design, installation, and maintenance of coating...

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SSPC-TU 2/NACE 6G�97February, �997

SSPC-TU 2Publication No. 97-04

Informational Report and Technology Update

Design, Installation, and Maintenance of Coating Systems forConcrete Used in Secondary Containment

This NACE International (NACE)/Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) report represents a consensus of thoseindividual members who have reviewed this document, its scope, and provisions. Its acceptance does not in anyrespect preclude anyone, whether he has adopted the report or not, from manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, orusing products, processes, or procedures not in conformance with this report. Nothing contained in thisNACE/SSPC report is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, to manufacture, sell, or usein connection with any method, apparatus, or product covered by Letters Patent, or as indemnifying or protectinganyone against liability for infringement of Letters Patent. This report should in no way be interpreted as a restrictionon the use of better procedures or materials. Neither is this report intended to apply in all cases relating to thesubject. Unpredictable circumstances may negate the usefulness of this report in specific instances. NACE andSSPC assume no responsibility for the interpretation or use of this report by other parties.

Users of this NACE/SSPC report are responsible for reviewing appropriate health, safety, environmental, andregulatory documents and for determining their applicability in relation to this report prior to its use. ThisNACE/SSPC report may not necessarily address all potential health and safety problems or environmental hazardsassociated with the use of materials, equipment, and/or operations detailed or referred to within this report. Users ofthis NACE/SSPC report are also responsible for establishing appropriate health, safety, and environmentalprotection practices, in consultation with appropriate regulatory authorities if necessary, to achieve compliance withany existing applicable regulatory requirements prior to the use of this report.

CAUTIONARY NOTICE: The user is cautioned to obtain the latest edition of this report. NACE/SSPC reports aresubject to periodic review, and may be revised or withdrawn at any time without prior notice. NACE and SSPCrequire that action be taken to reaffirm, revise, or withdraw this report no later than ten years from the date of initialpublication.

Approved February �997

©�997, NACE International and SSPC

NOTICE TO THE READER: The NACE and SSPC releases of this publication contain identical wording in thesame sequence. Publication format may differ.

Steel Structures Painting Council�0 2�th St.Pittsburgh, PA ��222+� (��2)2��-2��

NACE InternationalP.O. Box 2��0

Houston, TX 772��-��0+� (2��)�92-0��

Printed by NACE International

NACE 6G197Item No. 24193

SSPC-TU 2 NACE 6G197

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NACE 6G197/SSPC-TU 2

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Foreword

This state-of-the-art report covers the design,installation, and maintenance of polymeric coatingsystems that are applied and directly bonded toconcrete in secondary containment applications.This report is intended to inform manufacturers,specifiers, applicators, and facility owners who arerequired to contain chemicals and/or protect concretein these applications.

Concrete is used in secondary containmentstructures because it is a cost-effective material ifproperly designed and installed. A chemical-resis-tant coating is often applied to the concrete to extendthe service life of the secondary containment struc-ture and properly contain the chemicals.

Numerous recommended practices, specifica-tions, guides, conference proceedings, books, andtechnical papers have been published by NACE,SSPC, and other organizations covering the manyaspects of coatings for concrete. This report focuseson those aspects of the design, materials, and pro-cedures that are specific to coatings for concrete insecondary containment applications, making refer-

ence to other publications when appropriate. Whilethere are numerous successful commercial productsand designs for containment of chemicals, this reportfocuses on concrete structures that are coated withthermoset polymer coating systems. Other poten-tially effective containment systems, such as acid-resistant brick and thermoplastic liners, are notdescribed in this report.

Coatings used in secondary containment appli-cations are also called linings, lining systems, orprotective barrier systems; however, for simplicitythey will be referred to as coatings or coatingsystems in this report.

This technical committee report was drafted byNACE Task Group T-6H-�2, a subcommittee of T-6Hon Coating Materials for Atmospheric Service.NACE/SSPC Joint Task Group H* completed thereport, which is published by NACE Internationalunder the auspices of Group Committee T-6 onProtective Coatings and Linings and by the SteelStructures Painting Council.

Contents

Section �: Regulations.............................................. 2Section 2: Service Conditions ................................... �Section �: Concrete .................................................. �

�.� Concrete Design for New Structures............. ��.2 Existing Concrete Structures ........................ ��.� Surface Preparation .....................................��

Section �: Coating System Design Requirements .....��.� General .......................................................��.2 Chemical Resistance ...................................��.� System Physical Properties and Stress

Considerations.............................................��.� Permeability.................................................��.� Adhesion .....................................................��.6 Thermal Effects ...........................................��.7 Design Details .............................................�6�.� Other Design Factors...................................2��.9 System Compatibility Testing.......................22

Section �: Coating Systems......................................2��.� General .......................................................2��.2 Polymer Types.............................................2�

�.� Reinforcement and Fillers............................ 2��.� Other Formulation Components................... 26�.� Alternative Systems..................................... 26

Section 6: Coating System Installation ..................... 276.� Concrete Cure and Surface Preparation....... 276.2 Patching of Concrete Surface Imperfections 276.� Priming ....................................................... 2�6.� Coating System........................................... 2�6.� Testing and Inspection ................................ �0

Section 7: Maintenance............................................ ��7.� Spill Cleanup............................................... ��7.2 Inspections.................................................. ��7.� Repairs ....................................................... ��

Section �: Safety...................................................... ��Section 9: Glossary of Terms ................................... �2References................................................................ ��Appendix A—Chemical Conditions ............................ �2Appendix B—Physical Conditions.............................. ��Appendix C—Examples of Chemicals Within Each

Type .................................................................. �6

Section 1: Regulations

�.� The objective of regulations on secondary con-tainment is to prevent migration of hazardousmaterials into the soil, ground water, and surfacewater. In the United States numerous federal, state,and local regulations specifically address thecontainment of hazardous materials.�-7 The Re-source Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)2 is aprimary example of the applicable regulations that

refer to containment of hazardous wastes.

�.2 Regulations on secondary containment usuallyrequire that the systems:�

(�) prevent migration of hazardous (regulated)materials;

(2) have a sound substrate;

___________________________*Chairman Fred S. Gelfant, Stonhard Inc., Maple Shade, NJ.

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(�) be constructed of or lined with materials that arecompatible with the hazardous (regulated)materials;

(�) be free of cracks or gaps; and(�) contain the capacity of the largest tank.

Section 2: Service Conditions

2.� The exposure of secondary containment sys-tems to various chemicals and physical conditions isusually considered in the selection and design of thesystem. This section discusses the classification ofexposure conditions. Appendices A and B listgeneric coating systems that have been successfullyused in each exposure classification.

2.2 Chemicals

2.2.� Classification by Type

Most acids and alkalis attack concrete; coat-ings are used to protect the concrete fromattack. Most solvents and hydrocarbons donot attack concrete; however, they are classi-fied as hazardous materials, and existing regu-lations require that they be contained. �

Chemicals can be classified by specific typesand concentrations to rate the resistance ofcoatings to chemicals. Typically, chemicalswithin a specific class attack polymers in asimilar manner. For acids and alkalis (withsome exceptions), the higher the concen-tration, the more aggressive the attack. Withsolvents, the closer the solvent is to thesolubility parameter of the coating, the moreprone that coating is to swelling by permeationof that solvent. In addition, the lower themolecular weight of the solvent, the morerapidly it diffuses into the coating.

Mixing some chemicals reduces their aggres-siveness to coatings (e.g., mixing acids withalkalis), assuming that the exotherm from themixing does not cause thermal damage.(Potential thermal damage from exotherm isignored.) Mixing other chemicals significantlyincreases their aggressiveness. For example,mixtures of acids and solvents or mixtures oftwo or more solvents are commonly used aspaint strippers.

2.2.2 The chemical types used in Appendix Ainclude:

(�) inorganic acids(2) organic acids(�) oxidizers and oxidizing acids(�) alkalis(�) chlorinated solvents(6) oxygenated solvents(7) hydrocarbon solvents

(�) salt solutions(9) pesticides and herbicides

Examples of typical chemicals within each typeare given in Appendix C.

2.2.� Classification by Concentration

2.2.�.� Most acids and alkalis are fur-ther classified by concentration, usuallypercent by weight in water. When apolymer in a coating is susceptible toattack by a specific chemical, a higherconcentration of that chemical is usuallymore aggressive to the coating (sodiumhydroxide is one notable exception).Where a known concentration of a speci-fic chemical is to be contained, com-patibility is determined by testing theresistance of the coating to that con-centration of the chemical.

2.2.�.2 Evaporation, solidification, andmixing can modify the aggressiveness ofa specific chemical. Many acids oralkalis will become more concentrateddue to evaporation if they are spilled at alow concentration on a coating and notcleaned immediately. The higher con-centrations are potentially more aggres-sive toward the coating. Some chemi-cals are spilled in the liquid state butsolidify at ambient temperature, thusreducing their mobility and aggres-siveness.

2.2.�.� The concentration classifica-tions used in Appendix A vary dependingon the chemical type. For acids andalkalis, Appendix A follows the commonpractice of listing resistance to a diluteconcentration (usually up to �0%, inwater), a medium concentration (usuallyabove �0%), and a concentrated level(the highest commonly used con-centration). For solvents, Appendix Alists only the resistance to the concen-trated (undiluted) level.

2.2.� Frequency and Duration of Contact

2.2.�.� For coatings that are suitablefor continuous and long-term exposureto a chemical (i.e., suitable for immer-

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sion exposure or primary containment),frequency and duration of contact withthe chemical is not a concern; however,for aggressive chemicals that will deg-rade a specific coating system, deter-mining the frequency and duration ofcontact is important. Many factors canaffect the actual exposure of the coatingto the chemicals that are to be con-tained. These include spill frequency,spill amount, time until dilution or clean-up, effectiveness of dilution or cleanup,and temperature of the spill (see 2.2.�).

2.2.�.2 The exposure classificationsused in Appendix A are 72 hours andcontinuous. The 72-hour classificationapplies to secondary containment areassubject to spills that are cleaned as soonas they are detected. The 72-hourchemical resistance requirement is oftenadopted for areas where spills may notbe detected until after one whole week-end. The 72-hour classification is alsoapplied to areas that are not subject tospills but are designed to contain chemi-cals after catastrophic failure of aprimary containment tank. The contin-uous classification is for areas that aresubject to continuous spills or areaswhere spills are not cleaned.

2.2.� Surface Temperatures

2.2.�.� Although spills from processchemicals may initially be at tem-peratures above ambient, these spillsusually cool to ambient conditions in arelatively short period of time. Cata-strophic tank failure for a chemicalstored above ambient temperature isone exception. Increases in temperaturecaused by diluting and/or neutralizingconcentrated acids and alkalis couldaffect the maximum temperature towhich the coating is exposed.

2.2.�.2 The surface temperature classi-fications used in Appendix A includeambient temperatures (up to �0°C[�0�°F]), elevated temperatures (�0°C to70°C [�0�°F to ��°F]), and high

temperatures (70°C to �00°C [��°F to2�2°F]). These classifications are im-portant because coatings used in secon-dary containment may deteriorate rapid-ly when exposed to chemicals at ele-vated or high temperatures.

2.� Physical Conditions

2.�.� Ambient Environment

2.�.�.� When classifying the ambientenvironment to determine the exposureand suitability of a coating system,important factors include the tempera-ture range (maximum and minimumsurface temperature), the rate of tem-perature changes (i.e., daily due toambient temperature swings or suddendue to thermal shock from chemicalspills), and sunlight exposure.

2.�.�.2 The ambient temperatureranges used in Appendix B are asfollows: low-temperature range (22°C ±�0°C [72°F ± �0°F]), which includesmost indoor and controlled environ-ments; medium-temperature range(22°C ± 20°C [72°F ± 6�°F]), whichincludes most indoor areas withouttemperature control and some outdoor,covered areas; wider-temperature range(22°C ± �0°C [72°F ± �6°F]), whichincludes most outdoor environments;and extreme-temperature range (22°Cmore than ± �0°C [72°F more than ±�6°F]), which includes severe hot or coldoutdoor environments.

2.�.2 Traffic Conditions

The traffic condition classifications used inAppendix B include:

(�) occasional foot traffic(2) constant foot traffic(�) fork lift(�) drum storage(�) process area(6) tank storage(7) heavy traffic (tanker trucks, steel-wheeled

vehicles)

Section 3: Concrete

�.� Concrete Design for New Structures�-��

Proper concrete design and installation practices arerequired to ensure the performance and success of

the concrete as the substrate of the secondarycontainment system.

�.�.� Concrete Properties

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Describing specific raw materials and mixdesigns for concrete is beyond the scope ofthis report. These topics are adequatelycovered in numerous American ConcreteInstitute documents.(�) It is important to knowthe desired properties of the finished concretestructure and concrete surface and how theyaffect the coating to be applied. The propertiesof concern, the factors that affect theseproperties, and common specifications aregiven in the following paragraphs.

�.�.�.� Strength

�.�.�.�.� Compressive strengthprovides a rigid structural base forthe coating. Tensile strength pro-vides adequate adhesion betweenthe coating system and the con-crete. Tensile and shear strengthensure the concrete survives thestresses applied by the curingcoating on the concrete. Tensileand flexural strength resist crackingin the concrete during curing anddrying of the concrete and duringthermal cycling.

�.�.�.�.2 In addition to instal-lation, finishing, and curing prac-tices, the strength of concrete isaffected by the type of cement, theamount of cement in the mix, thewater-to-cement ratio, and the aircontent. According to ACI 209,�2

the tensile strength of concreteranges from 6 to �% of the com-pressive strength. For secondarycontainment, ACI ��0.2R�0 recom-mends a minimum of 2� MPa(�,000 psi) compressive strengthand �.7 MPa (2�0 psi) tensilestrength at 2� days after concreteplacement. The following mixdesign is typical for achieving thesevalues:

(�) cement content: 200 kg/m�

(600 lb./yd) minimum,(2) water-to-cement ratio: 0.��

maximum,(�) air content (depends on geo-

graphical location): � to �%.

�.�.�.2 Strength Development

The rate at which concrete develops

strength is important for schedulingcoating application. According to ACI209, strength development is a functionof cement type, 2�-day design com-pressive strength, temperature, andtime. As described in ACI �0�R�� andACI �06R,�� the early rate of strengthdevelopment increases with increasedtemperature; however, the ultimatestrength achieved is lower for concretethat is placed at elevated temperatures.ASTM(2) C ��0�� Type III cement oraccelerators are used where rapidstrength development is required, butoften at the unwanted expense ofincreased shrinkage. Strength deve-lopment is slower for ASTM C ��0 TypeII and Type V cements.

