Definition:

There is no certain personality that will make someone successful. There are characteristics that aid

performance but successful sports performers all show different characteristics.

3 major theories outline how a personality develops.

1. Trait theory suggests that…

Nurture Nature

2. Social learning theory suggests…

3. Interactionist perspective suggests…

Lewin’s approach

Hollander’s model

1. Psychological core – This is the real you! It stores the

permanent beliefs and values. For example, if you are

nervous before every single game this is because of your

psychological core.

2. Typical response – this is the usual behaviour in a given

situation. One person may perceive defeat as a positive

learning experience and work harder in training. Whereas

another may suffer from learned helplessness and

withdraw their commitment. These are changeable and

are learning behaviours. The often reflect the make-up of

the personality core. For example, in netball if someone

is aggressive, you are likely to be aggressive back.

3. Role related behaviours – specific behaviour in a certain

way (situation specific). How a person reacts to fit into

their perception of the environment; if the environment

changes then the behaviour may change. For example,

someone who is normally calm may find themselves in a

one off aggressive incident.

How knowledge of the interactionist perspective can improve performance:

1.

2.

3.

Credulous vs sceptical

Definition:

How are attitudes formed?

An attitude is made up of 3 parts (Triadic Model). Label them on the diagram.

Explain each part of the Triadic Model

A__________________:

B____________________:

C____________________:

Changing attitudes

1. Cognitive Dissonance:

2. Persuasive communication:

Definition:

The relationship between arousal and performance is explained by a number of theories:

1. Drive Theory – draw and explain this theory of arousal.

Drive and dominant response (the stand-out response that the performer thinks is correct)

Increased drive does not always improve performance - It is unrealistic to suggest that performance always keeps improving.

At high arousal, less information is processed and the performance tends to concentrate on the ‘dominant response’, the response thought to be correct SO… as arousal increases so does likelihood of dominant response

In experts, the DR is indeed usually correct and performance levels remain high.

However, with beginners the DR may not be developed so the beginner may choose the wrong option and the probability of poor performance increases.

If the task is simple or the performer is an expert then performance may continue well as it does not require much thinking and they have the experience to focus on the correct dominant response = Experienced players perform better with higher levels of arousal/ the more experienced players in a team require higher levels of arousal

If the task is complex or the performer is a novice then performance could suffer because there is a lot of information to process and think about therefore they may focus on an incorrect response = Novice players perform better with lower levels of arousal

2. Inverted U theory of arousal – draw and explain this theory of arousal.

The optimum level of arousal can vary depending on:

3. Catastrophe Theory – draw and explain this theory of arousal.

The zone of optimal functioning (ZOF)

Peak Flow experience

Factors affecting the peak flow experience:

Definition:

Anxiety – state and explain the two forms of anxiety.

1. Cognitive –

2. Somatic -

Explain the graphs below:

Causes

Cognitive anxiety has a negative

effect on performance,

limited somatic anxiety is ok!

Other types of anxiety:

1. Competitive Trait anxiety –

2. Competitive State anxiety –

Measuring Anxiety

There are 3 methods of measuring anxiety in sport; self-report questionnaires, observation and

physiological testing. All are extremely useful to the coach since knowledge of how players deal with

and experience anxiety will help the coach to make informed decisions.

A questionnaire used by sports psychologists to measure anxiety is the Sports Competition

Anxiety Test (SCAT). The SCAT test was extended by Martens in 1990 to become the

Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory or CSAI 2. The test includes measures of somatic

anxiety, cognitive anxiety and confidence levels.

There is a link between state and trait anxiety. An individual with high trait anxiety is more likely to experience high state anxiety when faced with a stressful situation – especially if they are being watched or evaluated. = if you have the trait you are more likely to get the state!

The idea is for a coach to plan according to the players anxiety levels (cognitive and somatic).

Questionnaires

Observation

Physiological measures

Aggression definition:

Assertion definition:

Aggression characteristics Assertion characteristics

Causes of Aggression

1. Instinct theory

Instrumental aggression: has an intent but is

within the rules

2. Frustration-aggression hypothesis

3. Aggressive-cue hypothesis

4. Social learning theory

Preventing Aggression

Aggression is not desirable in sport since it can cause injury, a loss of concentration and an increase

in arousal and anxiety in the player. Coaches, players and importantly the referee can play a part in

reducing aggression in sport.

What can the 3 groups do to prevent aggression in sport?

Players Coaches

Officials

Definition:

2 different types of motivation:

Intrinsic:

Extrinsic:

2 different types of extrinsic motivation are:

T

I

Intrinsic motivation is better because it is stronger and longer lasting. The coach should maintain

extrinsic and intrinsic motivation by:

Social facilitation definition:

Social inhibition definition:

Zajonc suggested that there are 4 types of ‘others’ who can be present when playing sport. They are:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Performance and the dominant response

There is a strong link between drive theory and the effects of an audience because the presence of

others has the immediate effect of increasing the level of arousal.

