Dental education for women dentists in the United States:The beginnings

Hannelore T Loevy, CD, MS, PhDVAIetha A. Kowitz, MA**

During tbe 19tb century, dentistry was changing from a craft tbat was usuaily transmitted by a preceptor toa science that was taught in estabtisbed schoois. The first dentai school, established in 1827 inBainbridge, Obio, was soon foiiowed by a iarge number of proprietary and freestanding scbocis of den-tistry However, no matter what the status of the dental school, none would admit women. In contrast, thefirst woman to be admitted to a medical college graduated in 1849. The Oblo Coiiege of Dentai Surgerywas the first dental school to open its doors to a woman and granted a degree to Lucy Seaman HobbsTaylor in 1866. Although tbe number of women to graduate from dentai scboci increased, the number wassmaii compared to the Increase in mais graduates. By 1893. about 200 women had graduated with de-grees in dentistry including a number wbo came from outside the United States. (Quintessence Int1999;30:563-569)

Keywords: dental education, women dentists

The 19th century was a time of important transitionin the field of health sciences. It was a time in

which the health professions began to examine thespecific etiologies of diseases and to differentiate be-tween disease entities. It was also a period of tbe de-velopment of Victorian ideas of modesty; manywomen wished to be examined by women and not bymen, particularly for obstetric and gynécologie eare.While some of the women of the time reatly believedthat they could make a unique contributton, many alsowere motivated by tbe tbougbt that medicine and den-tistry were more lucrative for self-supporting individu-als than the professions commonly available towomen at that time.

The first woman credited with establishing her ownregular dental practice in the United States is EmelineRoberts |ones of Connecticut, the widow of Dr DanielAlhion Jones, She apparently learned the professionfrom her husband. However, she probably was not theonly woman to practice dentistry witbout a dental col-

' Professor ot Clinical Pédiatrie Oentistry, College ot Dentistry, Uniuersityot Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

"Diisctor (retired) of the Bureau of Library Services, Arrerican DertalAssociation, Chicago, Illinois,

Reprint requests: Or Hannelore T Loevy, 5534 South Harper Avenje,Chicago, Illinois 60637. E-mail: Htloevy@jic.edu

lege degree because tbe US Census of 1870 indicatestbat 24 women were practicing in the United States,and the British Census of 1871 reports that there were116 women practitioners in Great Britain,'

Tbe first women to graduate from dental schoolwere persons with great force of character and deter-mination, who were willing to face enormous obsta-cles and denials to obtain a better life for themselvesand to open the door for others. The purpose of thepresent article is to study the demographics of the firstwomen who were able to be accepted for study indentistry in the different dental schools of the UnitedStates; when possible, their professional activitiesonce graduated are examined, Tbe statisties originallyappeared in The Dental Tribune and end with 1893,wbich may reflect the eensus of 1890 or, more likely,preparation of data for the World's Dental Congress,held in Cbieago in 1893,=

WOMEN ENTER MEDICAL SCHOOLS

A very important meeting took place in Geneva,New York, on October 20, 1847, Tbe students of theMedical School of Geneva University met, at the re-quest of the faculty, to vote whether they would accepta woman in their class. If the vote were negative, theclass would continue in its homogeneity. Instead, theclass voted for the admission of Eiizabeth Blackwell

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(1821-1910). The letter by T- J. Stratton, chairman oftbe medical class, stated tbat:

. . . one of the radical principles of a RepublicanGovernment is the universal education of both sexes;that to every branch of scientific education the doorshould be opened equally to all; that the applieation ofElizabeth Blackwell to become a member of our classmeets our entire approbation; and in extending ourunanimous invitation we pledge ourselves that noconduct of ours shall eause her fo regret her atten-dance at this institution.

Based on tbis resolution, Cbarles A. Lee, dean oftbe faculty of Geneva Medical College, wrote toBlackwell and invited ber as the first woman to be ac-cepted for medical studies in tbe United States.Elizabetb Blackwell, after baving many applicationsrejected, was admitted to Geneva Medical College andgraduated in 1849.