�.�.�.� Surface Strength

Surface strength enables the concrete toremain intact during surface preparation.It also helps to maintain adequateadhesion between the coating systemand the concrete when subjected tostress from curing of the coating,thermal movement, and physical abuse.Surface strength is a function of theconcrete design strength, segregation,and the cure at the surface. Segregationreduces surface strength and can becaused by too much vibration duringplacement or excessive finishing andcan result in a high water-to-cementratio or an excess of fine aggregate atthe surface. Surface strength dependson the normal concrete cure parametersdescribed in Paragraph �.�.�.�, plus theadded variable of how long the surfaceis kept moist. Concrete based on ASTMC ��0 Type I cement reaches �0% of2�-day strength if the surface is not keptmoist, �0% if the surface is kept moistfor three days, and full 2�-day strength ifthe surface is kept moist for seven days.Concrete based on ASTM C ��0 Type IIIcement reaches full 2�-day strength ifkept moist for three days.�6

�.�.�.� Surface Imperfections and Po-rosity

Defects such as surface voids, tieholes,bugholes, pinholes, and excess porositymay affect the application or perform-ance of the coating. Protrusions such as

_________________________________(�) American Concrete Institute (ACI), ��00 International Way, Country Club Drive, Farmington Hills, MI ��.(2) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), �00 Barr Harbor, West Conshohocken, PA �9�2�-29�9.

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form lines, fins, sharp edges, and spattermay cause holidays or thin sections inthe coating if they are not removed.Most defects are caused by placementand finishing techniques, althoughexcess porosity is usually the result ofexcess moisture or insufficient surfacecuring. Most defects and deficienciescan be avoided by proper mix design,installation procedures, and curing. Sur-face deficiencies are usually addressedduring surface preparation or whenpatching the surface prior to coating (seeParagraphs �.2.�, �.�.2, and 6.2).

�.�.�.� Uniformity

Concrete uniformity depends on correctmixing, placing, and finishing. Defectssuch as honeycombs and rock pockets,usually caused by insufficient vibrationor insufficient fluidity to the mix, do notprovide a sound substrate for coatings.Segregation may result in surface crack-ing (see Paragraph �.�.�.�).

�.�.�.6 Shrinkage

�.�.�.6.� Shrinkage can causecracking, curling, and excessivejoint movement in a concrete struc-ture and can cause plastic shrink-age cracking at the surface of aslab. Predicting and controllingshrinkage is important, particularlyif the coating is applied soon afterplacement. According to ACI 209,shrinkage in concrete using Type Icement that is kept moist for sevendays can range from �� to �,070 x�0-6 m/m (in/in). Approximately�0% of the shrinkage occurs in thefirst 2� days and 90% in the firstyear.

�.�.�.6.2 Shrinkage can be af-fected by:

(�) cement type (The cementtypes, listed in order from themost shrinkage to the leastshrinkage, are as follows:ASTM C ��0 Type III; ASTM C��0 Type I; ASTM C ��0 TypeII; and ASTM C ��7 Type K);

(2) aggregate type, size, andshape (smaller aggregatesmay increase shrinkage);

(�) mix and cure temperature(higher temperature increasesshrinkage);

(�) cure accelerators (may in-crease shrinkage); and

(�) water content (more water in-creases shrinkage).

�.�.�.6.� Water content is themost important factor. Curling,plastic shrinkage cracking, and lowsurface strength occur when thesurface dries too rapidly. Commonpractices for reducing problemsdue to shrinkage include mini-mizing water levels in the concretemix, ensuring sufficient moisturelevels at the surface during cure,and placing joints correctly. Coat-ing applicators can expect addi-tional movement at the joints whenthey are coating a concrete sub-strate early in its shrinkage history.

�.�.�.6.� ACI 22�� describes theuse of ASTM C �� Type Kcement. Type K cement reducesshrinkage during cure, but it alsoreduces strength and slowsstrength development.

�.�.2 Structure Design

Any coating system that is bonded to aconcrete substrate depends on the concrete forits structural integrity. Details concerning thedesign of concrete structures are beyond thescope of this report; they are addressed innumerous ACI reports, including ACI �02.�R,�ACI ��0R,9 and ACI ��0.2R�0. The range ofservice conditions and exposures in secondarycontainment areas varies widely, affecting thepriority of specific design considerations.Design guidelines range from standard floorconstruction for light service conditions (ACI�02) to specialized design for primary con-tainment (ACI ��0). The effects of shrinkage,loading, and thermal movement are con-sidered and accommodated in the design ofthe joints, reinforcement, slab thickness, andconcrete mix. The size of the containmentstructure, which is usually governed by regu-lations, and the proper slope to facilitatedrainage are also important design con-siderations.

�.�.� Joints

�.�.�.� ACI �02, ACI ��0, ACI �0�R�9

and ACI 22�R20-22 give recommenda-tions on the location and design of jointsfor concrete structures. Joints are usu-ally categorized as either contraction(control) joints or isolation (expansion)

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joints. Contraction joints are designed toaccommodate in-plane drying shrinkageand thermal movement. Isolation jointsare designed to isolate abutting butseparate structural sections, such assupporting walls, tank pads, andcolumns. Good concrete design practiceincludes cutting the contraction joints insquare patterns early in the cure—beforerandom shrinkage cracking—to a depthof at least one-fourth of the slab thick-ness.

�.�.�.2 For floors, ACI recommendsthat the maximum distance in metersbetween joints be equal to 2� to �6times the slab thickness in meters (themaximum distance in feet between jointswould be equal to two to three times theslab thickness in inches). To minimizestress on the coating, shorter distancesbetween joints (as low as � m [�2 ft]), inconjunction with placing or cutting jointswhere stresses are anticipated (e.g., atcorners, around tank foundations, and atslab intersections), have been used.Alternatively, highly reinforced structuredesigns have been used that reduce thereliance on joints.9

�.�.� Hydraulic and Hydrostatic Pressures

The movement of moisture in concretethroughout the curing process and afterapplication of the coating is an importantdesign consideration. Pressure due to mois-ture from drying of the concrete or from groundwater may be substantial; in some instances,the pressure may be sufficient to disbondbarrier coating systems that appear to be wellbonded. These pressures are commonlyreferred to as hydrostatic, capillary, andosmotic pressures.2�-2� Hydrostatic forcesthrough structures may affect bonded coatingsystems at cracks or joints in the concrete.Capillary and osmotic forces are difficult topredict and are potentially significantly higherthan hydrostatic forces. In most cases, a vaporbarrier (or positive-side waterproofing) isinstalled under the concrete slab to preventsubsurface moisture from permeating the slab.

The inherent free moisture content of concreteis � to 6%. Moisture in excess of this levelevaporates from the concrete. Concrete isusually placed with more water than is neededto completely hydrate the cement. One reasonfor waiting 2� days prior to coating concretewith a barrier system is to allow this excessmoisture to evaporate (see Paragraph 6.�).This waiting period is especially important if a

vapor barrier (or positive-side waterproofing) isinstalled because the barrier does not allowmoisture to exit into the ground.

�.�.� Concrete Finishing and Surface Cha-racteristics

�.�.�.� In addition to mix design,surface cure, and surface preparation,the method used to finish concretesurfaces has a significant effect on theproperties of the concrete surface. Thetypical profile, porosity, and strength ofvarious finished concrete surfaces areshown in Table �. The coating systemdepends on these surface characteristicsfor adhesion.

�.�.�.2 No preferred method for finish-ing concrete to accept coatings has beenestablished by the concrete coatings in-dustry. The surface cure, surface prepa-ration method, and type of coating sys-tem to be applied can greatly influencethe effectiveness of a concrete finishingmethod. For example, broom finishingis sometimes used because it gives aprofile for the coating; however, most ofthe profile may be removed during sur-face preparation. When sacking (groutrubbing) is used to fill voids in formedconcrete surfaces, subsurface voids arecreated; the added cement is usuallyremoved during surface preparation dueto improper cure of the added cementpaste. Using a metal-trowel is gainingacceptance as the preferred finishingmethod for horizontal surfaces, providingthe surface is not excessively trowelled,the concrete is properly cured, and thelaitance is removed prior to coating.

�.�.6 Concrete Cure

�.�.6.� Maintaining sufficient moistureand proper temperature in concrete inthe early stages of cure is important toensure development of the designedstrength. Keeping the surface moistuntil sufficient strength has developed atthe surface is important to ensure deve-lopment of sufficient surface strength, toreduce curling, and to reduce surfacecracking.��,��,��,�6,27,2�

�.�.6.2 ACI �0��6 recommends sevendays of moist curing for ASTM C ��0Type I portland cement-based concreteand three days for ASTM C ��0 Type IIIportland cement-based concrete, if thetemperature is above �0°C (�0°F). ACI

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�0� also describes numerous methodsto properly cure concrete, including the

use of sealing materials and othermethods to keep concrete moist.

TABLE 1Typical Surface Properties of Finished Concrete26

Method Profile Porosity(A) Strength(A) Problems

Formed concrete Smooth to medium Low to medium Medium Voids, protrusions,release agents

Wood float Medium Medium Medium

Metal trowel Smooth Low High

Power trowel Smooth Very low High Very dense

Broom finish Coarse to very coarse Medium Medium

Sacking Smooth Low to medium Low to high(B) Weak layer if notproperly cured

Stoning Smooth to medium Low to medium Low to high(B) Weak layer if notproperly cured

Concrete block Coarse to very coarse Very high Medium Pinholes

Shotcrete(C) Very coarse Medium Medium Too rough for thincoatings

(A) These surface properties are based on similar concrete mix, placement, and vibration, and are prior to surface preparation.(B) Strength depends on application and cure.(C) Shotcrete may be refinished after placement, which would change the surface properties shown in this table.

�.�.6.� ACI �0� and ACI �06 describethe effects of hot and cold temperatureson concrete curing. Knowing the timerequired for adequate surface cure isessential for determining when coatingapplication may begin (see Paragraph6.�).

�.�.7 Sealers and Curing Membrane Com-pounds

Sealers and curing membrane compounds arecommonly used to improve surface cure and toreduce moisture loss immediately afterplacement and finishing of concrete surfaces.Materials and practices are described in ACI�0� and ASTM C �09.29 Commonly used cur-ing membrane compounds (some of whichalso perform as sealers after the concrete hascured) include synthetic resins, waxes, andacrylic-based materials. Many of these ma-terials are incompatible with thermoset coat-ings and are difficult to remove. Paragraph�.2.6 describes a method for testing sealers forcompatibility with coating materials and easeof removal.

�.2 Existing Concrete Structures

Concrete structures more than one year old can becharacterized more easily than new concrete struc-tures because strength, surface strength, shrinkage,and moisture content have stabilized. After oneyear—with the exception of years with mild winters—the structure has been exposed to a completethermal range. Other than structural problems(which are beyond the scope of this report), after oneyear most movement and cracking from shrinkageand thermal cycling is evident and can be treatedappropriately in the coating system design. How-ever, existing structures may have been subjected tophysical abuse or chemical contamination that needsassessment and repair prior to application of acoating.�0,��

�.2.� Surface Strength

�.2.�.� Requirements

The minimum requirement forsurface strength depends on theservice conditions and coatingsystem (see Sections 2.� and �.2).As stated in Paragraph �.�.�.�,adequate surface strength ensuresthat the concrete structure remainsintact during surface preparation

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and ensures that the bond to thecoating is sufficient to survivestresses from curing and thermalcycling. Many coating manufac-turers and designers typically spe-cify minimum bond strength be-tween �.� and 2.� MPa (200 to �00psi), depending on the coating andthe service conditions.

�.2.�.2 Test Methods�2

�.2.�.2.� ASTM D ��

is typically used to test forsurface strength.

�.2.�.2.2 ACI �0�R, Ap-pendix A,�� uses a larger testarea than ASTM D ��.

�.2.�.2.� The patch testinvolves applying the coatingto a �00- to ��0-mm (�- to 6-in.)-diameter area of theconcrete after surface prepa-ration, typically by the sameapplication method as will beused to coat the entire struc-ture. After 2� hours, the con-crete/coating interface is testedby striking the side of thepatch with a hammer or ahammer and chisel. Althoughthe patch test is not quanti-tative, it is simple and easy,requires no special equipmentor adhesives, shows potentialadhesion of the specific coat-ing to be used, and testssurface strength in a shearmode.

�.2.2 Physical and Chemical Damage

Existing concrete structures that have beensubjected to mechanical damage (due toimpact or abrasion), chemical attack, or rebarcorrosion are restored to provide a uniform,sound substrate for coating. In cases ofsevere damage, the concrete may need to becompletely removed and replaced. It is im-portant to remove all deteriorated concrete andto cut the surrounding sound concrete usingthe procedures described in ICRI(�) 0�7�0�� inorder to best receive and hold the patchingmaterial. Some contaminants may have adetrimental effect on the rebar or the appliedcoating if they are not completely removed.

Methods for detecting and treating residualchemical contamination are discussed inParagraph �.�.�. Cementitious repairs aretreated as new concrete (see Paragraph �.�).Polymeric grouts and patching materials areoften used, especially when the coating is to beapplied immediately after the repair. It is im-portant that these materials be compatible withhe coating to be applied. Selection and appli-cation of these materials is described in Para-graph 6.2.

�.2.� Other Defects and Imperfections

�.2.�.� Defects such as honeycombs,scaling, and spalling do not provide asound, uniform substrate for the coating.Defects are usually removed andpatched prior to surface preparation (seeParagraph 6.2).

�.2.�.2 Surface voids, tieholes, bug-holes, pinholes, and excess porositymay affect the application and per-formance of the coating. The maximumsubstrate void size or porosity that canbe tolerated depends on the type ofcoating. These voids typically are filledprior to coating application (see Para-graph 6.2). If voids are not filled and thecoating is applied, the trapped air vaporexpands and contracts and may affectthe cure or the film integrity andperformance of the coating. Excessiveporosity in the concrete surface mayresult in pinholes.

�.2.�.� Protrusions such as form lines,fins, sharp edges, and spatter maycause holidays or thin sections in thecoating if they are not removed. Pro-trusions and rough edges typically areremoved during surface preparation.