Evaluation apprehension

Definition:

Preventing social inhibition: To limit the effects of social inhibition and evaluation apprehension,

there are some strategies that the coach and player can employ.

Getting the players familiar with playing in front of a crowd

Train with the distraction of an audience so they get used to being watched (familiarisation)

Get some unfamiliar faces at training so its not always parents watching etc.

Build the audience gradually so players learn to cope with it

Gradually introducing evaluation

Build up assessment and evaluation of the performance – start with informal team chats about the game

Lead up to formal assessments, statistics and one-on-one interviews as they get more experienced and can cope with scrutiny

Support from team mates and other peers help to encourage players through games when a large crowd is present

Coach could reduce the importance of the event if possible e.g. the league title does not depend solely on this game – a loss or draw would not be disastrous!

Improving focus and concentration

Players could try to really focus on the game and not the audience so they focus attention on the things that matter

Use selective attention to good effect

What characteristics do a team have?

1.

2.

3.

4.

How does a group form?

F________________

S________________

N_________________

P_________________

Cohesion definition:

Co-action definition:

Interaction definition:

Carron's antecedents – the factors that might influence cohesion

1.

2.

3.

4.

Task cohesion definition:

Social cohesion definition:

Steiner’s model: proposed that the results of group efforts could be based on an equation:

Actual productivity –

Potential productivity –

Faulty processes –

2 types of faulty processes – motivational problems and coordination problems

Social loafing definition:

What causes social loafing?

Ringelmann effect

How to avoid

social loafing

Why do we set goals in sport?

Steps to success

Explain the goals below:

1.

2.

3.

Task-orientated goals:

Concerned with improvements in technique or performance – not who won the race. Motivation is

still maintained as comparison to others is not made – all about own performance.

1. _________ goals e.g. about technique

2._______________ goals

3.____________________ goals = the ultimate aim!

• Goals set by a player should include both process and performance goals and not just be focused on the outcome!

• Goals should focus on personal improvement and technique and be more performance-based. In a marathon, there is only 1 winner but chance for everyone to achieve a Pb

• Performance goals reduce stress/anxiety in competition and provide more consistent motivation

• Outcome goals focus on gaining a prize and provide a basis for comparison – they are more likely to cause stress, particularly if the prize is not gained. However, do improve motivation to gain the prize!!

• Short term goals provide a means for reassurance

The SMARTER principle

S

M

A

R

T

E

R

Definition:

Complete the table with the different characteristics of each type.

___________ characteristics ___________ characteristics

What determines the NACH or NAF approach?

Sometimes an athlete feels confident and prepared to have a go whilst other times they may

prefer to leave the challenge to someone else

It depends on the ‘______________’ = which is the combination of the situational and

personality factors that decide the level of achievement motivation

The performer has to gauge the _________________________ in the task and the

_________________ gained from that success.

‘Is the task too easy and not offer any pride when completed?’ ‘Do I risk this hard task to

gain the pride/satisfaction if I do it successfully?’ An easy task offers little incentive and no

sense of satisfaction when completed. A hard task offers much more personal incentive and

a sense of achievement when completed.

To develop the ‘need to achieve’…

Coaches obviously want their players to be competitive and display approach behaviour when

competing, even though a safe and risk-free approach is sometimes needed!! NAF -----> NACH

Achievement Goal Theory

Confidence definition:

Confidence is so important for sports performers. Those that are confident will try harder, take more

risks, show approach behaviour and more likely to win! It is another concept that depends on

interaction (personality and the situation).

Trait confidence:

Sate confidence:

The Vealey model of sports confidence

Explain below:

Bandura self-efficacy theory

Factors affecting self-efficacy

Improving confidence

Coaches and players can use the 4 influences on self-efficacy to help improve and promote player

confidence. Some of the things that the coach or player can do are as follows:

Homefield Advantage

Leader definition:

Leader qualities:

There are 2 types of leader.

P__________________:

E__________________:

Styles of leadership:

1.

2.

3.

Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership

Chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model of leadership

Draw and explain the model below:

Stress definition:

Eustress definition:

Stressor:

Stressor examples in sport:

Cognitive stress:

Somatic stress:

Stress management techniques:

Cognitive stress management techniques

Somatic stress management techniques

In sport, reasons are often given for winning and losing by players, managers/coaches. The reasons

are vital to maintain motivation and effort!

Attribution definition:

Complete the table with examples.

Locus of causality:

Locus of stability:

Coaches and players can use attribution theory to make sure their players keep on trying, even after

defeat. As a coach you are trying to encourage task persistence.

Self-serving bias:

Learned helplessness:

2 types of learned helplessness:

Attribution retraining:

Mastery orientation: