D-25

DEER

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994

Cooperative Extension DivisionInstitute of Agriculture and Natural ResourcesUniversity of Nebraska - Lincoln

United States Department of AgricultureAnimal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceAnimal Damage Control

Great Plains Agricultural CouncilWildlife Committee

Scott R. CravenExtension Wildlife SpecialistDepartment of Wildlife EcologyUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, Wisconsin 53706

Scott E. HygnstromExtension Wildlife Damage SpecialistDepartment of Forestry, Fisheries

and WildlifeUniversity of NebraskaLincoln, NE 68583

Fig. 1. White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus

Harvest crops as early as possible toreduce vulnerability.

Lure crops may divert deer away fromareas that are susceptible todamage.

Habitat modification generally is notrecommended.

Frightening

Gas exploders, pyrotechnics, gunfire,or tethered dogs provide temporaryrelief.

Repellents

A wide variety of commercialformulations is available:

area repellents--applied near plantsto be protected, repel by smell;

contact repellents--applied directlyto plants to be protected, repel bytaste;

a few, such as Deer-Away®, possesscharacteristics of both groups.

Toxicants

None are registered.

Live Capture

Deer can be live-trapped or chemicallyimmobilized for removal byprofessional biologists--useful onlyin special cases, such as city parks.

Shooting

Sport hunting can reduce deerpopulations and should beencouraged.

Some states may issue permits to shootdeer outside normal sport huntingseasons.

Damage Prevention andControl Methods

Exclusion

Fences provide the most consistentcontrol:

8-foot (1.4-m) woven wire fence,Tensar®, or wooden snow fencearound small plots or haystacks.

Several configurations of electricfences are available:

vertical five, seven, or nine-wire,slanted seven-wire, single strand,and others.

Individual tree protectors include:woven wire or plastic cylinders.

Cultural Methods and HabitatModification

Plant trees and shrubs that areresistant or less susceptible to deerdamage.

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Introduction

Deer are probably the most widely dis-tributed and best-recognized largemammals in North America. Thewhite-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgini-anus) (Fig. 1) is found throughoutmuch of North America. The muledeer (O. hemionus) is primarily a west-ern species restricted to buttes, draws,and stream bottoms with sufficient for-age. The black-tailed deer (O.h. colum-bianus) is a subspecies of the muledeer. Both white-tailed and mule deerare very important game animals. In1974 about 2 million white-tailed deerwere harvested by over 8 million hunt-ers. The trend in both harvest andhunter numbers has been generallyupward since then. The positive eco-nomic value of deer through licensefees, meat, and hunter expendituresfor equipment, food, and transporta-tion can be measured in hundreds ofmillions of dollars. Hesselton andHesselton (1982) estimated the value ofeach deer harvested in the UnitedStates to be $1,250. With the additionalaesthetic value of deer to landownersand vacationers, importance of deer asa wildlife resource cannot be disputed.

Despite their economic and aestheticvalues, deer also have a variety ofnegative economic impacts—theydamage crops and personal property,and harbor diseases common tohumans and livestock. Unlike moles,rats, and other species implicated indamage, deer cannot be casually elimi-nated when in conflict with humans.But neither can landowners beexpected to bear the entire burden ofsupport for this valuable publicresource.

These factors often make deer damagecontrol a difficult social and politicalproblem as well as a biological andlogistical one. Control methods arebuilt around effective deer herd man-agement. Thus the various state wild-life agencies are often indirectly ordirectly involved through subsidy ofcontrol techniques, direct damagecompensation payments, or technicaladvice.

Scare devices, repellents, and shootingall have a place in deer damage con-trol. Effective control for fields,orchards, and other large areas, how-ever, usually depends on excluding thedeer with one of several types offences, discussed later in this chapter.Toxicants, fumigants, and in mostcases, trapping, are not used in deercontrol.

The volume of literature on deer ecol-ogy and management exceeds that forany other wildlife species. The bestsingle reference is Halls (1984). The fol-lowing review is meant as a brief sum-mary using the white-tailed deer as anexample. The mule deer is very similarin all respects.

Identification

Deer are even-toed ungulates of thefamily Cervidae. Adult animals mayweigh 50 to 400 pounds (23 to 180 kg)depending on species and location.Their general form is well-known. Atbirth, fawns are rust-colored withwhite spots. Their spotted coats areshed in 3 to 4 months and are replacedby a grayish-brown fall and wintercoat. The summer coat of adult ani-mals is reddish-brown. Underparts ofthe tail, belly, chin, and throat arewhite during all seasons. Antlers growon males (bucks) from April toAugust. Antler development is nour-ished by a layer of soft, vascularized“velvet” on the antlers. The dried vel-vet layer is rubbed off and the antlerspolished during the fall rut (breedingseason). Antler size depends on nutri-tion, age, and genetics. Mule deer ant-lers are forked while the tines of awhite-tailed deer’s antlers arise from acentral beam. Both mule deer andwhite-tails have deciduous antlers thatare shed in mid-winter. The rump andtail area and facial features also differslightly between the species (Fig. 2).Both mule and white-tailed deer lackupper incisors.

Fig. 2. Comparison of antlers and facialcharacteristics, metatarsal glands, tails, andrump patches in three kinds of deer.

White-tailed deer

Black-tailed deer

Mule deer

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Range

The white-tailed deer is found in everystate in the United States except per-haps Alaska and Utah. It occursthroughout the southern provinces ofCanada, across the United States, andon into Central and South America(Fig. 3). Mule deer are commonthroughout western Canada, westernUnited States, and into Mexico (Fig. 4).There are several subspecies of bothdeer.

Fig. 4. Range of the mule deer (light) and black-tailed deer (dark) in North America.

Fig. 3. Range of the white-tailed deer in NorthAmerica.

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Habitat

Deer are creatures of the forest edgerather than the dense, old-growth for-est. They thrive in agricultural areasinterspersed with woodlots and ripar-ian habitat. They favor early succes-sional stages which keep brush andsapling browse within reach. Densecover is used for winter shelter andprotection.

Food Habits

Browse (leaves, stems, and buds ofwoody plants) is generally available allyear and is a staple food for deer. Anextensive review of food habits can befound in Hesselton and Hesselton(1982) and in Mackie et al. (1982). Plantspecies vary considerably in qualityand regional availability, so a list is notpresented here. Forbs are eaten inspring and summer when available.Fruits and nuts (especially acorns) areseasonally very important. Grasses arerelatively unimportant. Agriculturalcrops--corn, soybeans, small grains,alfalfa, vegetables, and fruit trees--arereadily eaten when available. Localfood habits studies are available inmost states--consult your local wildlifeagency.