Sbortly after tbat, Cleveland Medical College inObio also admitted women, and Maria Zakrzewska(1829-1902) graduated in 1856.' Althougb GenevaMedicai College closed its doors to women soon afterBlackwell received ber degree. Central Medical Collegeof Syracuse, New York, became tbe first coeducationalmedical school and graduated 3 women 2 years afterBlackwell. Women's Medical College of Pennsylvaniawas establisbed in 1850.

Standards in tbe women's colleges were bigbertban tbose in tiie men's colleges of the time, particu-larly because not all men's colleges demanded a 3-yearcourse. However, women continued to bave a prob-lem acquiring clinical experience during training be-cause many bospitais would not accept tbem as in-terns and residents. Clinical training was, therefore,dependent on special infirmaries and bospitais thataccepted women trainees.

Witb the opening of Johns Hopkins Medical Schoolin 1892, conditions for women students improvedenormously because tbe Johns Hopkins Universitytrustees required tbe school to accept wotnen witboutdiscrimination. It was also the first school to requirethat students have a bachelor's degree before enteringmedical schooi. After 1892, most of the women's med-ical colleges closed.

BEGINNINGS OF DENTAL EDUCATIONFOR WOMEN

By 1866, several women had graduated from med-icai scbool, and it was time for Lucy Hobbs to obtaina dental degree to compiete her education. The firstuniversity-affiliated dental school opened in 1840 at

TABLE 1 Number of women dentists, 1893'

State

CaliforniaColoradoConnecticut

No.

642

District of Columbia 3FloridaGeorgiaIllinoisIndianaIowaKansasMarylandMassaehusettsMiehigan

11

175A

13126

State

MinnesotaMississippiMissouriMontanaNew JerseyNew YorkOhioPennsyivaniaRhode IslandSouth DakotaUtahWisconsin

No.

0Î

534

106

302115

Baltimore, Maryland; tbis was soon followed by alarge number of freestanding schools of dentistry,many of wbich were proprietary.

Most faculties at dental schools were reluctant toaccept women, had major misgivings about their abil-ity and pbysical stamina, and were very concernedwith the innovation, despite the fact that women werealready entering medical scbool and were practicingpbysicians and a small number of women who hadtrained by apprenticesbip were practicing dentistry.

In 1893, Vie Denial Tribune' published statistics onwomen dentists in the United States (Table 1), indicatingthat a small number of women were practicing dentistryby 1893. A survey of tbe commencement annotince-ments in Denial Cosmos and Dental Register revealstbat at least 181 women bad graduated from dentai col-lege between 1866 and 1893. Therefore, we decided toattempt to establisb more accurate figures of the begin-nings of women in dental education.

Tbe resulting list, based on a study of tbe journalsDental Cosmos and Dental Register, is incomplete be-cause several colleges that provided tbeir lists of grad-uates included initials ratber tban tbe first name of thegraduates, making it impossible to know tbe gender.In some cases, a provided first name does not clearlyestablish tbe graduate's gender. Some schools did notprovide the lists of graduates to the dentai publica-tions of the time, and finding the names of the womenwho graduated from these schools is difficuh, if notimpossible. A case in point is Edith H. Chambers ofCbicago, Iilinois, who wrote to the Surgeon Generalof the United States in July 1898, expressing a desireto serve as a dental surgeon in the Army MedicalDepartrnent. She stated that she had graduated fromthe University of Minnesota in 1890. The notice inDental Cosmos states that Edith H. White graduatedfrorn the University of Minnesota that year.

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s^;s^^««»

Fig 1 Pennsylvania Coliege of Dentai Surgery. Fig 2 Phiiadeiphia Coiiege of DentaiSurgery.

TABLE 21893*

Year

1866

1867-1869

1870-1872

1873-1875

1876-1878

1879-1881

1882-1884

1885-1887

1888-1890

1891-1893

Ratio of women to men dentists, 1866 to

Women

1

1

2

4

511

2123

44

69

Men

79

320

396

371

556

979

1211144924093003

Total

80

321

398

375

561

990

1232147224533072

%

1.270.310.511.080.901.121.731.591.832.30

'Accciding to ttie cornmencemenl exercise lists pjbiistied in DenialCosmos ana Denial Regmsr. 1SS6to 1893. Not ali schools reporting.