�.2.� Joints and Cracks

Many coatings are rigid and are prone toreflective cracking (see Paragraph �.7.�).Therefore, it is important to identify existingjoints and cracks and quantify the maximumexpected movement prior to coating selection.Movement at joints or cracks is due toshrinkage, thermal cycling, settling, or load;however, in existing structures no significantmovement is expected due to shrinkage.20-22

Additional information about the identificationof joints and their expected movement is givenin ACI �02, ACI �0�, and in Paragraph �.�.� of

___________________________(�) International Concrete Repair Institute (ICRI), ��2� Shepard Dr., Ste. D, Sterling, VA 22�70.

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this report. Monitoring joints and cracks over2� hours helps to determine whether they arestatic or dynamic. Some cracks are invisible inwarm conditions when the concrete is ex-panded, but they may be visible when temper-atures are lower, when the concrete is drying(because the crack dries slower), or when adye method is used to identify cracks. Jointsand cracks that are identified as dynamic areusually treated as described in Paragraph�.7.� to prevent reflective cracking in the coat-ing.

Plastic shrinkage cracking is common in con-crete when the surface is not cured properly.On existing concrete structures, these crackscan be treated as static cracks; however, thesurface strength is probably low due to theimproper surface cure (see Paragraph �.2.�).

�.2.� Hydraulic and Hydrostatic Pressures

The importance of moisture migration and theeffects of ground water and vapor barriers aredescribed in Paragraph �.�.�. In existing con-crete structures, unless the concrete structurehas been continuously wet, moisture migrationdue to drying is not a concern. However, allother issues discussed in Paragraph �.�.�apply to both new and existing concrete. It isimportant to determine whether a vapor barrieris under the existing concrete structure. If novapor barrier is present, a moisture migrationor moisture test can be used to determinewhether a moisture problem exists.

�.2.�.� Moisture Test Methods

The following are some of the commonmethods used to identify or quantify thefree moisture in concrete prior to theapplication of coatings.�6,�7

(�) ASTM D �26�,�� Plastic SheetMethod.

(2) RMA Test Method,�9 CalciumChloride Absorption Rate (RMAtest).(�)

(�) BS ��2�,�0 Appendix A.�, Hygro-meter Test (Relative HumidityMethod).(�)

(�) BS ��2�, Appendix A.2, Con-ductivity Test (Gel Bridge Method).

(�) Calcium Carbide Method.�6

(6) Capacitance-Impedance Method.�6

�.2.�.2 Use and Interpretation ofMoisture Test Methods

�.2.�.2.� ASTM D �26� and theRMA test are commonly used andaccepted in the United States. Thehygrometer and conductivity testsare cited in numerous Britishstandards and are accepted in theUnited Kingdom, while the carbidemethod is accepted in other partsof Europe.

�.2.�.2.2 All of these methodsare quantitative except for ASTM D�26�. The plastic sheet, RMA, andcapacitance-impedance methodsare nondestructive, while the hy-grometer, conductivity, and cal-cium carbide methods involve drill-ing into the concrete.

�.2.�.2.� Testing duration is �6+hours for ASTM D �26�, 72 hoursfor the RMA method, and from � to72 hours for the hygrometer test.The other methods give resultsimmediately if the testing equip-ment has been calibrated.

�.2.�.2.� The plastic sheet meth-od may indicate if excess moistureis present at the time of the test.However, because the method de-pends on a moisture differential—ahigher relative humidity in theconcrete than in the air above theconcrete surface—during the testspan, potential problems are notalways evident at the time the testis performed.

�.2.�.2.� The coating manufac-turer can provide information onthe tolerance of a specific coatingsystem for free water or moisturemigration. A free water content ofless than �% by weight is accept-able for most coatings. Alterna-tively, concrete relative humidity ofless than �0% or moisture trans-mission rates of less than �� g/2�hr/m2 (� lb/2� h/�,000 ft2) haveproved acceptable for most coat-ings.�6

___________________________(�) Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA), ��00 K St. NW, Ste. 900, Washington, DC 2000�.(�) British Standards Institution (BSI), Two Park St., London, WIA 2BS, United Kingdom.

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�.2.�.2.6 Occasionally, despite mois-ture testing, a problem is not identifieduntil after an impermeable coating isapplied.

�.2.�.� Retrofit Repair

Negative-side barrier systems, groutingwith high-density cementitious products,and penetrating sodium or potassiumsilicate sealers have been used success-fully under coatings in some instal-lations, although using a negative-sidebarrier system is not usually effective.Where practical, well points have beenused to relieve the source of hydrostaticpressure.

�.2.6 Existing Sealers and Coatings

Maintaining an adequate bond between theconcrete substrate and the coating is im-portant. Existing sealers or coatings on theconcrete are tested for compatibility with thecoating to be applied. If they are not com-patible, the sealers or coatings are removed.Even if the existing coating is found to becompatible by adhesion testing, the surface ofthe existing coating is abraded to provideadequate surface profile for the coating to beapplied.

�.2.6.� Sealers and Curing Mem-brane Compounds

Curing membrane compounds(ASTM C �09), sealers, and hard-eners (sodium silicate) are oftenencountered in existing concretestructures. The methods in Para-graph �.2.�.2 are useful in deter-mining whether the existing mate-rial is compatible with the coatingto be applied. Sodium silicate canbe removed only by abrasive blast-ing or water blasting, whereas thewax, resin, and acrylic materialscan be removed by abrasive blast-ing, flame blasting, or the use ofpaint strippers (see Paragraph �.�).

�.2.6.2 Existing Coatings

The methods in Paragraph �.2.�.2are useful in determining whetherthe existing coating is compatiblewith the coating to be applied.Procedures for removing existingcoatings are discussed in Para-graph �.�.�.�.

�.� Surface Preparation

Surface preparation of concrete is covered indocuments published by NACE (6F�6�,�� 6G�66,�2

6H�7�,�� and 6G�9��), ASTM (C ��), ICRI(Guide No. 0�7�2�6), NACE/SSPC (work inprogress26), ACI (��.�R�7), and in technicalarticles.2�,��,�9

�.�.� Contamination

Visible and nonvisible contaminants on newand existing concrete surfaces often impedecoating adhesion. Problems caused by sur-face contaminants that are not removed duringsurface preparation or by contaminants migrat-ing to the concrete/coating interface couldbecome evident some time after the coatingapplication. Identification and removal of con-taminants is covered in detail in NACE 6G�9�,ASTM D �2��,�0 PCA(6) IS2��.02T,�� and intechnical articles.�0,��,�2,��

�.�.�.� Types of Contamination

�.�.�.�.� Hydrophobic Materials

(�) Form-release agents, includingoils, wax, grease, and silicone

(2) Curing membrane compoundsand sealers, including waxesand resins

(�) Existing incompatible coatingsand adhesives

�.�.�.�.2 Salts and Reactive Ma-terials

(�) Chemicals, including acids,alkalis, and salts

(2) Laitance and efflorescence(�) Concrete admixtures

�.�.�.�.� Microorganisms

(�) Fungus, moss, mildew, algae,and other organic growths

(2) Decomposing foods that pro-duce organic acids

�.�.�.2 Tests for Contamination

�.�.�.2.� Hydrophobic Materials

Hydrophobic materials can bedetected by a water drop test.��

�.�.�.2.2 Salts and Reactive Ma-terials

___________________________(6) Portland Cement Association (PCA), ��20 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077-�0��.

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Acid, alkali, and sulfate attackleaves a weak surface layer thatcan be detected using the surface

strength test methods in Paragraph�.2.�.2 or by various analyticalmethods. Acidic materials can

sometimes be detected by testingthe pH of the concrete surface.Normal fresh concrete has a pH of�2 to ��, but aged concrete canhave a pH at the surface as low as7 before surface preparation.Salts, including efflorescence, areoften visible as a white bloom,colored deposit, or weak surfacelayer. Salts can be identified byanalytical methods, e.g., atomicabsorption. Efflorescence is a signthat water is transporting salts fromthe ground or the concrete to thesurface. This problem of moisturemigration is discussed in Para-graph �.2.�. Removal of efflores-cence does not solve the moisturemigration problem.

�.�.�.2.� Microorganisms

Organic growths are visible onconcrete surfaces. Decomposingfoods that produce organic acidscan deteriorate concrete.

�.�.�.� Treatment and Removal

�.�.�.�.� Hydrophobic Materials

Steam cleaning, flame blasting,and degreasers and absorbents areused to remove oil and grease.The method chosen to remove acoating is usually the least destruc-tive method that is successful. Inincreasing order of aggressiveness,the methods are: (�) using paintstrippers, (2) grinding, (�) wet abra-sive blasting, dry abrasive blasting,or high-pressure water cleaning,and (�) water jetting, scarifying, orflame blasting. These methods arediscussed in Paragraph �.�.2.

�.�.�.�.2 Salts and Reactive Ma-terials

Salts and efflorescence can be re-moved by abrasive blasting, waterblasting, or applying a weak acidsolution and then water cleaning.��

Residual acids and alkalis are firstneutralized and then removed bywater cleaning. If the concrete isdeteriorated down to the rebar, seethe ICRI Guide.��

�.�.�.�.� Microorganisms

Fungus, moss, mildew, algae, andother microorganisms are removedby washing with sodium hypo-chlorite (household bleach) andrinsing with water.�� High-pressurewater cleaning or abrasive blastingmay also be used.

�.�.2 Surface Preparation Methods

Table 2 lists typical surface preparationmethods with their intended use, profile cre-ated, typical problems encountered, and solu-tions to those problems. Acid etching, whichused to be common practice, is now infre-quently specified, primarily due to environ-mental considerations and lack of consistentresults.

�.�.� Quantifying Prepared Concrete Sur-faces

The degree of surface preparation needed toachieve good adhesion depends on the re-quirements of the coating system (see Section�). The following tests are typically used todetermine the properties of prepared concretesurfaces.

�.�.�.� Surface strength�2 (see Para-graph �.2.�)

�.�.�.2 Surface profile26

Surface profile is quantified by equi-valent graded abrasive paper sizes, or,for coarse profiles, by measuring thesurface profile in millimeters (mils).

�.�.�.� Surface cleanliness (see Para-graph �.�.�)

(�) ASTM D �2��(2) Dust: black cloth test

�.�.�.� pH

pH testing is performed to ensureneutralization after surface preparationby acid etching. pH testing has alsobeen used to help detect the presence ofacidic or alkaline contaminants.��

ASTM D �260��

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�.�.�.� Moisture content�6,�7 (see Para-graph �.2.�.�)

�.�.�.6 The 2�-day waiting period (seeParagraph 6.�)

TABLE 2Surface Preparation Methods26

PreparationMethod

When Used Profile Created(A) Problems Solutions

Dry abrasiveblasting��

Removal, profile,cleaning

Fine (��0) to extracoarse (�0)

-Dust on surface-Airborne dust-Noise

-Vacuum cleaning-Vacuum attachments-None

Wet abrasiveblasting

Removal, profile,cleaning

Fine (��0) to extracoarse (�0)

-Wets concrete-Creates sludge

-Let concrete dry-Cleaning

High-pressurewater cleaning��,�6

Removal, cleaning Fine (��0) to extracoarse (�0)

-Wets concrete-Creates sludge

-Let concrete dry-Cleaning

Water Jetting ��,�6 Removal Rougher than extracoarse

-Creates sludge-Wets concrete-Coarse profile

-Cleaning-Let concrete dry-None(B)

Impact tools Removal, profile,cleaning

Rougher than extracoarse

-Airborne dust-Fracturing-Coarse profile

-Vacuum attachments-Other methods-None(B)

Power tools Removal Smooth (no gritequivalent)

-Airborne dust-Fine profile

-Vacuum attachments-Other methods

Flame blasting�7 Removal, profile,cleaning

Rougher than extracoarse

-Excess removal-Damages concrete

-Experience(B)

-Remove damagedconcrete

Acid etching�� Profile, cleaning Fine (��0) tomedium (�00)

-HCl is hazardous-Not for vertical oroverhead surfaces-Neutralization-Wets concrete-Curing membrane

-Other acids-Other methods

-pH testing-Let concrete dry-Other methods

(A) Profile is described using standard classifications and screen grit sizes for coated abrasive products. These are typical surface profilevalues only. Results may vary significantly due to concrete properties and surface preparation practices.(B) May be acceptable for thick coating systems; otherwise, the surface can be patched prior to coating application.

Section 4: Coating System Design Requirements

�.� General information on design requirementsfor coating systems is contained in various ASTM,ACI, and NACE publications�7,�9-67 as well as intechnical articles.6�-�7 Paragraphs �.2 to �.� discusscoating system properties, the importance of theseproperties, and the variables that affect theseproperties. Paragraph �.9 lists the test methodscommonly used to quantify coating properties.

�.2 Chemical Resistance

A coating system is designed to survive theanticipated chemical exposure for its entire designlife (see Paragraph 2.2). The chemical resistance ofa coating depends on the polymer type, cross-linkdensity, cure time and temperature, filler type andamount, coating thickness, and reinforcement.

�.� System Physical Properties and StressConsiderations

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�.�.� Ignoring stress concentrations at joints,cracks, and corners, continued coating per-formance depends on many factors, includingconcrete surface strength, concrete surfaceprofile, coating system strength, coating sys-tem elasticity, coating system thickness, coat-ing shrinkage during application, thermal expo-sure conditions, chemical exposure conditions,and thermal expansion of the concrete andcoating.

�.�.2 Structural integrity of the coating andcoating adhesion depend on the tensile, flex-ural, and compressive strength of the coating.Flexibility and toughness enable the coating towithstand strain and forces due to impact orsubstrate movement. In most thermoset poly-mer systems there is a direct trade-off betweencross-link density, which gives increasedstrength and chemical resistance, and flexi-bility, which gives increased ability to bridgecracks. Flexibility and strength are balanced togive optimum performance.

�.� Permeability

�.�.� Low water vapor transmission (WVT) ofcoatings applied to steel in primary con-tainment is critical in preventing corrosion ofthe steel substrate. However, concrete sub-strates do not corrode from water vapor. TheWVT of a coating for concrete is simply anindicator—not always a good one—of thecoating’s ability to protect the concrete fromcorrosive materials and to protect the environ-ment from hazardous materials.