Nutrient requirements and the amountof food consumed vary with age of theanimal, season, and the reproductivecycle. Daily dry matter consumptionaverages 2% to 4% of live body weight.For adult bucks, daily consumption isgreatest in spring and averages 4.4 to6.4 pounds (2.0 to 2.9 kg) of air-dryfood per day. Consumption is abouthalf that during winter. For does,greatest daily food consumptionoccurs in early fall, just prior to thebreeding season.

General Biology,Reproduction, andBehavior

Breeding occurs from October to Janu-ary depending on latitude. Peak activ-ity is in November. Does are in heatfor 24 hours every 28 days for 2 to 3consecutive cycles. One buck mayinseminate several does. No pairingtakes place. Most does breed duringtheir second fall, although on goodrange up to 30% of the doe fawns (6months old) will be bred. Gestation isabout 202 days. The peak of fawn dropis in May or June. Most reproducingfawns give birth to a single fawn, butadult does typically bear twin fawns.Reproductive potential is very sensi-tive to nutrition. Fawns weigh 7 to 8pounds (3.2 to 3.6 kg) at birth andincrease in weight for 5 1/2 to 6 1/2years. Adult size varies with latitude.In northern states, a mature buck mayweigh 200 to 300 pounds (90 to 135kg). A key deer buck (white-taileddeer subspecies) in Florida may weighonly 50 pounds (22.5 kg). Does average25% to 40% less than bucks for allsubspecies.

Deer are most active in early morningand evening. They have a home rangeof several hundred acres (ha), but thisvaries with season, sex, and habitatquality. In northern areas, deer gather(“yard”) in dense cover for the winter.They may move long distances fromsummer range to a winter yard. Lifeexpectancy is dependent on huntingpressure and regulations. Recordsshow whitetails living 20 years,although 10 to 12 years is noteworthyin the wild.

Fig. 5. Deer tracks

hind food front foot

3"

walking

13" to 20"

Damage and DamageIdentification

Deer damage a wide variety of rowcrops, forage crops, vegetables, fruittrees, nursery stock, and ornamentals,as well as stacked hay. In addition tothe immediate loss of the crop beingdamaged, there is often residual dam-age in the form of future yield reduc-tion of fruit trees or forage crops suchas alfalfa. Ornamental trees or nurserystock may be permanently disfiguredby deer browsing. Under high densi-ties deer may severely impact nativeplant communities and impair regen-eration of some forest tree species.Besides vegetative damage, deer/vehicle collisions pose a serious risk tomotorists, and deer have been impli-cated in the distribution and transmis-sion of Lyme disease.

Damage identification is not difficult.Because both mule deer and white-tailed deer lack upper incisors, deeroften leave a jagged or torn surface ontwigs or stems that they browse. Rab-bits and rodents, however, leave aclean-cut surface. In addition, deertracks are very distinctive (Fig. 5). Theheight of damage from the ground (upto 6 feet [1.8 m]) often rules out anymammal other than deer. Deer oftenare observed “in the act” of causingdamage.

Legal Status

Deer are protected year-round in allstates and provinces, with the excep-tion of legal harvest during appropri-ate big-game hunting seasons. In casesof severe or persistent damage, somestates may issue farmers special per-mits to shoot deer at times other thanthe legal hunting seasons. Regulationsvary on the necessary permits and on2 1/2"

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disposal of dead animals. The popular-ity of deer as game animals and theneed to curb poaching have led to thedevelopment of severe penalties forillegal possession. No lethal deer con-trol can be initiated before consultingyour local state wildlife agency. Bylaw, some states provide technicalassistance or direct compensation fordeer damage. This is discussed underthe section on the economics of dam-age and control.

Damage Prevention andControl Methods

Exclusion

Where deer are abundant or crops areparticularly valuable, fencing may bethe only way to effectively minimizedeer damage. Several fencing designsare available to meet specific needs.Temporary electric fences are simpleinexpensive fences useful in protectinggarden and field crops during snow-free periods. Deer are attracted tothese fences by their appearance orsmell, and are lured into contacting thefence with their noses. The resultingshock is a very strong stimulus anddeer learn to avoid the fenced area.Permanent high-tensile electric fencesprovide year-round protection fromdeer and are best suited to high-valuespecialty or orchard crops. The electricshocking power and unique fencedesigns present both psychologicaland physical barriers to deer. Perma-nent woven-wire fences provide theultimate deer barrier. They requirelittle maintenance but are very expen-sive to build. Fencing in general is

expensive. You should consider sev-eral points before constructing a fence,such as:

History of the area — assemble infor-mation on past claims, field histo-ries, deer numbers, and movementsto help you decide on an abatementmethod.

Deer pressure — this reflects both thenumber of deer and their level ofdependence on agricultural crops. Ifdeer pressure in your area is high,you probably need fences.

Crop value — crops with high marketvalues and perennial crops wheredamage affects future yields andgrowth often need the protectionfencing can provide.

Field size — in general, fencing is prac-tical for areas of 40 acres (16 ha) orless. The cost per acre (ha) for fenc-ing usually decreases, however, asthe size of the area protected in-creases.

Cost-benefit analysis — to determinethe cost effectiveness of fencing andthe type of fence to install, weighthe value of the crop to be protectedagainst the acreage involved, costsof fence construction and mainte-nance, and the life expectancy of thefence.

Rapidly changing fence technology —if you intend to build a fence your-self, supplement the following di-rections by consulting an expert,such as a fencing contractor.Detailed fencing manuals are alsoavailable from most fencing manu-facturers and sales representatives.

Temporary Electric Fencing

Temporary electric fences provide in-expensive protection for many cropsduring periods without snow. Theyare easy to construct, do not requirerigid corners, and materials are readilyavailable. Install fences at the first signof damage to prevent deer from estab-lishing feeding patterns in your crops.Weekly inspection and maintenanceare required. Different types of tempo-rary electric fences are describedbelow.

Peanut Butter Fence. The peanutbutter fence is effective for small gar-dens, nurseries, and orchards (up to 3to 4 acres [1.2 to 1.6 ha]) subject tomoderate deer pressure. Deer areattracted by the peanut butter andencouraged to make nose-to-fence con-tact. After being shocked, deer learn toavoid fenced areas. Cost, excludinglabor, is about $0.11 per linear foot($0.30/m). This fence is not widelyused.

