies and
other institutions [...] One solution, espoused by some programmers, is
to make the Internet more like it used to be—less centralized and
more distributed.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet
1 Examples of projects that attempt to contribute to the redecentralization
of the Internet include ArkOS, Diaspora (social network)|Diaspora, FreedomBox and Namecoin, as well
as advocacy group Redecentralize.org, which provides
support for projects that aim to make the Web less centralized.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet
1 In an interview with BBC Radio 5 Live one of the co-founders of Redecentralize.org
explained that:
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Appropriate technology
1 Appropriate technology, originally described as intermediate technology by economist E
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Critiques
1 If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or
resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control
over financial resources.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization - Critiques
1 Decentralization will cause greater disparities between rich and poor regions, especially during
times of crisis when the national government may not be able to help regions needing it.Summary of
Remy Prud’homme, [http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/summary.a
sp?id=prudhomme1995 The Dangers of Decentralization], World Bank Research Observer,
10(2):201, 1995, linked from [http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/viewpage_r.asp?ID=Decentralization Decentralization], article
“Restructuring local government project” of Dr
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol - Decentralization and addressing
1 The XMPP network uses a Client–server model|client–server
architecture (clients do not talk directly to one another)
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Organizing (management) - Centralization, decentralization, and formalization
1 *'Centralization' - The location of decision making authority near top organizational
levels.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Organizing (management) - Centralization, decentralization, and formalization
1 *'Decentralization' - The location of decision making authority near lower organizational
levels.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Organizing (management) - Centralization, decentralization, and formalization
1 *'Formalization' - The written documentation used to direct and control employees.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralisation - Libertarian socialist decentralization
1 For Proudhon, Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism involved creating
industrial democracy, a system where workplaces would be handed
over to democratically organised workers' associations
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralisation - Free market decentralization
1 Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam
Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralisation - Free market decentralization
1 2], ISBN 9780754674153 Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported secession of
Quebec from Canada.Jane Jacobs, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty, (1980 Random House and 2011 Baraka Books), ISBN 978-1-926824-06-2 Her 1984 book Cities
and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized
national governments: decentralization through the multiplication of sovereignties, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the
larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.Gopal Balakrishnan, Mapping the Nation, Verso, 1996,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=hdrfDqF3fLoCpg=PA277dq=Jane+Jacobs+Cities+and+the+wealth
+of+nations+multiplication+of+sovereigntieshl=ensa=Xei=y-EbUdzvOcLi0gHkvoCIAQved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=Jane%20Jacobs%20Cities%20and%20the%20wealth%20of%20nations
%20multiplication%20of%20sovereigntiesf=false p
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Decentralisation - Technological decentralization
1 Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New
Technology Affects Old Policy Issues NYU Press, 2003,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUCpg=PA184dq=Half-
Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=wRwtUY7NKeqw0AHElIGACAved=
0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=Half-Life%20Policy%20Rationales
%20Decentralizationf=false phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 Under General President Frank Fitzsimmons, authority within the Teamsters was decentralized back
into the hands of regional, joint council, and local leaders
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International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 But decentralization of power within the union led several Teamster
leaders in California to repudiate this agreement without Fitzsimmons' permission and organize large
numbers of field workers
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International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 In October 1973, Fitzsimmons ended the long-running jurisdictional
dispute with the International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers|United Brewery Workers, and the Brewery
Workers merged with the Teamsters.Brewery Workers Merger With Teamsters Is Backed. New York
Times. October 24, 1973.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 In 1979 Congress passed legislation that deregulated the freight industry, removing the Interstate Commerce
Commission's power to impose detailed regulatory tariffs on
interstate carriers
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International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 Deregulation had catastrophic effects on the Teamsters, opening up the industry to competition from non-
union companies who sought to cut costs by avoiding unionization and
curbing wages. Nearly 200 unionized carriers went out of business in the
first few years of deregulation, leaving thirty percent of Teamsters in the freight division unemployed. The
remaining unionized carriers demanded concessions in wages,
work rules, and hours.
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International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 Williams' successor, Jackie Presser, was prepared to grant most of these concessions in the form of a special freight “relief rider” that would cut
wages by up to 35 percent and establish two-tier wages. Teamsters for a Democratic Union, which had grown out of efforts to reject the
1976 freight agreement, launched a successful national campaign to defeat the relief rider, which was defeated by a vote of 94,086 to
13,082.
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International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Decentralization, deregulation and drift
1 The pressure on the freight industry and the national freight agreement continued, however. By the end of
the 1990s the National Master Freight Agreement, which had
covered 500,000 drivers in the late 1970s, dropped to less than 200,000,
with numerous local riders weakening it further in some areas.
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Criticism of libertarianism - Government decentralization
1 John Donahue argues that if political power were radically shifted to local authorities, parochial local interests
would predominate at the expense of the whole, and that this would
exacerbate current problems with collective action.Donahue, John. (1
May 1997). [http://www.prospect.org/print/V8/32/
donahue-j.html The Devil in Devolution.] American Prospect. 8
(32).
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Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools - Decentralization
1 Regional offices known as learning communities, each with an area
superintendent, were implemented in the 2007-2008 school
year.[http://pages.cms.k12.nc.us/decentralization/ Decentralization]
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Point-to-point (network topology) - Decentralization
1 This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-
failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a
central node (e.g., in star and tree networks)
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Point-to-point (network topology) - Decentralization
1 This is similar in some ways to a 'grid network', where a linear or ring
topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A
multidimensional ring has a torus|toroidal topology, for instance.