TABLE 3 State of origin of American womengraduates, 1866 to 1893'

State

CaiilorniaConnecticutiilinoisindianaiowaKansasKentuckyMarylandMassachusettsMicinigan

"According to the corr

No.

3

1

5

3

7

321

35

State

MinnesotaMissounNew JerseyNew YorkOtiioPennsylvaniaVermontVirginiaWisconsinNot stated

•nencement exercise iists pubiistied in DeCosmos and Dental Register. 1866 to t893. Not all schools repc

líarlin

No.

4

5

2

11

9

27

5

2

3

33

g

By 1893, most states had at least 1 registered womandentist. Pennsylvania had the largest number, perhapsbecause Philadelphia had 2 schools that acceptedwomen (Figs 1 and 2), Tahle 2 shows the number ofwomen who graduated from dental schools between1866 and 1893, Unquestionably, the number of womendentists increased greatly during this period, hut the rel-ative proportion between male and female graduates re-mained almost constant. Passage of licensure laws hadsome effect. Women usually had extra schooling be-

cause of age and tbe difficulty of admission.Table 3 shows the states from which tbe American

women students came, and Table 4 indicates foreigncountries from which the non-American women ar-rived. Table 5 demonstrates that some colleges acceptedmany women, some only occasionally. Some schools ac-cepted American women hut did not accept womenwho came from other countries [Table 6). Table 7 showsthe proportion of women dentists as compared to den-tists and physicians according to the US census reports.

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TABLE 4 Country of origin of foreign-born womengraduates, 1866 to 1893*

Country Country

AustriaColombiaCuDaEnglandGermany

PrussiaRomaniaRussiaSwitzerlandWest Indies

•According to the commencement e«ercise lists published in DentalCosmos ana Denial Register, 1366 to 1893. Not all schools reporting.

TABLE S Dental schools attended by women graduates, 1866 to 1893'

School

Alabama Coll Dent SurgAmerican Coll Dent SurgBaltimore Coll Dent SurgBoston Dental CollegeChicago Coll Dent SurgColumbian Univ Dent DeptIndiana Dent CollKansas City Dent CodMissouri Dental CollegeNew York Coll DentNorthwestern Univ Denl School

'According to (he com men ce men! exerc1893. No! all schools reporlmg

No.

tt37511

21

2

4

1

School

Ohio Coll Dental SurgeryPennsylvania Dental CollegePhiladelphia Dental CollegeUniv ot California Coll DenlistryUniv of Iowa Dental DeptUniv of Maryland Dental DeptUniu of Michigan Coll Dent SurgUniv of Minnesota, Dent DeptUniv of Pennsylvania, Dept DentUniv ot Tennessee, Dental DeptWestern Dental College

No.

t45528

3

tot

234t13

se lists published m Déniai Cosmos and Dental Register, 1866 to

TABLE 6 Dental schools attended by foreign-bornwomen graduates, 1866 to 1893*

School

Baltimore Coll Dent SurgUniv of Michigan Coll Dent SurgNew York Coll DentOhio Coll Denf SurgeryPennsylvania Dental CollegePhiladelphia Dental College

'According to the commencement exe

No. CountriesT

6341

294

ciselCosmos and Denial Registe', 1856 to 1833.t A = Austria; C = Cuba; Co = ColomB Bi;E =P = Prussia; R = Russia; Ro = Romania:Wl = W8st Indies.

G/PG/EE/C/Co/RPG/P/Wl/A/R/RoG/S/E/A

5ts published in Denial

England; G = Germanii;S = Switzerland;

TABLE 7 Number of dentists, according toUS census reports^

Year

18101820183018401850186018701880t8901900t9tOt920

Dentists(No.)

50too300

1000292356067988

1231417498296653999756152

Women dentists(No.)

2461

337807

1329

Physicians(No.)