To build a peanut butter fence (Fig. 6),follow the steps below.

(1) Install wooden corner posts.

(2) String one strand of 17-gauge(0.15-cm), smooth wire around thecorners and apply light tension.

(3) Set 4-foot (1.2-m) 3/8-inch (1-cm)round fiberglass rods along thewire at 45-foot (14-m) intervals.

(4) Attach the wire to insulators onthe rods 2 1/2 (0.75 m) feet aboveground level and apply 50 pounds(22.5 kg) of tension.

Fig. 6. The peanut butter fence with foil flags.

3" x 4" FoilPeanut butter

Finished flags

Fencecharger

Power Grd

6' Ground rod

3'

Adhesive tape

50'

2 1/2'

+

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(5) Attach 3 x 4-inch (7 x 10-cm) foilstrips to the wire at 3-foot (1-m)intervals, using 1 x 2-inch (3 x 5-cm) strips of cloth adhesive tape.

(6) Apply a 1:1 mixture of peanut but-ter and vegetable oil to the adhe-sive tape strips and fold the foilover the tape.

(7) Connect the wire to the positive(+) post of a well-grounded fencecharger.

(8) For fields larger than 1 acre (0.4ha), it is more practical to applythe peanut butter mixture directlyto the wire. You can make asimple applicator by mounting afree-spinning, 4-inch (10-cm) pul-ley on a shaft inside a plastic icecream pail. Fill the pail with a pea-nut butter-vegetable oil mixturethat has the consistency of verythick paint. Coat the entire wirewith peanut butter by drawing thepulley along the wire. Apply pea-nut butter once a month. Attachfoil flags to the fence near runwaysor areas of high deer pressure tomake the fence more attractive.

Check the fence weekly for damage bydeer and grounding by vegetation.

Polytape Fence. Various forms ofpolytape or polywire, such as VisibleGrazing Systems® (VGS), Baygard®,and Turbo-tape® are very strong andportable. You can use these fences toprotect up to 40 acres (16 ha) of

vegetable and field crops under mod-erate deer pressure. Deer receiveshocks through nose-to-fence contactand they learn to avoid fenced areas.Cost, excluding labor, is about $.11 perlinear foot ($0.30/m).

To build a polytape fence (Fig. 7), fol-low the steps below.

(1) Drive 5/8-inch (1.6-cm) roundfiberglass posts 2 feet (0.6 m) intothe ground at the corners.

(2) String two strands of polytape(white or yellow are most visible)around the corners and apply lighttension (one strand 2 1/2 feet (0.75m) high can be used).

(3) Use square knots or half-hitches tomake splices or to secure thepolytape to corner posts.

(4) Set 4-foot (1.2-cm) 3/8-inch (1-cm)round fiberglass rods along thewires at 45-foot (14-m) intervals.

(5) Attach the two strands of polytapeto insulators on the rods at 1 and 3feet (0.3 and 0.9 m) above groundlevel and apply 50 pounds (22.5kg) of tension.

(6) Connect the polytape to the posi-tive (+) post of a well-groundedfence charger.

(7) Use the applicator describedunder Peanut Butter Fence (8) toapply 2-foot (0.6-m) swatches ofpeanut butter to the polytapeevery 6 feet (2 m) where deerpresence is expected to be high.

To maintain the fence, check it weeklyfor damage by deer and grounding byvegetation.

Permanent High-Tensile ElectricFencing

High-tensile fencing can provide year-round protection from deer damage.Many designs are available to meetspecific needs. All require strict adher-ence to construction guidelines con-cerning rigid corner assemblies andfence configurations. Frequent inspec-tion and maintenance are required.High-tensile fences are expected to last20 to 30 years. Different types of high-tensile electric fences are describedbelow.

Offset or Double Fence. This fenceis mostly for gardens, truck farms, ornurseries up to about 40 acres (0.16 ha)that experience moderate deer pres-sure. Deer are repelled by the shockand the three-dimensional nature ofthe fence. You can add wires if deerpressure increases. Cost, excludinglabor, is about $.35 per linear foot($1/m).

To build an offset or double fence (Fig.8), follow the steps below.

For the outside fence:

(1) Install swing corner assemblieswhere necessary (see the sectionon fence construction—rigidbrace assemblies [Fig. 14]).

(2) String a 12 1/2-gauge (0.26-cm)high-tensile wire around the

Fencecharger

Grd

60'

+

+

Fig. 7. The polytape fence.

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Tension spring

+

+

+

30"Tensioners43"

52"

15"50'

38"

Deer side

Fig. 8. The offset or double fence.

outside of the swing corner assem-blies and apply light tension.

(3) Set 5-foot (1.5-m) line posts alongthe wire at 40- to 60-foot (12- to 18-m) intervals.

(4) Attach the wire to insulators onthe line posts, 15 inches (38 cm)above ground level and apply 150to 250 pounds (68 to 113 kg) oftension.

(5) String a second wire at 43 inches(109 cm) and apply 150 to 250pounds (68 to 113 kg) of tension.

For the inside fence:

(6) String a wire around the inside ofthe swing corner assemblies andapply light tension.

(7) Set 5-foot (1.5-m) line posts alongthe wire at 40- to 60-foot (12- to 18-m) intervals.

(8) Attach the wire to insulators onthe line posts at 30 inches (76 cm)above ground level.

(9) Attach all wires to the positive (+)post of a well-grounded, low-impedence fence charger.

(10) Clear and maintain a 6- to 12-foot(1.8- to 3.6-m) open area outsidethe fence so deer can see it.

Maintenance includes weekly fenceand voltage checks.

Vertical Deer Fence. Vertical fencesare effective at protecting large truckgardens, orchards, and other fieldsfrom moderate to high deer pressures.Because of the prescribed wire spac-ing, deer either attempt to go throughthe fence and are effectively shockedor they are physically impeded by thebarrier. Vertical fences use less ground

space than three-dimensional fences,but are probably less effective at inhib-iting deer from jumping over fences.There is a wide variety of fence materi-als, wire spacings, and specific designsyou can use. We recommend that youemploy a local fence contractor. Costs,excluding labor, range from $0.75 to$1.50 per linear foot ($2 to $4/m).

To build a 7-wire vertical deer fence(Fig. 9), follow the steps below.

(1) Install rigid corner assemblieswhere necessary (see the sectionon fence construction—rigid braceassemblies [Fig. 14]).