�.�.2 Results of WVT tests do not correspondto the transmission resistance of the coating tosolvents or solvent vapors. The permeabilityof a coating when exposed to a specific solventis a function of the solubility parameters of thesolvent and the coating, the molecular size ofthe solvent, the cross-link density of thepolymer, and the type and amount of filler inthe coating. The coating can be tested forweight gain after immersion in a solvent toindicate the relative permeability of the coatingin that specific solvent. The WVT and perme-ability of coatings are reduced by increasedfilm thicknesses, increased cross-link densitiesin the polymer, and the use of fillers.

�.�.� One U.S. federal regulation has speci-fied a maximum WVT of � x �0-7 cm/s (�.� g/h-m2) (�.9 grains/h-ft2) for secondary contain-ment systems.�� This level is based on �� L (�gal) of water per day for an uncoated 200-m2

(2,000-ft2) concrete slab with all cracks sealed.Most coating systems, depending on theirthickness, meet this criterion, even when the

WVT of the concrete is ignored. While acoating system may meet the WVT criterion,the amount of water that passes through thecoating during WVT lab testing may beinsignificant when compared to the relativeeffect of pinholes and cracks in the field-applied coating system (see Paragraph �.7.�).New York state regulations specify a maximumtransmission level of � x �0-6 cm/s (�� g/h-m2)(�9 grains/h-ft2) for the chemical to be con-tained.�9 However, no approved test methodcurrently exists for measuring the transmissionof various chemicals through coating systems.

�.� Adhesion

Most coating systems depend on the concretesubstrate for structural integrity; therefore, main-taining good adhesion to that substrate—even afterweathering and chemical exposure—is critical tocoating performance. Maintaining intercoat adhesionin multilayer coating systems and patching materialsis equally important. Properties of the concretesubstrate that affect adhesion include surfacestrength, profile, cleanliness, porosity, and moisturecontent. Properties of the primer of the coatingsystem that affect adhesion include viscosity, surfacetension, physical strength, chemical affinity for theconcrete, and resistance to alkalis and hydrolysis.For multilayer systems, properties that may affectadhesion include blush in epoxies, wax in unsatu-rated polyesters and vinyl esters, and numerousapplication-related phenomena (see Paragraphs6.�.� and 6.�.�). To ensure good adhesion, all theabove properties are specified, inspected, and/ortested prior to and during coating application. Theminimum requirement for adhesion, as tested by themethods in Paragraph �.9.�, typically ranges from�.� to 2.� MPa (200 to �00 psi). However, the modeof failure is as important as the adhesion value. Anyfailure mode other than cohesive failure in theconcrete indicates potential adhesion problems.

�.6 Thermal Effects

�.6.� Shrinkage from Cure and Aging

Polymers and coatings often shrink volu-metrically due to cross-linking or solventevaporation. The thermoset coatings de-scribed in Paragraph �.2 range in potentialshrinkage from less than �% to more than�0%, depending on the type of polymer,amount of filler, amount of solvent, and extentof cure. The amount of shrinkage affects theadhesive bond between the coating and theconcrete. The stress due to shrinkage canrange from insignificant in low-shrink, highlyelastic coatings systems, to catastrophic inhigh-shrink, rigid coatings. Stress due toshrinkage can intensify adhesion problems,

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especially when combined with other problemssuch as insufficient surface preparation. Thisstress can either be relieved with time due tocreep or thermal relaxation, or intensified withtime due to continued cross-linking. When thestress and movement from shrinkage exceedsthe tensile strength of the coating or adhesivestrength between the coating and the concrete,the failure is usually evident as cracking in thecoating and/or disbondment from the concrete.Shrinkage may be accentuated by the use ofaccelerators, application during high ambientor substrate temperatures, and application inthick layers. Fillers, reinforcement, and thincoats are commonly used to reduce shrinkageand distribute shrinkage stress.

�.6.2 Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expan-sion (CLTE)

�.6.2.� Differences in CLTE betweenconcrete and coatings can result instress at that interface. As with shrink-age during curing, this stress can rangefrom insignificant in coatings with a lowCLTE, to catastrophic in coatings with ahigh CLTE. The ability of a coating sys-tem to maintain adhesion to the concretesubstrate depends on the difference intheir CLTE (∆CLTE), the bond strength,and the shear modulus of elasticity ofthe coating. If the ∆CLTE and changesin temperature are large, the shearmodulus of elasticity of the coating ishigh, and the creep of the coating is low,then the stress exerted on the coat-ing/concrete interface could disbond thecoating. This combination of propertiesis common in rigid, reinforced coatingsystems.

�.6.2.2 The CLTE of concrete has beenreported as �.� to ��.7 x �0-6 mm/mm/°C(�.7 to 6.� x �0-6 in/in/°F),�2 with anaverage value of 9.9 x �0-6 mm/mm/°C(�.� x �0-6 in/in/°F) commonly used.(7)

However, most unmodified, unfilled,thermoset resins have CLTE’s higherthan �� x �0-6 mm/mm/°C (2�x�0-6

in/in/°F).90

�.6.2.� The addition of fillers andreinforcement can reduce the overallCLTE in polymeric coating systems to�2 x �0-6 mm/mm/°C (7x�0-6 in/in/°F) orlower to obtain a closer match to theconcrete substrate; however, on a smallscale, the differences in CLTE may still

affect the stresses in the coatingbetween the polymer and filler, resin andreinforcement, and different layers in thecoating system. Using an elastomericbasecoat can reduce the stress exertedon a rigid coating system at a specificlocation by the concrete due to differ-ences in CLTE. However, in a largearea the movement due to differences inCLTE between the coating and the con-crete may cause failure at a stressconcentration location such as a joint oredge.

�.6.� Thermal Shock

�.6.�.� Resistance to thermal shockcan be an important consideration whendesigning a secondary containmentcoating system. Catastrophic failure ofthe primary containment tank for achemical at high or low temperatures willthermally shock the secondary contain-ment coating. A common practice in thefood industry is to clean coating systemsby steam or hot water, which also pro-duces thermal shock.

�.6.�.2 The stresses exerted on thecoating and the coating/concrete inter-face from thermal shock are similar tothe stress resulting from large differ-ences in CLTE; however, the amount oftime for the coating/concrete interface toabsorb the stress is greatly reduced.Elastomeric coatings may perform betterthan rigid coatings in this application.Rigid systems may use mat reinforce-ment, an elastomeric primer, and/or astrong bond to the concrete to increasetheir resistance to thermal shock. Also,matching the CLTE of the coatingsystem as closely as possible to that ofthe concrete substrate reduces theeffects of thermal shock.

�.6.� Installation Temperature

The installation temperature can have a pro-found effect on the workability, cure rate,shrinkage, physical properties, and chemicalresistance of the coating. The temperatureduring coating application affects the rate andextent of cross-linking and the evaporation rateof solvents or low-boiling monomers. There-fore, higher installation temperatures tend toincrease the shrinkage, modulus of elasticity,and chemical resistance of a coating. Prob-lems from shrinkage stress are discussed in

___________________________(7) For comparison, the CLTE of carbon steel is �0.� x �0-6 mm/mm/°C (6.0 x �0-6 in/in/°F).

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Paragraph �.6.�. While lower installationtemperatures reduce shrinkage and modulusof elasticity, they also reduce strength andchemical resistance. Coatings that require ele-vated temperatures to adequately cure are notoften used on concrete substrates for secon-dary containment.

�.7 Design Details

�.7.� Joints and Cracks

Joint designs and joint and crack treatmentsthat are used in conjunction with coatingsystems are discussed extensively in technicalarticles.9�-�0�

�.7.�.� Expected Movement

�.7.�.�.� Many coatings are rigidand are prone to reflective crack-ing. Therefore, it is important toidentify existing joints and cracksand quantify the maximum ex-pected movement prior to coatingselection. Monitoring joints andcracks over 2� hours helps todetermine whether they are staticor dynamic. Assuming there areno major structural faults, dynamiccracks can be analyzed and treatedas contraction joints. Joints andcracks that have been monitoredand confirmed to be static canusually be coated without specialjoint designs.

�.7.�.�.2 The maximum theo-retical expansion and contraction atany specific contraction (control)joint can be predicted using:

(�) the shrinkage values shown inParagraph �.�.�.6,

(2) the CLTE values shown inParagraph �.6.2,

(�) the age of the concrete;(�) the length of the concrete; and(�) the temperature of the con-crete.

Actual movement can vary due tomany factors; therefore, this analy-sis can only be used as aguide.�2,99

�.7.�.�.� Isolation (expansion)joint movement is more difficult toestimate because it potentiallyincludes movement due to shrink-

age, thermal loading, and settlingand may result in out-of-planemovement.

�.7.�.2 Joint Designs

�.7.�.2.� Exposed Designs

�.7.�.2.�.� For joints withmovement greater than ±�.0mm (0.�� in.), one successfuljoint design is the conventionalsealed joint (see Figure �).The width of the joint, the useof a backer rod, the width-to-thickness ratio of the sealant,and the temperature of theconcrete during application ofthe sealant are critical to thesuccess of this design.

�.7.�.2.�.2 In areas withaggressive chemicals, a vari-ation on this design that in-cludes a laminated joint sea-lant is sometimes used. Thejoint is sealed as shown inFigure � and then laminated orcoated with a chemical-resis-tant sealant (see Figure 2).

�.7.�.2.�.� Another designuses a cut joint with anattached (bonded) inflatedrubber tube. The tube is ratedfor movement of ±�0% in anydirection (see Figure �).�06

�.7.�.2.�.� For high-move-ment joints where aggressivechemical exposure is ex-pected, a pre-formed fiber-glass reinforced plastic (FRP)section can be bonded directlyto the coating during applica-tion (see Figure �).

�.7.�.2.�.� With the exposedjoint designs in Figures � to �the coating system may beextended over the sides of thejoint to cover the concrete inthe joint prior to application ofthe sealant. In this design, thesealant is bonded directly tothe coating, and failure at thesealant/coating interface wouldnot immediately exposeunprotected concrete. This

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design is typically used inaggressive chemical service.

�.7.�.2.2 Monolithic Designs

�.7.�.2.2.� Depending onjoint movement, coating thick-ness, elasticity, and adhesion,elastomeric coatings may beable to bridge low-movementcontraction joints and crackswithout special joint design,provided the coating remainssufficiently flexible in lowtemperatures.97 Bondbreakershave been used successfullywith rigid coatings at low-movement joints to preventbonding or adhesion betweenthe coating and the concrete(see Figure �); they allow awider coating section to ac-commodate the crack move-ment. Problems with thisdesign include the stress conc-entration at the bonded edgeof the unbonded section of thecoating, which is then subjectto cracking or further dis-bonding.

�.7.�.2.2.2 To reduce prob-lems with the stress concen-tration in the bondbreakerdesign, reinforcement can beadded to the coating to reducethe stress concentration at theedge of the bonded sectionand to increase the strength ofthe coating in the unsupportedsection (see Figure 6).

�.7.�.2.2.� A design usedwith success in joints moving

less than 2 mm (�0 mils) usesan elastomeric layer to bridgethe crack. The layer is directlyattached to the concrete belowand the monolithic coatingabove. This design maintainsa completely bonded andmonolithic coating system.(See Figure 7).9�,97,99,�0�,�0�,�0�

This design successfullybridges the crack only whenthe elastomer remains suffi-ciently flexible at the lowestservice temperatures.

�.7.2 Terminations

Where the coating does not cover the entireconcrete structure, the design of the end line oredges of the coating are important to theperformance of the coating. The concrete atthe edges of the coating is often cut at anangle, with coating material applied into theangled concrete (see Figure �). This tech-nique, called “keying in,” helps the coatingresist the undercutting, peeling, or disbondingstress to which the system is subjected due toinstallation, thermal movement, and waterpenetration.

�.7.� Penetrations

For secondary containment, a monolithic coat-ing system is typically the preferred design.However, many containment areas also sup-port pumps, pipes, conduits, handrails, tanks,and other equipment. Attaching these itemsdirectly to the concrete substrate often causespenetrations or holes through the coatingsystem. When possible, these penetrationsare eliminated by alternative layout designs,such as using external pipe supports (seeFigure 9). Remaining penetrations are sealedby various methods (see Figure �0).

F ig u r e 1C o n v e n t io n a l S e a le d J o in t

C o n c re te

C o a tin g

B a c k e r R o d

S e a la n t

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682

F igu r e 2C h e m ic a l-R e sistan t S ea lan t

C o ncrete

C o atin g

B a cke r R od

S e alan t

C h em ical-R es is ta n t S e alan t

F ig u r e 3I n f l a t e d R u b b e r T u b e J o in t S e a la n t

C o n c r e te

C o a t in gR u b b e r S e a la n t

A d h e s iv e

P r e s s u r i z e d A i r

F i g u r e 4F R P J o i n t S e a l a n t

C o n c r e t e

C o a t i n g P r e - f o r m e d F R P J o i n t

S e a l a n t

P r e - f o r m e d F R P J o i n t

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683

F ig u r e 5B o n d b r e a k e r o v e r C r a c k

C o n c r e te

C o a tin g

C r a c k

B o n d b r e a k e r T a p e

F i g u r e 6R e i n f o r c e d B o n d b r e a k e r o v e r C r a c k

C o n c r e t e

C o a t in g

B o n d b r e a k e r T a p e

R e i n f o r c e m e n t

F ig u r e 7E la sto m er ic U n d er la y er C ra ck -B r id g in g D es ig n

C o n cre te

C o a tin g

C rack

E las to m er

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684

F ig u r e 8“ K e y -I n ” T e r m in a tio n o f C o a t in g

C o n c re te

C o a tin g

“ K e y -In ” T e rm in a t io n

Figure 9External Penetration for P ipe Support Brackets

Concrete

Coating

Pipe SupportBracket

Attachment Support Pad

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F igu re 10S ealing of Pen etration s T h rou gh C oatin g

C oncrete

C oatingB oltS ealant

�.� Other Design Factors

�.�.� Coating Thickness

�.�.�.� The thickness of a coatingsystem is usually determined by therequirements for its physical properties.Tensile and flexural strength, whenexpressed per unit of cross-sectionalarea, may be identical for a specificcoating at two different thicknesses, butwhen expressed in terms of the appliedsystem’s load-bearing capabilities, thethicker system will have a higherstrength. Impact strength is alsoincreased with thickness. For areassubjected to significant abrasion orgouging (e.g., from fork lifts), increasedthickness is used to extend the life of thecoating.