40755550556441485671

104BÜ5132002151132144977

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Fig 3 First building occupied by the Ohio College ot DentalSurgery, erected in 1845.

Fig 4 Dr Hennelte Hirschfeld.

THE FIRST WOMEN DENTAL GRADUATES

The Ohio College of Dental Surgery (Fig 3) was thefirst to open its door to a woman, Lucy BeamanHobbs Taylor, and to grant her the degree of doctor ofdental surgery. Hobbs was born in 1833 in EllenburgTown, New York, and started to work in 1849 as ateacher in Brooklyn, Michigan. She was refused ad-mission to study medicine at the Eclectic MedicalCollege and to study dentistry at the Ohio College ofMedicine (hoth in Cincinnati, Ohio). After a struggleto locate a preceptor, she worked for a short time withDr Jonathan Taft, dean of the Ohio College of DentalSurgery, and followed this with an apprenticeshiptmder Dr Samuel Wardle of Cincinnati.

Following her apprenticeship and an unsuccessful at-tempt at dental practice in Cincinnati, she moved toMcGregor, Iowa, where she was able to establish a suc-cessful practice. Lucy Hohbs, as she was known, was in-vited by Dr Luman Church Ingersoll, the president ofthe Iowa State Dental Society, to attend its 1865 meet-ing, where she was admitted as a memher following achange in the society's constitution and bylaws. In 1866,she was appointed as a delegate to the American DentalAssociation meeting in Chicago for the Iowa society.

She was also sponsored hy the Iowa society as adental student at the Ohio College of Dental Surgeryat Cincinnati. The dean of the college, Jonathan Taft,

later felt that her presence in the class "contributed tothe good order and decorum" of the class. Apparentlyshe would not permit the use of cigars or cigarettes inthe laboratory, objected to tobacco chewing, and criti-cized whatever she did not consider proper, to the de-light of some of her professors. Hobbs finally gradu-ated from dental school in 1866,

After graduation, she moved to Chicago, where shemet and married James Myrtle Taylor, to whom shebecame preceptor. They moved to Lawrence, Kansas,where they practiced together until his death in 1886,She continued to practice alone for many years anddied in Lawrence in 1910.

Taylor was a true pioneer, setting the stage for othersof her sex to gain admission to dental school and to es-tablish practices in many parts of the world. Apparently,however, the Ohio College of Dental Surgery was notanxious to call attention to being the first to graduate awoman. The graduation announcement reads: "He^President of the Board] then conferred the degree ofDDS upon the following named gentlemen . . . Miss L.B. Hobbs."' Her accomplishment only received public-ity when the Pennsyivania College of Dentistry claimedit had graduated the first woman dentist,*'

The Pennsylvania College of Dentistry was the firstto accept a woman, Henriette Hirschfeld, of Berlin,Germany, as a regular dental student for the entire 2years of the course (Fig 4). (Lucy Hobbs was able to

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graduate after only a short period of study at tbe col-lege because she bad been practicing tbe professionfor some time.) Tbe second woman to graduate from adental college, Henriette Hirschfeld had the additionalburden of having to complete her studies in a languageother than her own.

Others at the college were reluctant to acceptHirschfeld, To complete requirements, Hirschfeld tookanatomy classes at the Women's Medieal College ofPhiiadelphia because the professor of anatomy at thePennsylvania Dental College refused to teach anatomyif a woman was in the classroom. It took several yearsuntil he was willing to accept her, in the last year ofher studies,'"

Hirsehfeld graduated on February 27, 1869," Thevaledictory address was given by G. T. Barker,Professor of Dental Patbology and Tberapeutics, anopponent of women in dentistry. Barker bad pub-lished an editorial in Dental Times, in July 1865,strongly objecting to tbe admission of women to thepractice of dentistry because dentistry required "men-tal and physical equipment of a high order" and "thepractice of dentistry is calculated to undermine thevery best balanced constitutions,"'^ In Barker's mind,this stress excluded women: "the satne reason holdsgood against females practicing dentistry that it doesagainst a feeble male."