(2) String a 12 1/2-gauge (0.26-cm)high-tensile wire around thecorner assemblies and apply lighttension.

(3) Set 8-foot (2.4-m) line posts along

Fig. 9. The seven-wire vertical deer fence.

—

+

—

+

+

—

+

12"

12"

12"

10"

10"

8"

8"

33'

33'

33'

4'

10' Wood post 8' Line post10' Wood post

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the wire at 33-foot (10-m) inter-vals.

(4) Attach a wire to insulators at 8inches (20 cm) above ground leveland apply 150 to 250 pounds (68 to113 kg) of tension.

(5) Attach the remaining wires to in-sulators at the spacing indicated infigure 9 and apply 150 to 250pounds (68 to 113 kg) of tension.

(6) Connect the second, fourth, fifth,and seventh wires from the top, tothe positive (+) post of a well-grounded, low-impedence fencecharger.

(7) Connect the top, third, and sixthwires directly to ground. The topwire should be negative for light-ning protection.

(8) Clear and maintain a 6- to 12-foot(1.8- to 3.6-m) open area outsidethe fence so deer can see the fence.

Maintenance includes weekly fenceinspection and voltage checks.

Slanted Seven-Wire Deer Fence.This fence is used where high deerpressures threaten moderate-to-largesized orchards, nurseries and otherhigh-value crops. It presents a physicaland psychological barrier to deerbecause of its electric shock and three-dimensional nature. Cost, excludinglabor, is about $0.75 to $2 per linearfoot ($2 to $5.50/m).

To build a slanted seven-wire deerfence (Fig. 10), follow the steps below.

(1) Set rigid, swing corner assemblieswhere necessary, (see the sectionon fence construction—rigid braceassemblies [Fig. 14]).

(2) String 12 1/2-gauge (0.26-cm)high-tensile wire around the cor-ner assemblies and apply lighttension.

(3) Set angle braces along the wire at90-foot (27-m) intervals.

(4) Attach a wire at the 10-inch (25-cm) position and apply 150pounds (68 kg) of tension.

(5) Attach the remaining wires at 12-inch (30-cm) intervals and apply150 pounds (68 kg) of tension.

(6) Place fence battens at 30-foot (9-m)intervals.

(7) Connect the top, third, fifth, andbottom wires to the positive (+)post of a well-grounded, low-impedence fence charger.

(8) Connect the second, fourth, andsixth wires from the top directly toground.

(9) Clear and maintain a 6- to 12-foot(1.8- to 3.6-m) area outside thefence so deer can see it.

Maintenance includes weekly inspec-tion and voltage checks.

Permanent Woven-Wire Fencing

Woven-wire fences are used for year-round protection of high-value cropssubject to high deer pressures. Thesefences are expensive and difficult toconstruct, but easy to maintain. Before

30'

30'

30'

Corner post

12"

10"

Corner post

(Top view)

10"7"

5'

Corner post

Crop side

8'

(Side view)

12"

12"

12"

12"

12"12"

10"

Battens

—

—

+

+

+—

+

Fig. 10. The slanted seven-wire deer fence.

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high-tensile electric fencing, woven-wire fences were used most often toprotect orchards or nurseries wherethe high crop value, perennial natureof damage, acreage, and 20-year lifespan of the fences justified the initialcosts. Cost, excluding labor, is about$2 to $4 per linear foot ($5.50 to$11/m). The high cost has resulted inreduced use of woven-wire fences.

To build a deer-proof woven-wirefence (Fig. 11), follow the steps below.

(1) Set rigid corner assemblies wherenecessary (see the section on FenceConstruction—Rigid brace assem-blies [Fig. 14]).

(2) String a light wire between twocorners and apply light tension.

(3) Set 16-foot (4.9-m) posts along thewire at 40-foot (12-m) intervals, toa depth of 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to 1.8 m).

(4) Roll out an 8-foot (2.4-m) roll ofhigh-tensile woven wire along theline posts. Attach one end atground level to a corner post withsteel staples.

(5) Apply 100 pounds (45 kg) of ten-sion to the wire with a vehicle orfence strainers and attach the wireto line and corner posts with steelstaples.

(6) Repeat steps 4 and 5 as necessaryaround the perimeter of the fence.

(7) Attach two strands of high-tensilesmooth wire to the top of the fenceto raise the height of the entirefence to 9 to 10 feet (2.7 to 3 m).

Minimal maintenance is required.Inspect for locations where deer cancrawl under the fence.

Fencing Tips

Materials. Do not buy cheap materi-als to reduce costs. This will only re-duce the effectiveness and life span ofthe fence. We recommend using:

(1) Round fiberglass or treated woodposts.

(2) High-quality galvanized wire andsteel components. For high-tensilefences, use 11- to 14-gauge (0.31-to 0.21-cm) wire (minimum tensilestrength of 200,000 pounds [90,000kg] and a minimum breakingstrength of 1,800 pounds [810 kg]),tension springs, and in-linetensioners.

(3) Compression sleeves for splicingwires and making electrical con-nections.

(4) Lightning arresters and divertersto protect chargers.

(5) High-quality fence chargers.Chargers must be approved byUnderwriters Laboratories (UL)or the Canadian Standards

Association (CSA). We highly rec-ommend 110-volt chargers. Six-and 12-volt chargers require bat-tery recharging every 2 to 4 weeks.Use solar panels in remote areas tocharge batteries continuously. Forhigh-tensile fences, use high-volt-age, low-impedence chargers only(3,000 to 5,000 volts and currentpulse duration of at most 1/1,000second).

(6) Gates. There is no universal gatedesign because of the many differ-ent fence types. Gates should beelectrified, well-insulated, andpractical for the type of farmingoperation. Gates range from singlestrands of electrified wire withgate handles to electrified panel ortubular gates (Fig. 12).

Fence Construction. Fences must beproperly constructed--do not deviatefrom fence construction guidelines.

(1) Prepare fencelines before construc-tion. It is easier and less expensiveto install and maintain fences onclear, level runs. Minimize cornersto increase strength and reducecosts.

(2) Ensure that the electrical system iswell grounded at the fence chargerand every 1/2 mile (880 m) offenceline. To ground high-tensilefences, drive four to six ground

Fig. 11. The deer-proof, woven-wire fence.

40'

4'

HT smooth wire Tensioners and tension spring

10'10'

4'

40'

Tension springTensionerHT smooth wire

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rods 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 m) deepand 6 feet (1.8 m) apart. Connectthe ground post of the fencecharger and the negative (-) wiresof the fence to the grounding sys-tem (Fig. 13).

(3) The wiring system in figure 13illustrates a positive-negativefence. Such a design is especiallyuseful with dry or frozen ground.A fence with all positive (hot)wires may be advantageous undergeneral crop and soil moistureconditions. Consult with a fencingcontractor or expert for the bestchoice for your needs.

(4) Install the grounding systems andfence charger before fence con-struction. Energize completed

parts of the fence when you arenot working on the fence to gainearly protection.

(5) Rigid brace assemblies—corners,ends, and gates—make up thebackbone of all high-tensile fencesystems (Fig. 14). They must be en-tirely rigid, constructed of the bestmaterials, and strictly conform todesign guidelines. The single-spanbrace assembly is the basis of allhigh-tensile strainer assemblies,regardless of location in the fenceor fence design. This basic designis then modified to create double-”H” braces, swing corners, andgate ends.

(6) Allow wires to slide freelythrough insulators on fence posts.

Fence flexibility is necessary toendure frequent temperaturechanges, deer hits, and obstruc-tions.

(7) Identify an electric fence withwarning signs (Fig. 15) that areaffixed at 300-foot (90-m) intervalsor less.

Maintenance. Regular inspection andmaintenance are necessary to ensurethe effective operation and longevityof most fences.

(1) Control vegetation near fences bymowing or applying herbicides toavoid excessive fence groundingby weeds.

(2) On slopes or highly erodible soils,maintain a good sod cover

—

+

—

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Fig. 12. Fence with electrified gate.

Fig. 13. Electrical and grounding system for hightensile fences.

6' Ground rods

6'

Fencecharger

Power Ground

—

+

—

+

—

+

D-35

Direction of pull8' X 4" Horizontalbrace post

1" Lean

Twitch stickTwo wrapsof HT wire

4'

6'

10' X 5" Post drive 4'

9" Brace pin

Single span brace assembly

Swing corner(vertical fence)

Double H brace assembly(corner)

Fig. 14. Rigid brace assemblies.

Fig. 15. Remember to attach warning signs toyour electric fences.

beneath fences to avoid fencelineerosion.

(3) Always keep the fence charger on.Check the fence voltage weeklywith a voltmeter. Maintain at least3,000 volts at the furthest distancefrom the fence charger. Disconnectthe lower wires if they are coveredby snow.

(4) In late fall and early summer, ad-just the fence tension (150 to 250pounds [68 to 113 kg]) for high-tensile fences.

Tree Protectors

Use Vexar®, Tubex®, plastic tree wrap,or woven-wire cylinders to protectyoung trees from deer and rabbits.Four-foot (1.2-m) woven-wire cylin-ders can keep deer from rubbing treetrunks with their antlers.

Haystack Protection

Wooden panels have traditionally beenused to exclude deer and elk from hay-stacks. Stockyards have also been pro-tected by welded wire panels andwoven wire. More recently haystackshave been protected by wrappingthem with plastic Tensar® snow fence.The material comes in 8-foot (2.4-m)rolls and is relatively light and easy touse.

Cultural Methods and HabitatModification

Damage to ornamental plants can beminimized by selecting landscape andgarden plants that are less preferredby deer. In many cases, original land-scape objectives can be met by plantingspecies that have some resistance to

WARNINGELECTRIC FENCE

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Table 1. Ornamental plants, listed by susceptibility to deer damage.1

1from M. J. Fargione, P. D. Curtis, and M. E. Richmond. 1991. Resistance of woody ornamental plants to deer damage. Cornell Coop. Ext. Fact Sheet.Ithaca, NY. 4 pp.

Plants Rarely Damaged:

Botanical name Common nameBerberis spp. BarberryBerberis vulgaris Common BarberryBetula papyrifera Paper BirchBuxus sempervirens Common BoxwoodElaeagnus angustifolia Russian OliveIlex opaca American HollyLeucothoe fontanesiana Drooping LeucothoePicea pungens Colorado Blue SprucePieris japonica Japanese Pieris

Plants Seldom Severely Damaged:

Botanical name Common nameBetula pendula European White BirchCalastrus scandens American BittersweetCornus sericea Red Osier DogwoodCornus florida Flowering DogwoodCornus kousa Kousa DogwoodCrataegus laevigata English HawthornEnkianthus campanulatus Redvein EnkianthusFagus sylvatica European BeechForsythia spp. ForsythiaGleditsia triacanthos Honey LocustIlex cornuta Chinese HollyIlex glabra InkberryJuniperus chinensis Chinese Junipers (green)Juniperus chinensis Chinese Junipers (blue)Kalmia latifolia Mountain LaurelKolkwitzia amabilis BeautybushPicea abies Norway SprucePicea glauca White SprucePinus nigra Austrian PinePinus rigida Pitch PinePinus mugo Mugo PinePinus resinosa Red PinePinus sylvestris Scots PinePrunus serrulata Japanese Flowering CherrySalix matsudana tortuosa Corkscrew WillowSassafras albidum Common SassafrasSyringa vulgaris Common LilacWisteria floribunda Japanese Wisteria

Plants Occasionally Severely Damaged:

Botanical name Common nameAbies concolor White FirAcer griseum Paperbark MapleAcer rubrum Red MapleAcer saccharinum Silver MapleAcer saccharum Sugar MapleAesculus hippocastanum Common HorsechestnutAmelanchier arborea Downy ServiceberryAmelanchier laevis Allegheny ServiceberryCampsis radicans Trumpet CreeperChaenomeles speciosa Japanese Flowering QuinceCornus racemosa Panicled DogwoodCotinus coggygria SmokebushCotoneaster spp. CotoneasterCotoneaster apiculatus Cranberry CotoneasterCotoneaster horizontalis Rockspray CotoneasterCryptomeria japonica Japanese CedarForsythia (x) intermedia Border ForsythiaHamamelis virginiana Common WitchhazelHibiscus syriacus Rose of SharonHydrangea arborescens Smooth HydrangeaHydrangea anomala petiolaris Climbing HydrangeaHydrangea paniculata Panicle Hydrangea

Plants Occasionally Severely Damaged (cont.):

Botanical name Comomn nameIlex crenata Japanese HollyIlex (x) meserveae China Girl/Boy HollyJuniperus virginiana Eastern Red CedarLarix decidua European LarchLonicera (x) heckrottii Goldflame HoneysuckleLigustrum spp. PrivetMagnolia (x) soulangiana Saucer MagnoliaMetasequoia glyptostroboides Dawn RedwoodParthenocissus quinquifolia Virginia CreeperPhiladelphus coronarius Sweet Mock OrangePinus strobus Eastern White PinePotentilla fruticosa Bush CinquefoilPrunus avium Sweet CherryPseudotsuga menziesii Douglas FirPyracantha coccinea FirethornPyrus calleryana ‘Bradford’ Bradford Callery PearPyrus communis Common PearQuercus alba White OakQuercus prinus Chestnut OakQuercus rubra Northern Red OakRhododendron spp. Deciduous AzaleasRhododendron carolinianum Carolina RhododendronRhododendron maximum Rosebay RhododendronRhus typhina Staghorn SumacRosa multiflora Multiflora RoseRosa rugosa Rugosa RoseSalix spp. WillowsSpiraea (x) bumalda Anthony Waterer SpiraeaSpiraea prunifolia Bridalwreath SpiraeaSyringa (x) persica Persian LilacSyringa reticulata Japanese Tree LilacSyringa villosa Late LilacTilia cordata ‘Greenspire’ Greenspire Littleleaf LindenTilia americana BasswoodTsuga canadensis Eatsern HemlockTsuga caroliniana Carolina HemlockViburnum (x) juddii Judd ViburnumViburnum rhytidophyllum Leatherleaf ViburnumViburnum plicatum tomemtosum Doublefile ViburnumViburnum carlesii Koreanspice ViburnumWeigela florida Oldfashion Weigela

Plants Frequently Severely Damaged:

Botanical name Common nameAbies balsamea Balsam FirAbies fraseri Fraser FirAcer platanoides Norway MapleCercis canadensis Eastern RedbudChamaecyparis thyoides Atlantic White CedarClematis spp. ClematisCornus mas Cornelian DogwoodEuonymus alatus Winged EuonymusEuonymus fortunei WintercreeperHedera helix English IvyMalus spp. ApplesPrunus spp. CherriesPrunus spp. PlumsRhododendron spp. RhododendronsRhododendron spp. Evergreen AzaleasRhododendron catawbiense Catawba RhododendronRhododendron periclymenoides Pinxterbloom AzaleaRosa (x) hybrid Hybrid Tea RoseSorbus aucuparia European Mountain AshTaxus spp. YewsTaxus baccata English YewTaxus brevifolia Western YewTaxus cuspidata Japanese YewTaxus (x) media English/Japanese Hybrid YewThuja occidentalis American Arborvitae

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deer damage. Table 1 provides a list ofplants, ranked by susceptibility to deerdamage. This list, developed byresearchers at Cornell University, isapplicable for most eastern and north-ern states. A similar list with a westernemphasis was produced by Cummingset al. (1980).

Harvest crops as early as possible toreduce the period of vulnerability todeer. Plant susceptible crops as farfrom wooded cover as possible toreduce the potential for severe dam-age. Habitat modification is not recom-mended. Destruction of wooded orbrushy cover in hopes of reducingdeer use would destroy valuable habi-tat for other wildlife. Also, since deerforage over a large area it is unlikelythat all available deer cover would beon a farmer’s or rancher’s land.

Lure crops have been planted to attractdeer away from highways and cropfields where deer traditionally causeddamage. Their effectiveness has beenvariable and concern has been raisedthat an artificial food source may even-tually increase deer densities andresultant problems. Specific recom-mendations are not yet availableregarding plant selection, timing, andproximity of lure crops.

Contraception

Promising research on the use ofchemosterilants and immunocontra-ception to reduce or eliminate repro-duction is underway. Specificity,efficacy, and delivery of contraceptiveagents, however, continue to be prob-lems. The use of contraception for herdcontrol will be best suited to urbanparks, refuges, and other discreteareas. It is unlikely that contraceptioncan or will be applied in rural/agricul-tural landscapes.

Frightening

One of the keys to success with fright-ening devices and repellents is to takeaction at the first sign of a problem. Itis difficult to break the movements orbehavioral patterns of deer once theyhave been established. Also, use fright-ening devices and repellents at thosetimes when crops are most susceptible

to damage, for example, the silking totasseling stages for field corn or theblossom stage for soybeans.

Gas exploders set to detonate at regu-lar intervals are the most commonlyused frightening devices for deer.They can be purchased for $200 to$500 from several commercial sources(see Supplies and Materials). Thedevices are sometimes available onloan from wildlife refuges or agenciesas they are frequently used to controlwaterfowl damage. To maximize theeffectiveness of exploders, move themevery few days and stagger the firingsequence. Otherwise, the deer quicklybecome accustomed to the regular pat-tern. The noise level can be increasedby raising exploders off the ground.Motion-activated firing mechanismsare now being explored to increase theeffectiveness of exploders. Successdepends on many factors and canrange from good to poor. A dog on along run or restricted by an electronicinvisible fence system can keep deerout of a limited area, but care andfeeding of the dog can be time-consuming. Free-running dogs are notadvisable and may be illegal.

Shell crackers, fireworks, and gunfirecan provide quick but temporary relieffrom deer damage. Equip mobile unitswith pyrotechnics, spotlights, and two-way radios. Patrol farm perimetersand field roads at dusk and through-out the night during times of the yearwhen crops are most susceptible todamage. Such tactics cannot be reliedon for an entire growing season.

Repellents

Repellents are best suited for use in or-chards, gardens, and on ornamentalplants. High cost, limitations on use,and variable effectiveness make mostrepellents impractical on row crops,pastures, or other large areas. Successwith repellents is measured in thereduction, not total elimination, ofdamage.

Repellents are described by mode ofactions as “contact” or “area.” Contactrepellents, which are applied directlyto the plants, repel by taste. They aremost effective when applied to trees

and shrubs during the dormant pe-riod. New growth that appears aftertreatment is unprotected. Contact re-pellents may reduce the palatability offorage crops and should not be usedon plant parts destined for human con-sumption. Hinder® is an exception inthat it can be applied directly on ediblecrops.

Area repellents are applied near theplants to be protected and repel deerby odor alone. They are usually lesseffective than contact repellents butcan be used in perimeter applicationsand some situations where contactrepellents cannot.