�.�.�.2 Thickness affects chemicalresistance only if the chemical perme-ates the coating, as with some solvents,or if the chemical etches the coatingsurface significantly. Permeability isinversely proportional to coating thick-ness. For coatings that are not signi-ficantly affected by the chemical to becontained, the thickness of the coating isdetermined solely by physical require-ments. The thickness of coatings onconcrete ranges from 2�0 µm (�0 mils)for liquid coatings used in mild service to6 mm (2�0 mils) or higher for highlyfilled or reinforced systems used inheavy traffic conditions. In addition todesign requirements, minimum coatingthickness for thin systems is determinedby the surface profile to be covered,while cost is a consideration for thicksystems. Thickness is also important

where shrinkage of the coating is afactor. Coatings that use polymerssubject to shrinkage during cure areusually applied in thin layers or withreinforcement (see Paragraph �.�.�) tominimize shrinkage and the resultingstress. Solvent-based coatings are alsoapplied in thin layers to allow the solventto evaporate.

�.�.2 Ultraviolet Light and Weathering Resist-ance

All thermoset polymeric materials degradewhen exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. Thisdegradation can cause loss of gloss, colorchanges, chalking, or catastrophic cracking.UV degradation can be compounded by otherweathering factors such as rainwater, conden-sation, humidity, and thermal cycling. UVdegradation in coatings can be reduced by theuse of inorganic pigments and fillers, UVabsorbers, and free-radical scavengers, as wellas by the use of UV-resistant topcoats.

�.�.� Skid Resistance

Where foot traffic is expected and where thefloor of the containment area may be wet fromspills, cleaning, or rainwater, skid resistance isan important safety factor. Skid resistance isaccomplished by:

(�) not topcoating over the residual texture ofa trowelled or broadcast system,

(2) brushing or rolling a texture (stipple) into athixotropic topcoat, or

(�) adding aggregate particles when applyinga liquid-rich sealing topcoat.

�.�.� Aesthetics

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While appearance is not a functional require-ment for secondary containment coatings,these systems are sometimes applied in loca-tions that are highly visible and may need to beaesthetically pleasing. This factor is often notaddressed in specifications or contracts.There are many reasons that coating systemsmay not look perfectly uniform. Mat-reinforcedsystems may have mat overlap lines or matsurface profile. Trowel-applied coatings mayhave trowel marks. Skid-resistant surfacesmay have nonuniform texture. In addition,deteriorated concrete may not have beenrestored and substrate imperfections mayremain.

�.9 System Compatibility Testing

The following is a list of test methods that can beused to quantify the physical properties of a specificcoating system and verify its compatibility with aspecific environment.

�.9.� Chemical Immersion Testing

�.9.�.� Cell Testing

Cell testing is an immersion test for acoating system applied to a substrateand exposed to a chemical. The follow-ing test methods can be modified to useconcrete as the substrate.(�) ASTM C �6��09

(2) NACE TM0�7��0

(�) ASTM D ��9��

�.9.�.2 Immersion Testing

Immersion testing is performed with amolded or free-film sample of the coat-ing (no substrate) that is immersed inthe chemical (or water) and monitoredfor changes in properties and appear-ance.

(�) ASTM C 267��2 Chemical resistancetest

(2) ASTM C �� Water absorptiontest

(�) ASTM D �� Chemical resistancetest

�.9.2 Physical Testing

�.9.2.� Tensile Strength

(�) ASTM C �07��

(2) ASTM D ��2��6

(�) ASTM D 6��7

�.9.2.2 Modulus of Elasticity andElongation

(�) ASTM D ��2(2) ASTM D 6��(�) ASTM C ��0��

�.9.2.� Flexural Strength

(�) ASTM C ��0

�.9.2.� Compressive Strength

(�) ASTM C �79��9

�.9.2.� Fracture Toughness

(�) ASTM D �0��20

�.9.2.6 Impact Resistance

(�) ASTM D 279��2�

�.9.2.7 Permeability

(�) ASTM E 96�22 is used to determinethe water vapor transmission (WVT) ofmaterials. This test can be conducted ata variety of temperatures and vaporpressure differences. The WVT rate isthe water vapor flow in unit time througha unit area. The water vapor permeance(WVT/vapor pressure difference) is aperformance evaluation at a stated thick-ness and is not a property of thematerial. The water vapor permeability(permeance x thickness) is a property ofthe material.

�.9.� Adhesion Testing�2 (see Paragraph�.2.�.2)

Testing for adhesion after various exposuretests may be a better indicator of expectedperformance. For example, adhesion testingcan be performed after immersion testing, afterUV exposure, after impact testing, and afterthermal cycling.

(�) ASTM D ��(2) ACI �0�R, Appendix A

�.9.� Thermal Testing

The effect of temperature and heat on coatingsmay be quantified by using the standardizedtests listed below.

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�.9.�.� Shrinkage

(�) ASTM C ��2�

(2) ASTM C ��2�

�.9.�.2 Thermal Expansion

(�) ASTM C ��(2) ASTM C ��2�

�.9.�.� Maximum Temperature

(�) ASTM E ��6�26

�.9.� Crack-Bridging Testing

At the time of publication, except for the DIBttesting performed in Germany, no stan-dardized test methods had been published orproposed for determining the crack bridging

performance of coating systems in secondarycontainment applications. Crack-bridging testshave been performed by various methods andhave been used as a research tool to comparethe performance of different coating systems.

(�) DIBt(�) Crack and Containment Test92

(2) Sandwich Tensile Test9�,9�,97,99,�02,�0�

�.9.6 UV Testing

(�) ASTM D ��7�27

�.9.7 Acceptance Criteria

Materials qualified for a specific application areusually based on testing of new lab-appliedmaterials; performance may vary for materialsapplied in field conditions and that haveweathered.

Section 5: Coating Systems

�.� Most coating system formulations and designsare proprietary. The properties and performancewithin a generic classification will vary. The coatingmanufacturer is the best source of information on theapplications, installation, performance, designs, andverifiable field histories of its specific materials andsystems. This section provides an overview of typi-cal generic coatings used in secondary contain-ment.��,�7,�9-�0,�2�-�6�

�.2 Polymer Types

Table � lists typical physical and chemical resist-ance�6�-�6� properties for the most common materialsused in secondary containment as protective barriercoating systems. This table is not intended as aguideline for selecting specific polymer types. Actualproperties for coating systems can vary widely fromthe typical properties shown here due to polymermodifications, mixtures (hybrids), plasticizing, fillers,reinforcement, and curing conditions. The rangesshown for the properties of each generic coatingmaterial reflect differences in the particular types ofresins used and differences in specific formulations.Section � explains the importance of specific coatingproperties and discusses some methods used toovercome the deficiencies of a given polymer.

�.2.� Epoxies��,60,��7,�6�

Thermoset epoxies are co-reactive polymersthat are reaction products of epoxy resins andamine hardeners. Common epoxy resins

include bisphenol A, bisphenol F, and phenolnovolac-based epoxy resins. Commonly usedhardeners include aliphatic amines, cyclo-aliphatic amines, amidoamines, and poly-amides. Numerous modifiers, diluents, andsolvents are included in most formulations.With modifications, epoxy coatings can rangefrom hard and brittle with good chemicalresistance to flexible with reduced chemicalresistance. Novolac-based epoxy resins re-acted with aliphatic or cycloaliphatic aminesproduce coatings with high cross-link densitiesand good chemical resistance; they are oftenused to contain aggressive chemicals. In thepast, aromatic amines were commonly used inhighly chemical-resistant formulations, buttoxicity concerns and regulations have signi-ficantly reduced their current use. The mostcommonly used epoxy coatings exhibit highstrength, adhesion, and chemical resistance,but low flexibility and UV resistance.

�.2.2 Unsaturated Polyesters (UP)60

Unsaturated polyesters are co-reactive poly-mers that are reaction products of UP resinsand peroxide initiators. The reaction productsof saturated and unsaturated acids and polyolsare common UP resins. The resins are dilutedwith a vinyl co-reactant, usually styrene.Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, cumene hydro-peroxide, and benzoyl peroxide are commoninitiators for UP resins, while cobalt or tertiary

___________________________(�) Deutsches Institut fur Bautechnik (DIBt), Reichpietschufer 7�-76, �07��, Berlin, Germany.

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amines are used to promote the reaction. Thecommon unsaturated polyester coatingsexhibit high strength and good chemical

resistance, but they are prone to shrinkage andair inhibition during curing.

TABLE 3Typical Properties of Common Generic Coating Materials Used in Secondary Containment

Polymer Epoxy Polyester VinylEster

Polyurethane/Polyurea

Polysulfide Acrylic Furan EpoxySiloxane

PhysicalStrength

High High High Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Mediumto High

High High

Elongation Low Low Low Medium toHigh

Medium toHigh

Low toMedium

Low Low

ImpactResistance

Medium Medium Medium Medium toHigh

Medium toHigh

Mediumto High

Medium Medium

AbrasionResistance

Mediumto High

Medium toHigh

Mediumto High

Medium toHigh

Medium Mediumto High

High Mediumto High

Adhesion toConcrete

High Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High

CureShrinkage

Low High High Low Low High High Low toMedium

Permeability Low Low Low Medium Medium Low toMedium

Low Low

UVResistance

Low Medium toHigh

Medium Low to High High High Medium Low toMedium

Creep Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

High High Low toMedium

Low Low toMedium

TemperatureLimit

Mediumto High

Medium toHigh

Mediumto High

Medium Medium Medium High Medium

ChemicalResistance

InorganicAcids Medium

to HighMedium toHigh

Mediumto High

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Medium High Mediumto High

OrganicAcids

Medium High High Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Medium Mediumto High

Mediumto High

Alkalis High Medium High Low toMedium

Low toMedium

High Mediumto High

High

ChlorinatedSolvents

Low toHigh

Low toHigh

Mediumto High

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

High Mediumto High

OxygenatedSolvents

Low toHigh

Low toHigh

Mediumto High

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Mediumto High

Mediumto High

HydrocarbonSolvents

Mediumto High

Medium toHigh

Mediumto High

Low toMedium

Low toMedium

Low toHigh

High Mediumto High

Salts High High High Medium toHigh

Medium toHigh

High High High

Water Mediumto High

Medium toHigh

Mediumto High

Medium toHigh

Medium toHigh

Mediumto High

Mediumto High

Mediumto High

2�

SSPC-TU 2/NACE 6G�97February, �997NACE 6G197/SSPC-TU 2

689

�.2.� Vinyl Esters (VE)��,��7

Vinyl esters are co-reactive polymers that arereaction products of VE resins and peroxideinitiators. The reaction products of methacrylicacid and epoxy resin (bisphenol A, F, ornovolac) are common VE resins. These resinsare typically diluted with a vinyl co-reactant,usually styrene; they may also be modifiedwith an elastomer. Methyl ethyl ketone pero-xide, cumene hydroperoxide, and benzoylperoxide are common initiators for VE resins,while cobalt or tertiary amines are used topromote the reaction. The common vinyl estercoatings exhibit high strength and goodchemical resistance, but they are prone toshrinkage and air inhibition during curing.

�.2.� Polyurethane/Polyurea77,��-��,��

Thermoset polyurethanes are co-reactive poly-mers that are the reaction products of polyolresins and isocyanates. Thermoset polyureasare co-reactive polymers that are reactionproducts of amines and isocyanates. Often,mixtures of polyols and amines are reactedwith isocyanates to produce polyurethane/polyurea hybrids. Many classes and types ofpolyols, amines, and isocyanates are com-monly used in coatings.��0 Polyurethanes andpolyureas can be subclassified as elastomeric(>�00% elongation) or nonelastomeric (<�00%elongation); they are also classified as eitheraromatic or aliphatic, depending on the type ofisocyanate used. Polyurethane coatings canrange from high strength with good chemicalresistance to very flexible with reducedstrength and chemical resistance. Aliphaticpolyurethanes have better UV resistance thanaromatic polyurethanes.

�.2.� Polysulfide��

Polysulfide is a synthetic elastomer formed bythe oxidation and condensation reaction ofthiol functional polysulfide resins initiated bymetal oxides or peroxides. Polysulfide coat-ings have high flexibility and UV resistance butlow strength. Polysulfide hybrid polymers areformed by co-reacting with epoxy or epoxy andamine resins. The hybrids usually have higherstrength and improved adhesion.

�.2.6 Acrylic��

Acrylics used in secondary containment usu-ally consist of a mixture of high-molecular-weight acrylic resins that are co-reacted withmethyl methacrylate in a free-radical polymer-ization initiated by peroxide. Acrylics can vary

in strength and flexibility depending on thechoice of raw materials; however, like unsatu-rated polyester and vinyl ester coatings, thesematerials are prone to shrinkage and air inhi-bition during curing.

�.2.7 Furan

Furan resins are usually condensation prod-ucts of furfural and/or furfuryl alcohol. Theseresins are cross-linked using an acid catalyst,such as a sulfonic acid, to form a dark,infusible, solid coating. Furan coatings areusually hard and brittle with high heatresistance and good chemical resistance, butthey are prone to shrinkage and do not adherewell to concrete.

�.2.� Epoxy Siloxane�62,�6�

Epoxy siloxanes are hybrid resins producedusing new technology. One formulationmethod is to pre-react epoxy resin with silica toform a hybrid resin that is then homo-polymerized or cross-linked with an amine toform a coating.�62 Another method is to cross-link an epoxy resin with an amine andaminosilane to form a hybrid coating.�6�

Epoxy siloxane coatings have physical pro-perties similar to amine-cured epoxy coatingsand have high chemical resistance.

�.2.9 Other Thermoset Polymers

Other thermoset polymers used as secondarycontainment coatings include chemicallycross-linked elastomers�6� and hybrids suchas epoxy phenolic, polyurethane-modifiedepoxy, and acrylic urethane.

�.� Reinforcement and Fillers

�.�.� Silica Fillers

Silica fillers (including silica sand, glass,quartz, and various silica-containing minerals)are the most commonly used fillers forsecondary containment coatings. They areused at levels up to �0% by weight. They canrange in size from less than �.0 µm (0.0� mils)to one-fourth the coating thickness and may beround particles or flakes. The advantages ofusing silica fillers include reduced coating cost,permeability, cure shrinkage, and CLTE, andincreased chemical and creep resistance. Thedisadvantages include reduced flexibility andtensile strength.