Rebuttals to this position came immediately andwere published in the Dental Register by its editor, G,Walsh,' and by L, Jenny Kellogg in Dental Times.^^Another strong opponent of Barker's views was JamesTruman, who in his address to the class of 1865 of thePennsylvania Dental College, stated:

The recognition of the right of every human beingto an equal share iti the privileges that we enjoy hasnot yet become a principle ol' faith and practice as Ithink it should. We say to one-half of the human fam-ily, stitch, stitch, darn stockings, make shoes for ashilling, stand behind counters for two or three dollarsper week, do anything, but don't enter the sacredprecincts that we have marked out for our peculiarbenefit,,.'

This address may have prompted HenrietteHirschfeid to seek out Truman when she came to theUnited States to enter dental school. She deliberatelycame to America to study dentistry and planned to re-turn to her country, Prussia, wbicb sbe did. Beforecoming to the United States she had obtained a writ-ten permit from the Prussian minister, stating that shewould be able to practice dentistry on her return toBerlin after eompleting the course in a major dentalschool in the United States, fn 1867, she arrived inPhiiadelphia, Truman aecepted her into his house andbecame ber preceptor.

During the graduation exercises, tbe statement wasmade tbat:

She performed all the duties required of a studentand was enabled to equal the other graduates in alldepartments, fully justifying the belief of some thatsuccess in our profession is not, and cannot be, lim-ited tosex,'

On ber returning to Berlin, she bad a very success-ful practice, primarily treating women and cbildren,including some members of tbe royal family. By 1873,sbe was listed as a contributor to Dental Cosmos,^^and, by 1874, ber practice was so sueeessful that shewas able to employ Louise Jacobi wben Jacobi re-turned to Germany with an American dental degree,Hirschfeld retired from dental praetiee in 1899, andthe practice passed to her niece, Hirscbfeld marriedDr Tiburtius, a surgeon, on ber return to Berlin andhad 2 sons; 1 became a civil engineer and the otber anaval surgeon.

By Mareb 4, 1872, 2 other women reeeived dentaldegrees. Helene Voryl de Swiderska, who claimed tobe a Lithuanian from Russia, apparently received herdental degree from the New York College of DentalSurgery, but ber name was not on the list of gradu-ates." Marie Grubert, of Berlin, reeeived ber degreefrom the Obio College of Dental Surgery,'" Swiderskaclaimed to both the Journal of Dental Science^^ andHarper's Bazaar' to be the ñrst woman with the de-gree of doctor of dental surgery, but tbis contention isnot correct.

By 1872, 3 women were admitted to tbe Penn-sylvania College of Dental Surgery; however, aftercompleting the first year, they were not allowed to re-turn because they were women, A similar problem oc-curred in Edinburgb, Scotland, where 7 women weredenied continuation of their medical education.However, in Pennsylvania, there had been a dissentingvote by a member of the faculty. The matter, therefore,was brought to a committee of members of tbe boardof the Pennsylvania College of Dentistry, which ren-dered the decision that "a student eould not be castout without due cause," In 1874, 2 of the women,Annie D, Ramborger from Pennsylvania and VeleskeWileke from Prussia, graduated from tbat college,Louise Jacobi transferred to Baltimore College ofDental Surgery, graduated, and returned to Berlin topractice with Hirschfeld,

Ida Gray Nelson Rollins (1867-1953) was tbe firstAfrican Ameriean woman allowed to enroll in a dentalschool. Gray was not only the first blaek woman den-tist to graduate from dental school, but also fhe firstblack woman dentist to praetiee in Chicago. Sbe grad-uated from the University of Michigan Sehool of

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Dentistry in 1890-° folloiving an apprenticeship underDr Jonathan Taft, of Cincinnati, who had been a men-tor for Hobbs. Gray practiced in Cincinnati from 1890to 1895, when sbe married an attorney and accoun-tant, James Sanford Nelson. They moved to Cbicagowhere Nelson practiced in tbe "black belt" on thesouth side of tbe city. Sbe continued to live in Cbicagountil ber death at 87 years of age in 1953.-°