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Point-to-point (network topology) - Decentralization
1 A 'fully connected network', 'complete topology', or '#Full mesh|
full mesh topology' is a network topology in which there is a direct
link between all pairs of nodes
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Alejandro Toledo - Decentralization
1 Under Toledo's predecessor, Fujimori, the governing authority in Peru was
condensed and centralized. A Fujimori-dominated congress passed
a new constitution in 1993, which consolidated the Bicameralism|
bicameral legislature into a Unicameralism|unicameral
legislature with a single national district. Under Fujimori local
governments retained minimal legal authority including fees for utilities,
basic civil registries, and management of public spaces and
markets.
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Alejandro Toledo - Decentralization
1 ISBN 978-0-271-03790-5 However, when Peru Possible's rival political
party APRA made significant gains in regional elections, the Toledo
administration halted its decentralization program by
withholding power in the areas of revenue and expenditure
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Alejandro Toledo - Decentralization
1 Toledo’s plan for decentralization enjoyed widespread popular support. Most of the opposition to his program came from, and most of the difficulty
in implementing his proposals was owing to, politicians and bureaucratic agencies who were accustomed to a
centralized form of government.
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History of Somalia - Decentralization
1 Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the
central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a
provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus
divided along three lines: Civil law (legal system)|civil law, religious law
and Custom (law)|customary law.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Hans Kelsen - Centralization and decentralization
1 In Kelsen's general assessments, centralization was to often be
associated with more modern and highly developed forms of
enhancements and improvements to sociological and cultural norms, while the presence of decentralization was a measure of more primitive and less
sophisticated observations concerning sociological and cultural
norms.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Boulder City, Nevada - Trendsetter for decentralization
1 The nearby city of Henderson, founded in 1943 and based around the magnesium industry was another
early example of decentralization before Clark County had a significant population: “...the region
began to decentralize and regroup as a multi-centered area early in its history.”Gottdiener, Collins
Dickens, p 26 The independent governments of Henderson, Nevada|Henderson, North Las Vegas, Las Vegas, and Boulder City have perpetuated the
fragmented nature of the region, giving each city its individual character, as well as generally stymieing
the outward growth of these cities.Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, p 28
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Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda - Decentralization and public-private partnerships
1 In 2000 the government began a process of decentralization, giving
the country's 30 Districts of Rwanda|districts more revenues and decision-
making authority. Districts, which were already nominally the owners of rural water infrastructure, now began to develop their capacity to plan and
execute infrastructure projects.
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Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda - Decentralization and public-private partnerships
1 In 2002 local government in the Northern Byumba Province, inspired
by similar experiences in neighboring Uganda, contracted out service
provision to the local private sector in a form of public-private
partnership.
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Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda - Decentralization and public-private partnerships
1 Following that local experience, the government eventually abandoned
its policy of community management and decided in 2004 to promote local public-private partnerships following the Byumba model. With the backing
up of the national government, districts thus competitively bid out and signed contracts with private service providers throughout the country. In 2007, 140 rural piped water systems (25% of the total)
were managed through public-private partnerships.
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Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda - Decentralization and public-private partnerships
1 Investments in rural water supply increased substantially since 2002, leading to a significant increase in
access to water supply in rural areas from 57% in 2005 to 71% in 2007 according to government figures.
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Administrative divisions of the Maldives - Decentralization
1 On October 15, 2010, the government released a finalized list of the administrative constituencies
established under the Decentralization Act. It listed 184
administrative constituencies. Out of these constituencies:
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Administrative divisions of the Maldives - Decentralization
1 * 2 constituencies were declared “cities”, as according to the criteria
for determining cities in this act. These two constituencies were Male’ and Seenu Atoll. After a referendum among the people, Seenu Atoll was
renamed Addu City”. Each city would be served by a city council.
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Administrative divisions of the Maldives - Decentralization
1 * 181 constituencies were declared “islands”, as according to the criteria
for determining islands in this act. These islands are grouped together
into 18 atolls. Each atoll shall be served by an atoll council, under
which each island has its own island council.
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Administrative divisions of the Maldives - Decentralization
1 * 1 constituency, Fuvahmulah, was declared an “atoll”, and was split into 8 wards at island constituency level. Each ward will have its own island
council, who shall be governed by an atoll council. Fuvahmulah serves as
the country’s 19th atoll.
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Water supply and sanitation in Mexico - 1983-1989: Decentralization
1 Under President Miguel de la Madrid, municipalities were entrusted with
providing water supply and sanitation services within the
framework of a general decentralization process
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Petro Poroshenko - Decentralization of power
1 In mid-June Poroshenko started the process of amending Ukraine's
constitution to achieve Ukraine's Decentralization#Administrative|administrative decentralization
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Boulder City, NV - Trendsetter for decentralization
1 The nearby city of Henderson, Nevada|Henderson, founded in 1943 and based around the magnesium
industry, was another early example of decentralization before Clark
County had a significant population: ...the region began to
decentralize and regroup as a multi-centered area early in its
history.Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas - Decentralization
1 ICARDA’s decentralization builds on and strengthens the Center’s existing
organization. Staff have been relocated to Jordan, Lebanon,
Morocco, Ethiopia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey, and the Center has
established temporary headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon.
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International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas - Decentralization
1 Adoption of a more decentralized system will enhance the relevance,
effectiveness, and impact of ICARDA’s research activities; better target diverse environments; and better align the Center with target
areas in the CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) in which ICARDA is involved, including the ICARDA-led
CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems.
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Health in Senegal - Decentralization
1 Decentralization has meant that authorities have completely failed to engage with women’s situations and
concerns
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