�.�.2 Carbon Fillers

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Carbon and graphite fillers cost more thansilica and other minerals and are generallyused only when their specific properties arerequired. Like silica fillers, they can be used athigh levels, can range in size from a micro-meter (0.0� mils) to one-fourth the coatingthickness and may be round particles or flakes.Carbon and graphite fillers are conductive andcan be used for conductive primers andconductive floors. They are resistant to allchemicals, including HF and concentratedalkalis. In addition, they are nonsparking, andso are used in explosion-proof areas. Inaddition to these special properties, carbonfillers reduce permeability, cure shrinkage, andCLTE, and increase chemical and creepresistance. The disadvantages includereduced flexibility, strength, and hardness;also, the only color available is black.

�.�.� Other Functional Fillers

�.�.�.� Pigments—primarily titaniumdioxide and other inorganic oxides—areused mainly for aesthetic purposes andto protect the polymer from UV degra-dation. Pigments also reduce permea-bility.

�.�.�.2 Flake-shaped materials are aspecial class of filler that are usedprimarily to reduce permeability; they areespecially effective when they areincluded in the coating at the correctlevel and aligned parallel to the coatingsurface. Commonly used flake-shapedfillers include glass, mica, and graphite.

�.�.�.� Many fillers, including silicas,are treated with functional organo-silanes. Incorporating these treated fil-lers into the coating can increase phy-sical strength, increase chemical resist-ance, and reduce porosity.

�.�.� Fiberglass Mat Reinforcement60,��6,��7

Fiberglass mats are sometimes used asstructural reinforcement in coating systems.They are particularly useful in applicationswhere maintaining a monolithic structure isrequired. Chopped strand and woven fiber-glass mats are commonly used. UP, VE andepoxy coating systems often use fiberglassreinforcement. Fiberglass-reinforced coatingapplication techniques are similar to those

used in other industries and include hand lay-up, chopper gun, and spray application with orwithout a chopper gun attachment. Rein-forcement levels up to �0% by weight arepossible. Fiberglass mat reinforcement incoating systems increases tensile strength,flexural strength, compressive strength, impactresistance and crack-bridging performance. Inaddition, it distributes the stress duringshrinkage in UP and VE resins. For somecoating systems, use of a mat reinforcementincreases the structural integrity of the systemto the point where the weak point in the coatingsystem becomes the coating/concreteinterface, which increases the possibility ofdisbonding.

�.�.� Surface Veils

Surface veils are thin, low-weight fiberglass orpolyester mats that are used to reinforce thesurface of a coating system. They are used toreinforce the surface of thick resin layers inaggressive chemical exposures and to reducecracking in thermal shock conditions.

�.�.6 Other Mat Reinforcement��

Polyester and carbon mats can also be usedas reinforcement. These mats are more ex-pensive than glass mats and are used only inspecial applications where their specific pro-perties are required.

�.� Other Formulation Components

Although formulation of thermoset polymer coatingmaterials is beyond the scope of this report and isusually proprietary, coatings typically contain numer-ous components in addition to the polymer, filler, andreinforcement. These components are used to en-hance the storage, application, or performance of thecoating and may include solvents, diluents,accelerators, inhibitors, anti-microbials, thixotropes,UV screens, coupling agents, defoamers, and sur-face tension additives.

�.� Alternative Systems

Systems other than thermoset coating systems usedin secondary containment include acid-resistant brickand membrane systems, double-walled pipes ortanks, pre-formed thermoplastic inlays or liners,��,��

sulfur concrete, lacquers, latexes, and polymer con-crete.

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Section 6: Coating System Installation170-174

6.� Concrete Cure and Surface Preparation

6.�.� Coating application proceeds when theconcrete has adequate surface strength, sur-face profile, surface porosity, surface dryness,and surface cleanliness. Surface preparationis covered in Paragraph �.�.

6.�.2 Concrete has traditionally been coatedno sooner than 2� days after concrete place-ment. This 2�-day waiting period is a contro-versial topic that involves all facility owners,coating manufacturers, applicators, and speci-fiers. The 2�-day waiting period originated asa civil engineering structural requirement andwas adopted by the coating industry because itusually allows sufficient time for the requiredconcrete surface strength to develop and forexcess moisture to evaporate.27 Many factorsaffect strength and moisture movement inconcrete that can reduce or increase the timerequired for strength and moisture levels to beacceptable. In addition, many constructionschedules do not allow for a 2�-day waitingperiod. For these reasons, quantified surfacerequirements, as in Paragraph �.�.�, are oftenspecified rather than a period of time. Forenclosed areas, dehumidification equipmenthas been used to reduce the drying time ofconcrete (after sufficient strength has beenachieved) and to reduce humidity duringinstallation, preventing premature failure of thecoating.�6,�7�

6.�.� NACE RP0�926� and ACI ��.�R�7 donot refer to a specific cure period, but theyaddress surface dryness, surface strengthrequirements, and other surface quality issues.NACE RP0�9�62 states that concrete normallyrequires a 2�-day cure. NACE RP0�766�

recommends a �0-day cure for most newconcrete floors. The cure time drops to ��days if the floor is moist cured for seven daysand allowed to dry for seven days. If ASTM C��0 Type III cement is used, the concrete canbe moist cured for three days and allowed todry for two days.

6.2 Patching of Concrete Surface Imperfections

6.2.� Types of Imperfections

Concrete defects such as voids, bugholes, andexcess porosity and physical and chemicaldamage are usually filled or repaired prior toapplication of the coating system (see Para-graphs �.2.2 and �.2.�). Some systems, suchas thick, trowelled systems, may tolerate minorimperfections without repairs, and some

systems, such as spray-applied coatings, maybe applied immediately after patching. How-ever, most coatings cannot be successfullyapplied until defects and damage are repairedand adequately cured.

6.2.2 Patching Materials

6.2.2.� Materials such as grouts, put-ties, fillers, and sealers are used torepair, patch, smooth, or seal the con-crete surface to provide a substrate thatis suitable for the coating system to beapplied. These materials are appliedafter initial surface preparation and,when properly selected and applied,have the following characteristics:

(�) good adhesion;(2) adequate strength:(�) low volumetric shrinkage;(�) compatibility with the coating to be

applied; and(�) proper consistency for the applica-

tion.

6.2.2.2 In addition, the patching mate-rial is often expected to cure sufficiently,be traffic bearing, and be ready to recoatin a short time frame (usually within 2�hours). The repaired section is evalu-ated to determine whether to performadditional surface preparation prior tocoating application.

6.2.2.� Shrinkage of the patching mate-rial may reduce the adhesion of thatmaterial to the concrete substrate. Dif-ferences in thermal expansion betweenthe concrete, patching material, andcoating system will cause stressesduring thermally induced movement thatmay reduce adhesion between theselayers.

6.2.2.� The most common types ofpatching materials are cementitious,polymer-modified cementitious (usuallyacrylic), and polymeric (usuallyepoxy).�76 Cementitious materials costless than polymeric materials, butpolymeric materials generally cure fasterand have higher strength, better adhe-sion, and increased chemical resistance.

6.2.2.� Patching materials are avail-able in a range of consistencies forapplication to vertical or horizontal sur-faces by a variety of methods. The

2�



692

amount of filler also varies. For example,grouts for deep patching are typicallyhighly filled, while porosity sealers maybe minimally filled or unfilled.

6.� Priming

6.�.� Materials

6.�.�.� Although the primer is generallyconsidered part of the coating systemand is often formulated with a polymersimilar to that used in the coating,certain properties and performancecriteria are critical for this component.Adhesion to concrete is most important.Low surface tension and low viscosity ina primer help to wet and penetrate theporous concrete surface. Resistance toalkali and hydrolysis are also importantproperties for a primer applied directly toconcrete because concrete is an alkalinematerial and moisture is often present.

6.�.�.2 The use of solvent- or water-based materials as primers on concretesubstrates is common; however, thestresses introduced from the shrinkageof these primers and the time requiredfor sufficient evaporation of the solventor water prior to applying the next coatare important factors to consider.

6.�.�.� Some primers function as poro-sity sealers that either fill or bridge poresin the concrete surface and prevent holi-days and pinholes in subsequent coats.

6.�.�.� Specially formulated primershave been designed for application tofreshly placed concrete and function toseal the concrete, provide a primer forthe coating, and eliminate the need forsurface preparation.�77 These materialsare designed only for specific appli-cations, as recommended by the manu-facturer, and may not always perform aswell as primers applied to concretesurfaces that have been cured, dried,and prepared.

6.�.2 Application

Primers are applied to concrete surfaces usingthe same techniques by which the coatingmaterials are applied. Additional techniquesmay be used with primers to reduce theoccurrence of holidays due to outgassing (seeParagraph 6.�.�).

6.�.� Conductive Primers

Conductivity in concrete can range significantlydepending on concrete type, density, moisturecontent, and rebar location. If the conductivityof the concrete structure to be coated is lowand discontinuity testing is specified for thecoating to verify a holiday-free application, aconductive primer can be used to ensureeffective discontinuity testing.

6.�.� Outgassing

Porosity in the concrete contains air. Whenthe temperature of the concrete rises, the air inthe pores expands. This phenomenon, com-monly called outgassing, may produce pin-holes or blisters in primers and coatingsystems. To reduce the risk of pinholes as aresult of outgassing, the primer and coatingare usually applied when the concrete tem-perature is stable or dropping.

6.� Coating System

6.�.� Materials

Coating materials perform best when they arestored, mixed, and diluted according to themanufacturer’s recommendations.

6.�.�.� Storage

Storage under adverse conditions orbeyond the shelf life of the coating mayaffect the condition of the materials andthe properties of the coating. Manu-facturers typically recommend that mostcoating materials be stored at �0 to�0°C (�0 to �6°F); however, it is not un-common for materials to be subjected totemperatures as low as -�0°C (��°F) oras high as �0°C (�22°F) during shipping.These adverse conditions may causematerials to crystallize or polymerize.

6.�.�.2 Diluting

Diluting coating materials with solventsor water, unless specifically recom-mended by the manufacturer, can causeproblems such as incompatibility, sol-vent retention, and film defects in thecured product.

6.�.�.� Mix Ratios

Materials are usually packaged by themanufacturer in precise mix ratios toensure optimal cured properties of theapplied coating. Deviating from the pre-scribed mix ratio can affect the physicalproperties and chemical resistance of

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the coating. Accelerators and initiatorsin unsaturated polyester and vinyl estersystems are sometimes added in thefield to adjust for environmental con-ditions or accelerate the cure of thecoating. While this practice may beinvaluable for some coatings, thesecomponents usually affect the propertiesof the cured coating. Excessive hard-ener and some accelerators may reducethe gel time (i.e., the time until thecoating sets) of epoxy coatings, but theymay not increase the cure rate andusually have a detrimental effect on thecoating’s properties.

6.�.2 Application Methods

The main objectives when applying coatingmaterials are to ensure (�) that all componentsare properly mixed, (2) that the coating orcoating layer is applied at the designed thick-ness range, (�) that the resulting application isfree of defects that may affect performance,and (�) that the applied coating curessufficiently before being placed in service. Thefollowing paragraphs provide a brief descrip-tion of the application methods. For moreinformation, the coating manufacturer can beconsulted or see references 6� and �7�.

6.�.2.� Mixing

The most common method for mixingtwo-component materials utilizes amixing blade attached to a power drill ormotor. Manual mixing may not beadequate to homogenize the coatingmaterials. Each component of a two-component coating may separate orsettle during storage and shipping andmay need to be individually mixed beforemixing with the other component.Three-component or highly filled two-component materials are often mixedwith a motorized bucket mixer.

6.�.2.2 Spraying

One- and two-component materials thatdo not contain large fillers are oftenapplied using spray equipment. Air-assisted or high-volume, low-pressure(HVLP) spray equipment can be used forone-component or premixed two-compo-nent materials. Plural-component, high-pressure airless spray equipment withheated lines and air-assisted spray gunsare commonly used with two-com-ponent, high-solids materials.

6.�.2.� Other Methods

Trowelling (manual or power) and broad-casting are common methods for apply-ing aggregate-filled systems. Broad-casting and power trowelling are onlyused on horizontal surfaces. High-buildliquid-rich systems are also applied tohorizontal surfaces by self-levelingmethods such as mixing, pouring, usinga squeegee, or rolling (usually with aspiked roller). Many coatings are ap-plied by rollers and brushes.

6.�.� Reinforcement�69

Methods for installing reinforced systems orinserting reinforcement into coating systemsinclude the use of conventional hand lay-uptechniques and chopper gun attachments forone- or two-component spray equipment.Whichever method is used, it is important tomechanically work the saturating resin into thereinforcement and eliminate any entrapped air(especially at corners, edges, and overlaps),usually using a ribbed, or serrated, roller.

6.�.� Recoat Windows

Proper adhesion between all layers of a multi-layer coating system is essential for coatingperformance. To attain that adhesion, eachlayer is mechanically and/or chemically bond-ed to the previous layer. The time betweenapplication of two layers in a multilayer coatingsystem is the recoat time. The optimum rangeof times within which to apply the second layeris commonly called the recoat window and isusually specified by the coating manufacturer.Specifying a minimum time allows an appliedlayer to cure sufficiently to support traffic fromthe applicator and ensures that the appliedlayer is not harmed by solvents in the nextlayer. This minimum is known as the dry-to-recoat time. The maximum ensures that theapplied layer is not completely cured, so thatsubsequent layers can react and bondsufficiently with the applied layer. If the maxi-mum recoat window is exceeded, it may bepossible to prepare the existing surface byabrasive or mechanical methods to accept asubsequent coating. Environmental factorssuch as temperature, humidity, and directsunlight may affect the cure and, hence, therecoat window.

6.�.� Environmental Conditions

6.�.�.� Temperature

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694

The temperatures of the coatingmaterials, the concrete substrate, andthe surrounding air affect the workability,cure rate, and resulting properties of thecoating. Unless they are specially for-mulated, many thermoset coatings aredesigned to be applied at a relativelynarrow range of temperatures, such as�0° to �2°C (�0° to 90°F). Lower tem-peratures tend to increase viscosity,reduce evaporation rate of solvents orvolatile co-reactants, and reduce thecure rate. Higher temperatures tend toreduce viscosity, increase evaporationrate, and increase cure rate. Materialsapplied at higher temperatures mayresult in coatings with increased residualstress from shrinkage. Direct sunlightcan increase the effective surfacetemperature by up to �0°C (�0°F) overthe shaded temperature; in addition tothe effects from elevated temperature,direct sunlight can cause the top surfaceto cure before the rest of the coating, aphenomenon known as skinning. Apply-ing a coating to concrete when theconcrete temperature is rising can causeoutgassing (see Paragraph 6.�.�).