During the winter or dormant season,apply contact repellents on a dry daywhen temperatures are above freezing.Treat young trees completely. It will bemore economical to treat only the ter-minal growth of older trees. Be sure totreat to a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) aboveexpected maximum snow depth. Dur-ing the growing season, apply contactrepellents at about half the concentra-tion recommended for winter use.

The effectiveness of repellents willdepend on several factors. Rainfall willdissipate some repellents, so reappli-cation may be necessary after a rain.Some repellents do not weather welleven in the absence of rainfall. Deer’shunger and the availability of othermore palatable food will have a greateffect on success. In times of foodstress, deer are likely to ignore eithertaste or odor repellents. When using acommercial preparation, follow themanufacturer’s instructions. Don’toverlook new preparations or imagina-tive ways to use old ones. The follow-ing discussion of common repellents isincomplete and provided only as asurvey of the wide range of repellentformulations available. The repellentsare grouped by active ingredient.Trade names and sample labels forsome products are provided in theSupplies and Materials section.

Deer-Away® Big Game Repellent(37% putrescent whole egg solids). Thiscontact (odor/taste) repellent has beenused extensively in western coniferplantations and reported in field

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studiesto be 85% to 100% effective. It isregistered for use on fruit trees prior toflowering, as well as ornamental andChristmas trees. Apply it to all suscep-tible new growth and leaders. Applica-tions weather well and are effective for2 to 6 months. One gallon (3.8 l) ofliquid or 1 pound (0.45 kg) of powdercosts about $32 and covers 400, 3-inch(7.6-cm) saplings or 75, 4-foot (1.2-m)evergreens.

Hinder® (15% ammonium soaps ofhigher fatty acids). This area repellent isone of the few registered for use onedible crops. You can apply it directlyto vegetable and field crops, forages,ornamentals, and fruit trees. Its effec-tiveness is usually limited to 2 to 4weeks but varies because of weatherand application technique. Reappli-cation may be necessary after heavyrains. For small fields and orchards,you can treat the entire area. For largerareas, apply an 8- to 15-foot (2.4- to4.6-m) band around the perimeter ofthe field. Apply at temperatures above32°F (0o C). Four gallons (15.2 l) ofliquid cost about $80, and when mixedwith 100 gallons (380 l) of water willcover 1 acre (0.4 ha). Hinder is com-patible for use with most pesticides.

Thiram (7% to 42% tetramethylthiuramdisulfide). Thiram, a fungicide that actsas a contact (taste) deer repellent, issold under several trade names--Bonide Rabbit-Deer Repellent®, Nott’sChew-Not, and Gustafson 42-S®,among others. It is most often used ondormant trees and shrubs. A liquidformulation is sprayed or painted onindividual trees. Although Thiramitself does not weather well, adhesivessuch as Vapor Gard® can be added toincrease its resistance to weathering.Thiram-based repellents also protecttrees against rabbit and mouse dam-age. Two gallons (7.6 l) of 42% Thiramcost about $50 and when mixed with100 gallons (380 l) of water will cover 1acre (0.4 ha). Cost varies with the con-centration of Thiram in the product.

Miller’s Hot Sauce® AnimalRepellent (2.5% capsaicin). This con-tact (taste) repellent is registered foruse on ornamentals, Christmas trees,

and fruit trees. Apply the repellentwith a backpack or trigger sprayer toall susceptible new growth, such asleaders and young leaves. Do not ap-ply to fruit-bearing plants after fruitset. Vegetable crops also can be pro-tected if sprayed prior to the develop-ment of edible parts. Weatherabilitycan be improved by adding an anti-transpirant such as Wilt-Pruf® orVapor Gard®. Hot Sauce and VaporGard® cost about $80 and $30 per gal-lon (3.8 l) respectively. Eight ounces(240 ml) of Hot Sauce and two quarts(1.9 l) of anti-transpirant mixed with100 gallons (380 l) of water will cover1 acre (0.4 ha).

Tankage (putrefied meat scraps).Tankage is a slaughterhouse by-product traditionally used as a deerrepellent in orchards. It repels deer bysmell, as will be readily apparent. Toprepare containers for tankage,remove the tops from aluminumbeverage cans, puncture the sides inthe middle of the cans to allow fordrainage and attach the cans to theends of 4-foot (1.2 m) stakes. Drive thestakes into the ground, 1 foot (0.3 m)from every tree you want to protect orat 6-foot (1.8-m) intervals around theperimeter of a block. Place 1 cup (225g) of tankage in each can. You can usemesh or cloth bags instead of cans.You may have to replace the contain-ers periodically because fox or otheranimals pull them down occasionally.Tankage is available by bulk ($335 perton [$302/mt]) or bag ($20 per 50pounds [22.5 kg]). When prepared forhanging on stakes, it costs about $0.20per 1 ounce (28 g) bag and 300 bagswill cover 2 acres (0.8 ha).

Ro-pel® (benzyldiethyl [(2,6xylylcarbamoyl) methyl] ammoniumsaccharide (0.065%), thymol (0.035%).Ro-pel® is reported to repel deer withits extremely bitter taste. ApplyRo-pel® once each year to new growth.It is not recommended for use onedible crops. Spray at full strength onnursery and Christmas trees, orna-mentals, and flowers. One gallon (3.8 l)costs $50 and covers about 1 acre (0.4ha) of 8- to 10-foot (2.4- to 3.0-m) trees.

Hair Bags (human hair). Human hairis an odor (area) repellent that costsvery little but has not consistentlyrepelled deer. Place two handfuls ofhair in fine-mesh bags (onion bags,nylon stockings). Where severe dam-age occurs, hang hair bags on the outerbranches of individual trees with nomore than 3 feet (0.9 m) betweenindividual bags. For larger areas, hangseveral bags, 3 feet (0.9 m) apart, froma fence or cord around the perimeterof the area to be protected. Attach thebags early in spring and replace themmonthly through the growing season.You can get hair at local barber shopsor salons.

Bar Soap. Recent studies andnumerous testimonials have shownthat ordinary bars of soap applied inthe same manner as hair bags canreduce deer damage. Drill a hole ineach bar and suspend it with a twisttie or soft cord. Each bar appears toprotect a radius of about 1 yard (1m). Any inexpensive brand of barsoap will work. Ready-to-use barscost about $0.20 each.

Toxicants

No toxicants are registered for deercontrol. Poisoning of deer with anyproduct for any reason is illegal andunlikely to be tolerated by the public.