ASSOCIATION MEMBERSHIP

The American Dental Association took up tbeproblem of women in dentistry in 1869. A resolutionwas introduced in August 1869 at tbe Annual Meetingin Saratoga Springs, New York, to admit duly qualifiedwomen to full membersbip in the subordinate associa-tions. The resolution proposed tbat "considerations ofsex sbould be avoided, ability and moral characteralone being the standard of judgment in all cases." Themotion was tabled.^' However, by that time, somewomen were already breaking tbe "glass ceiling":Hobbs had been admitted to full membersbip in tbeIowa State Dental Society in 1865, and, by 1872, theMississippi Valley Dental Society not only bad ac-cepted Grubert as a member but bad elected ber vice-president.

In 1921. a small group of women dentists formedthe National Dental Sorority. The name was laterchanged to the Federation of American WomenDentists. Tbe group finally became known as theAmerican Association of Women Dentists in 1928.-^

THE MODERN ERA

By 1991, the nurnber of dentists in the UnitedStates was 150,762, of wbom 13,863 (9.20'o) werewomen." In recent years, tbe ratio of women to menhas changed because more and more dental schoolshave admitted women, and women bave discoveredthat dentistry is a rewarding field witb flexible boursand intellectually and psycbologically satisfying work.It can be assumed that American women will continueto swell the ranks of dentistry, but whetber their num-ber will approacb tbe overriding numbers found inEuropean countries,^" only the future will teil.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The aulliors would like lo (liank Dr E. Hubner for her help in obtain-ing a copy of [he poriraic of Dr Hirsthteld.

REFERENCES

1. Women ¡n dentistry. ) Am Dent Assoc 1928; 15:1735-1756.2. Women dentists. Dent Items Interest 1893;15:485.3. Blackwell E. Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical

Profession to Women; Autobiographical Sketches. NewYork; Source Book Press, 1970.

4. Hyson JiVl ]r. Female dentists in the U.S. Army: The origins.MilitMed 1995; 160:57-62.

5. US Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census.Historical Statistics of the United States. Colonial Times to1970 93rd Congress, 1st Session. House document No. 93-78. Bicentennial edition. Washington, DC: GovernmentPrinting Otïice, 1975.

5. Chappie JA. Coeducation in dental colleges, and is dentistrya suitahle calling fur women? Dent Digest 1904;10:649-658.

7. Commencement exercises. Dent Reg 1866;20;145.8. Truman |. Henriette Hirschfeid (Henriette Tihurtius), DDS,

and the women dentists of 1866-1873. Dent Cosmos 1911;53:1380-1386.

9. Cassidy JS. The pioneer womi n dentists. Dent Cosmos1912;54:206.

10. Women in dentistry. Ohio State J Dent Sei lS86;6;266-273.11. Commencement exercises. Dent Cosmos 1869;11:196.12. Barker G. Dentai Surgery-Should females practice it? Dent

TiiTies 1865:3:152-155.13. Waish G. Ho' Every one to the breeches! Dent Reg 1866;

20:374-375.14. Kellogg L|. Dental Surgery-Should females practice it?

Dent Times 1866;4;54-56.15. Commencement exercises. Dent Items Interest 1869;6:175.16. Hirschfeld H. Root filling. Dent Cosmos 1873;14:120-121.17. New York Coilege of Dentistry. Dent Cosmos 1872;14:200.18. Ohio Dental College. Dent Reg 1872;26:136-13719. Chemist and druggist. | Dent Sei 1872; 15:427-474.20. Harris ]C. Michigan's black dental heritage. I Mich Dent

Assoc 1992:74:28-34.21. Transactions. American Dental Association, 1869:23.22. Loevy HT, Kowitz AA. Founders of the American

Association of Women Dentists: Their legacy hngers on. IntDentJ 1991:41:240-247

23. American Dental Association. Distribution of Dentists inthe United States by Region and State. Chicago: AmericanDental Association, 1991.

24. Campbell JE. Women dentists-An untapped resource. J AmColl Dent 1979,37:265-269. 275.

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