6.�.�.2 Moisture

Excessive moisture can profoundlyaffect the cure of many thermosetmaterials commonly used in secondarycontainment. Moisture may be presentdue to residual water in the concrete,water condensed on the concrete, highhumidity, rain, or a high water table.The effects of excess moisture includeblushing of amine-cured epoxies, cureinhibition of unsaturated polyesters andvinyl esters, poor film formation in water-based coatings, and CO2 formation inpolyurethanes. In addition to testing forresidual moisture (see Paragraph�.2.�.�), coatings that are affected byexcess moisture are usually appliedwhen the concrete surface temperatureis at least �°C (�°F) above the dew pointand the relative humidity is below �0%.

6.�.�.� Air Movement

Although some air movement may berequired for worker safety when applyingcoatings containing volatile materials,excessive air movement can affect coat-ing properties by causing excessiveevaporation rates. Stagnant air in con-tained areas may inhibit the cure on the

surface of styrene or methyl metha-crylate systems that use a wax-con-taining sealer coat.

6.�.6 Cure

For thermoset coating materials, the cure isusually a complex function of time and tem-perature. In most cases, the coating is for-mulated to cure as rapidly as possible whilestill providing sufficient pot life. The extent ofcure directly affects the physical strength andthe chemical resistance of a coating, both ofwhich increase as the cure progresses. Withmultilayer coating systems, the applied layer isusually formulated to cure as soon as possibleso it can support traffic from the applicator andso it is not harmed by solvents or stressesfrom application of the subsequent layers.Most coating systems used in secondarycontainment are designed to cure at ambientconditions (usually �0°C to �0°C [�0°F to�6°F]); they typically gel when �0 to 70%cured, are able to support traffic (dry tohandle) when �0 to �0% cured, and are 70 to�00% cured after seven days. Some coatingsystems are formulated to cure outside theusual temperature range. In some cases, cur-ing at elevated temperature is essential toimpart sufficient chemical resistance to coat-ings. Some materials, even if they are de-signed to cure at ambient temperatures, maybenefit from curing at elevated temperature.Elevated temperatures increase the glass-transition temperature (Tg), cross-link density,and rate and extent of cure. These factorsusually increase the chemical and heatresistance but may also reduce elasticity andincrease brittleness of the resultant coating.

6.� Testing and Inspection�7�,�79-��

The following test methods can be used to quantifythe properties of the installed coating system.

6.�.� Concrete Substrate (see Paragraph�.�.�)

6.�.2 Coating Thickness

(�) ASTM D ��2 is a wet film thicknesstest that is performed during coatinginstallation.

(2) ASTM D �� is a destructive methodthat is not accurate on concrete unlessnumerous specimens are tested.

(�) Ultrasonic thickness tests use new tech-nology to take nondestructive thicknessmeasurements of cured coatings on con-crete.��

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6.�.� Discontinuity Testing��

(�) ASTM D �7�7��6

(2) NACE RP0��7

6.�.� Cure Evaluation

(�) ASTM D 2�� Hardness Test(2) ASTM D ��02��9 Solvent Rub Test

(�) ASTM E��6�26 Glass Transition Tem-perature (Tg)

6.�.� Adhesion Testing26,�2 (see Paragraph�.2.�.2)

(�) ASTM D ��(2) ACI �0�R, Appendix A(�) Patch Test (see Paragraph �.2.�.2.�)

Section 7: Maintenance

7.� Spill Cleanup

Numerous regulations exist for the collection,cleanup, and disposal of hazardous materials. Manysecondary containment and process areas includedrains where the spilled materials are collected forrecycling, treatment, or disposal. In cases where thechemical to be contained may damage the coating(e.g., from etching or swelling), and becausepolymeric materials are permeable to some chemi-cals, it is beneficial to dilute or remove the chemicalas soon as possible.

7.2 Inspections

Routine inspections on secondary containmentinstallations can prolong their service life. Earlydetection and correction can minimize damage to thecoating. In addition, early detection often allowscoatings to be repaired prior to undercutting andsubstrate damage. The details that are noted duringinspection include:

(�) chemical degradation (color change, etching,flaking, softening, or swelling);

(2) physical damage (impact cracking, indentation,gouging, or tearing);

(�) disbondment (blistering, undercutting, orshearing);

(�) cracking at joints, edges, or corners; and(�) weathering (chalking or crazing).

Disbondment may not be visually evident. Thecoating surface may be tapped with a metal object(known as sounding) to check for disbonding.Cracking may not be visually evident when thecoating is expanded due to elevated temperaturesbut can be checked by applying water or a dye, or bywaiting until the coating temperature is lower.

7.� Repairs�90,�9�

7.�.� Secondary containment coatings thatare disbonded, cracked, physically damaged,or chemically attacked are repaired to restorethe expected performance of the systems.Prior to repairing the coating, it is useful todiagnose the reasons for the coating failureand either repair the cause of the failure alongwith the coating, or redesign the coatingsystem to accommodate the conditions. Asdiscussed in Section �, cracks in the coatingmay be caused by: concrete movement as aresult of shrinkage, thermal effects, design, orfoundation deficiencies; high ∆CLTE; coatingshrinkage; or UV degradation. Disbondmentmay be due to: contamination or insufficientsurface preparation; severe thermal shock orcycling; excessive coating shrinkage; poorcoating penetration of concrete surface or pooradhesion; or hydraulic pressure problems.Physical damage is often caused by fork liftsand heavy vehicular traffic; chemical degra-dation results from incompatibility of thecoating with chemical spills.

7.�.2 The criteria for a successful repair aresimilar to those used in the initial installation:all disbonded or damaged coatings and con-crete are removed until only sound concrete(or sound, bonded coating) remains; all con-tamination is removed; the repair coatingbonds to the existing coating; the existing con-crete and/or coating is properly prepared; andall cracks are addressed in the repair coatingsystem design. Many thermoset coatings ad-here to existing thermoset coatings, providedthe surface of the existing coating is preparedto give a sufficient surface profile. The repaircoating is tested for adhesion by any of themethods discussed in Paragraph �.2.�.2.

Section 8: Safety

�.� Numerous health, safety, and environmentalregulations address worker safety, a topic beyond thescope of this report. Potentially hazardous materialsencountered during the handling and application of

secondary containment coatings include: the chem-icals to be contained; cleaning solutions, abrasivemedia, and by-products of surface cleaning andpreparation; and liquid resins, catalysts, and solvents

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in coating materials. Material safety data sheets area source of information on the hazards and handlingof hazardous materials. NACE TPC Publication 26�

and the SSPC Painting Manual�7� provide informa-tion on safety during coating application.

Section 9: Glossary of Terms

Accelerator: A substance which, when added toconcrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate ofhydration of the hydraulic cement, shortens the timeof setting, or increases the rate of hardening,strength development, or both.�92

Accelerator: Any substance used in small propor-tion which increases the speed of a chemical reac-tion. In the paint industry, the term usually indicatesmaterials that hasten the curing or cross-linking of aresin system. In the polyester resin field, it coversmore specifically an additive which accelerates theaction of the catalyst.�9�

Adhesion: State in which two surfaces are heldtogether by interfacial forces which may consist ofvalence forces or interlocking action, or both.�9�

Aggregate: Granular material, such as sand, gravel,crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement concrete,or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydrauliccementing medium to produce either concrete ormortar.�92

Aggressive: Severe chemical exposure.

Air Inhibition: The prevention of complete poly-merization (curing) of a reactive polymer due to thepresence of air (oxygen).

Bugholes: Small regular or irregular cavities, usu-ally not exceeding �� mm in diameter, resulting fromentrapment of air bubbles in the surface of formedconcrete during placement and compaction.�92

Chemical Attack: Decomposition of a coating orconcrete due to the action of a chemical.

Coating, Coating System: A liquid or a liquid withfillers and/or reinforcement that is applied to asubstrate and cures by heat or catalysts to form athermoset polymer that will bond to and protect thesubstrate and provide a barrier to contain chemicals.

Compatibility: The ability of a coating to resistattack and permeation by a specific chemical withina specific time period.

Concentration (not stress concentration): Amountof a substance expressed in relationship to thewhole.�9�

Concrete: A composite material that consists es-sentially of a binding medium within which areembedded particles or fragments of aggregate; inportland cement concrete, the binder is a mixture ofportland cement and water.�92

Contaminant, Contamination: Any extraneousmaterial on the concrete surface that will affect theadhesion of the applied coating to the concrete.

Contraction Joint: Formed, sawed, or tooledgroove in a concrete structure to create a weakenedplane and regulate the location of cracking resultingfrom the dimensional change of different parts of thestructure.�92

Crack: See Dynamic Crack and Static Crack.

Cross-Linking: Applied to polymer molecules, thesetting up of chemical links between the molecularchains to form a three-dimensional or networkpolymer, generally by covalent bonding. When ex-tensive, as in most thermosetting resins, cross-linking makes one infusible larger molecule of all thelinked chains. Cross-linking generally toughens andstiffens coatings. Thermosetting materials cross-linkunder the influence of heat and catalysis. It may alsobe inducted by the use of catalysts and/or electroncuring.�9�

Cure: To change the properties of a polymeric sys-tem into a final, more stable, usable condition by theuse of heat, radiation, or reaction with chemicaladditives.�9�

Curing: The toughening or hardening of a coatingfilm as a result of elevated temperature or significantreaction other than oxidation.�9�

Cure, Curing: The maintenance of a satisfactorymoisture content and temperature in concrete duringits early stages so that desired properties maydevelop.�92

Curing Compound: A liquid that can be applied asa coating to the surface of newly placed concrete toretard the loss of water and, in the case of pigmentedcompounds, to reflect heat which provides anopportunity for the concrete to develop its propertiesin a favorable temperature and moisture environ-ment.�92

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Disbondment: The loss of adhesion between acoating and the substrate.

Discontinuity: See Holiday.

Dynamic Crack: A crack in the concrete surfacewhose width changes as the concrete moves.

Efflorescence: A white crystalline or powderydeposit on the surface of concrete. Efflorescenceresults from leaching of lime or calcium hydroxideout of a permeable concrete mass over time bywater, followed by reaction with carbon dioxide andacidic pollutants. �9�

Elastomer: A natural or synthetic polymer which, atroom temperature, can be stretched repeatedly to atleast twice its original length and which, afterremoval of the tensile load, will immediately andforcibly return to approximately its original length.�9�

Finish: The texture of a concrete surface after com-paction and finishing operations have been per-formed.�92

Finishing: Leveling, smoothing, compacting, andotherwise treating surfaces of fresh or recentlyplaced concrete or mortar to produce desiredappearance and service.�92

Glass-Transition Temperature: The temperature atwhich the noncrystalline portion of the polymer istransformed from a tough, rubbery material to abrittle, glass-like material.�9�

Grout, Grouting: A plastic mixture of cementitiousmaterials and water used as a filler for cracks, orother void spaces, in concrete surfaces to becoated.67

Hazardous Substance: A substance which, byreason of being explosive, flammable, poisonous,corrosive, oxidizing, or otherwise harmful, is likely tocause death or injury when misused.

Hazardous Waste: A solid waste subject to RCRAregulations because it is specifically listed as one ofthe wastes to which regulations apply, or because itexhibits the characteristics which define a hazardouswaste.

High-Pressure Water Cleaning (HP WC): HP WCis cleaning performed at pressures from �� to 70MPa (�,000 psi to �0,000 psi).��

High-Pressure Water Jetting (HP WJ): HP WJ iscleaning performed at pressures from 70 to �70 MPa(�0,000 to 2�,000 psi).��

Holiday: A discontinuity of the coating that exposesthe substrate to the environment or exhibits electricalconductivity when exposed to a predetermined testvoltage.

Holiday Detector: An electrical device that locatesdiscontinuities in the protective coating.

Honeycomb: Voids left in concrete due to failure ofthe mortar to effectively fill the spaces among coarseaggregate particles.�92

Hydraulic, Hydrostatic Pressure: A force exertedon the concrete/coating interface due to the level ofthe ground water.

Hydrolysis: A disruptive reaction consisting of split-ting a compound into two parts, one of whichcombines with the H+ ion of water and the other withthe OH– ion of water.�9�

Hydrophilic: Substance which absorbs or exhibitsaffinity for water; wettable.�9�

Hydrophobic: Substance which does not absorb orexhibit affinity for water; nonwettable.�9�

Initiator: A reactive material that initiates a poly-merization reaction but is not regenerated.

Isolation Joint: A separation between adjoiningparts of a concrete structure.

Joint: See Contraction Joint and Isolation Joint.

Laitance: A thin, weak, brittle layer of cement andaggregate fines on a concrete surface. The amountof laitance is influenced by the degree of working orthe amount of water in the concrete.�9�

Lining, Lining System: See Coating.

Monolithic: Seamless coating system.

Osmotic Pressure: A force exerted on the con-crete/coating interface through the capillaries in theconcrete due to a moisture differential across thecoating.

Permeability: The time rate of water vapor trans-mission through unit area of flat material induced byunit vapor pressure difference between two specificsurfaces, under specified temperature and humidityconditions.�22

Pinholes: Film defect characterized by small pore-like flaws in a coating which extend entirely throughthe applied film and have the general appearance of

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pin pricks, fine holes, or voids when viewed byreflected light.�9�

Plastic Cracking, Plastic Shrinkage Cracking:Cracking that occurs in the surface of fresh concretesoon after it is placed and while it is still plastic.�92

Porosity, Surface Porosity: The ratio, usually ex-pressed as a percentage, of the volume of voids in amaterial to the total volume of the material, includingthe voids.�92

Primary Containment: The tank, pipe, or vesselused to store or transport a chemical.

Profile, Surface Profile: Surface contour as viewedfrom edge.

Protective Barrier Coating System: See Coating.

Reflective Cracking: Cracking that develops in acoating directly over a dynamic crack in the concrete.

Reinforcement: Fibers and fillers that improve thephysical strength (primarily tensile strength) of thecoating system. Fiberglass mat and flake fillers arecommonly used reinforcements.