Herd Reduction

Overall reduction in a state’s deerpopulation might reduce deer damage,but public opinion generally does notfavor this approach. Damage may re-sult from a few problem deer or at lo-cations close to a winter deer yard orother exceptional habitat. Thus, a localreduction in deer population may beappropriate.

Live Capture

In special cases, such as city parks, ref-uges, or suburban neighborhoods, itmay be necessary or desirable tocapture deer alive and move them toother areas. Deer can be capturedsafely with rocket nets, drop-door boxtraps, or tranquilizer guns, but thesetechniques are expensive, time-consuming, and require the expertise

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of professional wildlife biologists. Livecapture and relocation is seldom apractical alternative unless delicatepublic relations problems mandate liveremoval as the only choice. During1982, 15 deer were removed from aMilwaukee, Wisconsin nature areausing chemical immobilization. Totalcost was about $100 per deer but othermore recent removal operations havebeen more expensive, up to $400 perdeer or more. In addition to high costs,the survival of relocated deer is usu-ally low. Live removal is seldomjustified.

Shooting

Effective use of the legal deer season isprobably the best way to control deerpopulations. By permitting hunting,landowners provide public access to apublic resource while at the same timereducing deer damage problems.Because of the daily and seasonalmovements of deer, only rarely does asingle landowner control all the land adeer uses. As a result, neighboringlandowners should cooperate. Land-owners, the state wildlife agency, andlocal hunters should reach a consensusabout a desirable population level foran area before deer are removed.

Mechanisms for managing deer popu-lation levels in a specific area alreadyexist in most states. Either-sex seasons,increased bag limits, antlerless-onlypermits, special depredation seasons,and a variety of other managementtechniques have been used success-fully to reduce deer numbers belowlevels achieved by traditional “bucksonly” regulations.

Shooting permits issued by somestates allow for removal of problemdeer where they are causing damageduring nonhunting season periods.

Use of bait, spotlights, and rifles mayincrease success but techniques mustbe consistent with the specifications ofthe permits. In areas where shootingnormally is prohibited, such as parksand densely populated areas, a skilledshooter under permit is probably pref-erable to costly attempts at live re-moval.

Economics of Damageand Control

A national survey conducted byUSDA’s National Agricultural Statis-tics Service in 1992 identified deerdamage as the most widespread formof wildlife damage. Forty percent ofthe farmers reporting had experienceddeer damage. No estimate exists ofnationwide annual crop losses to deer,but damage estimates have been madefor some states. In Wisconsin, a 1984survey of farmers suggested minimumstatewide deer damage of $36.7 millionannually. A similar study in Pennsyl-vania estimated the annual crop loss at$16 to $30 million. The situation issimilar in most agricultural states withmoderate to high deer densities. Esti-mates by Hesselton and Hesselton(1982) suggest that the cost of deer-vehicle collisions may exceed $100 mil-lion each year in the United States andCanada. In fact, the cost of deer/vehicle collisions was estimated at$100 million in Wisconsin alone in1990.

Deer also damage nurseries, landscapeplantings, and timber regeneration.However, as established earlier, deerare a valuable public resource. Costestimates for control techniques werepresented with the appropriatetechniques. A cost/benefit analysis isalways advisable before initiating acontrol program.

Two additional economic aspects areworth consideration. One involvesfarmer tolerance for deer damage.Two summaries of social scienceresearch related to deer damage(Pomerantz et al. 1986, and Siemer andDecker 1991) demonstrated that amajority of farmers were willing to tol-erate several hundred dollars in deerdamage in exchange for the variousbenefits of having deer on their land.Thus “total damage” figures are mis-leading because only a small percent-age of the farmers statewide ornationwide are suffering sufficientdamage to warrant control or compen-sation.

The second economic considerationinvolves state-funded programs ofsubsidies for damage control materialsor direct compensation for crop losses.Such programs can be very costly butare probably necessary where largedeer herds are maintained in agricul-tural landscapes. As an example, theWisconsin Wildlife Damage Programexpended $2.25 million in 1992 forabatement materials, claims, andadministration. The program is a col-laborative effort of the WisconsinDepartment of Natural Resources,USDA-APHIS-ADC, and Wisconsincounties and is very effective. Indi-vidual states vary greatly, however, intheir degree of financial or technicalassistance. Consult your state wildlifeagency for information on compensa-tion or cost-sharing programs. Also,many states have local publications ondeer and deer damage--Pennsylvania,Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, andNew York, for example. Consult yourlocal Extension office or state wildlifeagency.

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Acknowledgments

Figures 1 and 5 from Schwartz and Schwartz(1981).

Figure 2 by Charles W. Schwartz, published inWallmo (1978), copyrighted by the WildlifeManagement Institute and adapted by EmilyOseas Routman.

Figures 3 and 4 adapted from Burt andGrossenheider (1976) by Jill Sack Johnson.

Figures 6 through 15 are from Craven andHygnstrom (1993), “Controlling Deer Damagein Wisconsin,” University of WisconsinExtension publication G3083.

For AdditionalInformation

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Conover, M. R. 1984. Effectiveness of repellentsin reducing deer damage in nurseries. Wildl.Soc. Bull. 12:399-404.

Cummings, M. W., M. H. Kimball, and W. M.Longhurst. 1980. Deer-resistant plants forornamental use. Leaflet 2167. Div. Agric.Sci., Univ. California. Oakland. 7 pp.

Fargione, M. J., P. D. Curtis, and M. E.Richmond. 1991. Resistance of woodyornamental plants to deer damage. CornellCoop. Ext. Fact Sheet. Ithaca, NY. 4 pp.

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Siemer, W. F., and D. J. Decker. 1991. Humantolerance of wildlife damage: synthesis ofresearch and management implications.Human Dimensions Res. Unit, Ser. No. 91-7.Dep. Nat. Resour., Cornell Univ., Ithaca,New York. 24 pp.

Stapells, R. D. H. 1983. Everything you shouldknow about electric fences and fencecontrollers. J. C. Hallman Mfg. Co. Ltd.Kitchaner, Ontario. 30 pp.

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Gallagher, B. 1992. 9th international powerfence manual. Gallagher Power Fence, Inc.,San Antonio, Texas. 45 pp.

Halls, L. K. 1978. White-tailed deer. Pages 43-65in J. L. Schmidt and D. L. Gilbert, eds. Biggame of North America: ecology andmanagement. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg,Pennsylvania.

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Harris, M. T., W. L. Palmer, and J. L. George.1983. Preliminary screening of white-taileddeer repellents. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:516-519.

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