Sealant, Joint Sealant: Compressible material usedto exclude water and solid foreign materials fromjoints.�92

Secondary Containment: Structures capable ofpreventing product or waste stored in a tank, pipe, orvessel from migrating to soil, ground water, orsurface water.

Segregation: The differential concentration of the

components of mixed concrete, aggregate, or thelike, resulting in nonuniform proportions in the mass.�92

Static Cracks: A crack in the concrete surfacewhose width does not change.

Surface Preparation: The method or combinationof methods used to clean a concrete surface, removeloose and weak materials and contaminants from thesurface, repair the surface, and roughen the surfaceto promote adhesion of a protective coating or liningsystem.

Thermal Expansion, Coefficient of Linear Ther-mal Expansion (CLTE): The relative measurementin one dimension of the movement within a materialdue to changes in temperature.

Thermal Shock: A rapid force exerted on a coatingdue to a sudden change in temperature.

Thermoset, Thermoset Polymer: A material whichwill undergo or has undergone a chemical reactionby the action of heat, catalysts, ultraviolet light, etc.,leading to a relatively infusible state.�9�

Vapor Barrier: Waterproof membrane placed underconcrete floor slabs that are placed on grade.�92

Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVT): Thesteady water vapor flow in unit time through unit areaof a body, between two specific parallel surfaces,under specific conditions of temperature and humi-dity at each surface.�9�

Workability: A measure of the ease of installation ofa coating system.

References

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2. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title �0,“Protection of Environment,” Part 260, “HazardousWaste Management System: General,” July �, �990.

�. U.S. CFR Title �0, “Protection of Environment,”Part 26�.�9�, “Containment and Detection ofReleases,” July �, �990.

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�0. ACI ��0.2R (latest revision), “Concrete Struc-tures Containing Hazardous Materials” (FarmingtonHills, MI: ACI).

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��. ACI �06R (latest revision), “Cold WeatherConcreting” (Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

��. ASTM C ��0 (latest revision), “Specification forPortland Cement” (West Conshohocken, PA:ASTM).

�6. ACI �0� (latest revision), “Standard Practice forCuring Concrete” (Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

�7. ASTM C �� (latest revision), “Specification forExpansive Hydraulic Cement” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM).

��. ACI 22� (latest revision), “Standard Practice forthe Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete”(Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

�9. ACI �0�R (latest revision), “Guide to JointSealants for Concrete Structure” (Farmington Hills,MI: ACI).

20. ACI 22�R (latest revision), “Control of Crackingin Concrete Structures” (Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

2�. ACI 22�.�R (latest revision), “Causes, Evalu-ation, and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures”(Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

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2�. R.W. Dively, “Osmotic Blistering of Coatings andLinings Applied to Concrete Surfaces,” MP ��, �(�99�): pp. �2-��.

2�. M. Gunter, H.K. Hilsdorf, “Stresses Due toPhysical and Chemical Actions in Polymer Coatingson a Concrete Substrate,” in Adhesion Between Poly-mers and Concrete: Bonding, Protection, Repair, ed.H.R. Sasse, RILEM Conference held at Aix-en-Provence, France, September �6-�9, �9�6, pp. �-2�.

2�. W.H. Riesterer, “Hydrostatic, Capillary, Osmoticand Other Pressures,” in Innovations for Preservingand Protecting Industrial Structures, held November��-��, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�).

26. “Surface Preparation of Concrete” (Houston, TX:NACE, and Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC). Work in Pro-gress by NACE/SSPC Joint Task Group F.

27. T.I. Aldinger, “Coating New Concrete: Why Wait2� Days?” in Protective Coatings for Flooring andOther Concrete Surfaces, held November �0-��,�99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. �-�.

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�0. F. Hazen, “Repairing Concrete Prior to LiningSecondary Containment Structures,” JPCL �, �(�99�): pp. 7�-79.

��. R.A. Nixon, “Assessing the Deterioration ofConcrete in Pulp and Paper Mills,” in Concrete:Surface Preparation, Coatings and Linings, andInspection Techniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

�2. J. Steele, “Testing Adhesion of Coatings Appliedto Concrete,” MP ��, �� (�99�): pp. ��-�6.

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��. ICRI Publication No. 0�7�0 (latest revision),“Surface Preparation Guidelines for the Repair ofDeteriorated Concrete Resulting from ReinforcedSteel Corrosion” (Sterling, VA: ICRI).

�6. L. Harriman, “Drying and Measuring Moisture inConcrete—Part I” MP ��, � (�99�): pp. ��-�6.

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��. ASTM D �26� (latest revision), “Standard TestMethod for Indicating Moisture in Concrete by thePlastic Sheet Method” (West Conshohocken, PA:ASTM).

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�9. “Moisture Emission Test Unit Developed byRubber Manufacturers Association Inc.” (RMA test)(Sheboygen, WI: Vinyl Plastics Inc.).

�0. BS ��2� (latest revision), “British Standard Codeof Practice for Installation of Textile Floor Coverings,”Appendix A, Dampness Testing (London, England:British Standards Institution).

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�2. NACE Publication 6G�66, “Surface Preparationof Concrete for Coating” (Houston, TX: NACE,�966).

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60. NACE Publication 6A��7, “Reinforced Polyesterand Epoxy Linings” (Houston, TX: NACE, �9�7).

6�. NACE Standard RP0�76 (latest revision),“Monolithic Organic Corrosion Resistant FloorSurfacings” (Houston, TX: NACE).

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6�. NACE Standard RP0�92 (latest revision),“Linings over Concrete for Immersion Service”(Houston, TX: NACE).

6�. NACE Publication TPC 2, Coatings and Liningsfor Immersion Service (Houston, TX: NACE, �972).

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and Lining of Concrete Seminar (Houston TX:NACE, �99�).

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6�. T.I. Aldinger, “Designing Secondary Containmentand Other Concrete Structures to Optimize CoatingPerformance,” JPCL 9, � (�992): pp. �6-��.

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7�. A.A. Boova, “Decorative Protective FlooringSystems,” CORROSION/90, paper no. ��6 (Houston,TX: NACE, �990).

72. T. Dudick, “Selecting Resinous Linings andCoatings,” Concrete Repair Bulletin 7, � (�99�): pp.7-�0.

7�. J.J. Glass, “Choosing a Flooring System toProtect Concrete from Aggressive Chemicals,” JPCL9, 2 (�992): pp. 6�-6�.

7�. T.I. Aldinger, B.S. Fultz, “Selecting Coatings andLinings for Concrete in Chemical Environments,”JPCL �2, � (�99�): pp. 6�-77.

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76. P.C. Hewlett, “Methods of Protecting Concrete,”in Protection of Concrete, eds. R.K Dhir, J.W. Green,held September ��-��, �990 (London, England:Chapman and Hall, �990), pp. �0�-��.

77. J. Jarboe, “Coatings and Linings for Wine-Making Facilities,” JPCL �, � (�9��): pp. 2�-��.

7�. W.H. Julius, “Tips on Avoiding Coating Failureson Concrete,” JPCL �0, �2 (�99�): pp. ��-��.

79. R.L. McGown, “Protection of Concrete SubstratesUsing Protective Coatings: An Overview,” inProtective Coatings for Flooring and Other ConcreteSurfaces, held November �0-��, �99� (Pittsburgh,PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. �6-�2.

�0. R.A. Nixon, R.H. DeWolf, “Protecting Concretewith Resinous Floor Toppings: An Owner's Guide,”JPCL 9, 2 (�992): pp. �6-��.

��. R.A. Nixon, R.H. DeWolf, “Repairing and Pro-tecting Concrete Floors in Industrial Facilities: AnOwner's Guide for Avoiding Resinous Floor ToppingFailures,” in Protective Coatings for Flooring andOther Concrete Surfaces, held November �0-��,�99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. �2�-��0.

�2. J.M. Pierce, “Coating Enhancement Proceduresfor Concrete Structures,” in Achieving Quality inCoating Work, held November �9, �992 (Pittsburgh,PA: �992), pp. �7�-�7�.

��. S. Poncio, D. Hall, “Experience Report onCoating of Concrete Containment Structures in aMaintenance Environment in Power Plants,” inConcrete: Surface Preparation, Coatings and Lin-ings, and Inspection Techniques (Houston, TX:NACE, �99�).

��. J.A. Redner, R.R. Hsi, E. Esfandi, “Evaluation ofProtective Coatings for Concrete,” in ProtectiveCoatings for Flooring and Other Concrete Surfaces,held November �0-��, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC,�99�), pp. 9�-�2�.

��. M. Schupack, “Divorces and Ruptured RelationsBetween Epoxies and Concrete,” Concrete Con-struction October (�9�0): pp. 7��-7��.

�6. J. Steele, “Coating Film Thickness in ConcreteSanitary Sewers: How Much is Enough?” MP ��, 9(�99�): pp. �9-��.

�7. P.M. Young, “Protecting Concrete in Water andWastewater Treatment Facilities,” JPCL 6, 7 (�9�9):pp. 2�-��.

��. U.S. CFR Title �0 “Protection of Environment,”Part 26�.��, Subpart W “Drip Pads—Design andOperating Requirements,” July �, �990.

�9. New York State Department of EnvironmentalConservation, Division of Spill Management,Chemical Bulk Storage Regulations, Part �99,“Standards for New and Substantially ModifiedHazardous Substance Storage Facilities,” August ��,�99�.

90. “Modern Plastics Encyclopedia ’96,” ModernPlastics 72, �2, (�99�): p. B��

9�. J.W. Prane, Sealants and Caulks (Philadelphia,PA: Federation of Societies for Coatings Tech-nology, �9�9).

92. Deutsches Institut fur Bautechnik (DIBt),“Constructions and Test Principles for Coatings forConcrete, Plaster, and Screed Surfaces of CollectingRooms for Water-Endangered Liquids” (Berlin,Germany: DIBt, �99�).

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702

9�. M.C. Adshead, “Required Performance ofExpansion Joint Materials,” in Achieving Quality inCoating Work, held November �9, �992 (Pittsburgh,PA: SSPC, �992), pp.�7�-�7�.

9�. T.D. Barkey, W.R. Slama, N.B. Fancher,“Physical and Mathematical Representations for theDetermination of Crack-Bridging Ability of LiningSystems,” in Managing Costs and Risks for Effectiveand Durable Protection, held November ��-�7, �99�(Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. ��2-�62.

9�. L. Czarnecki, J. Grabowski, “Criterion of CrackingResistance of Glass Fiber Reinforced Resins: AComparative Study,” in Adhesion Between Polymersand Concrete: Bonding, Protection, Repair, ed. H.R.Sasse, RILEM Conference held at Aix-en-Provence,France, September �6-�9, �9�6 (London, England:Chapman and Hall, �9�6), pp. ��2-�6�.

96. R.W. Dively, “Cracks in Concrete and TheirEffect on Coatings and Linings,” MP ��, 2 (�99�):pp. ��-��.

97. T. Dudick, “New Method of Crack Treatment forResinous Coatings,” in Achieving Quality in CoatingWork, held November �9, �992 (Pittsburgh, PA:SSPC, �992).

9�. A.R. Fiorillo, “Joints for Secondary Containment,”in Protective Coatings for Flooring and OtherConcrete Surfaces, held November �0-��, �99�(Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. ��-7�.

99. F.S. Gelfant, “Design Considerations for Rein-forced Thermoset Lining Systems Over Concrete,”MP ��, � (�99�): pp. 27-��.

�00. J.L. Hausfeld, “Flexible Chemical ResistantConcrete Lining for Spill Containment,” in AchievingQuality in Coating Work, held November �9, �992(Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �992), pp. ��-�6�.

�0�. JPCL Staff, “Using Thermoset Linings to BridgeConcrete Cracks in Secondary Containment,” JPCL9, � (�992): pp. 7�-76.

�02. M.W. Klosinski, M.W. Abramowitz, W. Glinka,“Modeling the Work of Glass Fiber Reinforced ResinCoatings on a Cracked Surface of Concrete,” inAdhesion Between Polymers and Concrete:Bonding, Protection, Repair, ed. H.R. Sasse, RILEMConference held September �6-�9, �9�6 (London,England: Chapman and Hall, �9�6), pp. ��-��7.

�0�. L. Meilus, “Unique Flexible Epoxy Systems forFlooring and Secondary Containment,” SPI, EpoxyResin Formulators, �99� Fall Conference, held atToronto, Ont., November �-�, �99� (Washington,D.C.: The Society of the Plastics Industry, �99�),paper no. 7.

�0�. F.A. Pfaff, F.S. Gelfant, “Testing New Crack-Bridging Designs Used in Lining Systems OverConcrete,” in Innovations for Preserving andProtecting Industrial Structures, held November ��-��, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. �26-��9.

�0�. B. Schwanborn, M. Fiebrich, “Crack-BridgingBehavior of Protective Coatings Subjected to NaturalWeathering,” in Protection of Concrete, eds. R.KDhir, J.W. Green, held September ��-��, (London,England: Chapman and Hall, �990), pp. 2��-2��.

�06. J.W. Sherick, “Expansion Joints for Contain-ment Vessels,” in Innovations for Preserving andProtecting Industrial Structures, held at New Orleans,LA, November ��-��, (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�),pp. �2�-�2�.

�07. V. Weiss, “Behavior of Tougher Coating withConcrete under Different Types of Loading,” inAdhesion Between Polymers and Concrete: Bond-ing, Protection, Repair, ed. H.R. Sasse, RILEMConference held September �6-�9, �9�6 (London,England: Chapman and Hall, �9�6), pp. 2�9-296.

�0�. L. Xian-Neng, “Study on the Use of Crack Re-sistant Polyester Mortars as Anticorrosion Coatingsfor Outdoor Concrete,” in Adhesion Between Poly-mers and Concrete: Bonding, Protection, Repair, ed.H.R. Sasse, RILEM Conference held September �6-�9, �9�6 (London, England: Chapman and Hall,�9�6), pp. ��-�9�.

�09. ASTM C �6� (latest revision), “Test Method forChemical Resistance of Protective Linings” (WestConshohocken, PA: ASTM).

��0. NACE Standard TM0�7� (latest revision),“Laboratory Methods for the Evaluation of ProtectiveCoatings Used as Lining Materials in ImmersionService” (Houston, TX: NACE).

��. ASTM D ��9� (latest revision), “Test Method forDetermining the Chemical Resistance of Fiberglass-Reinforced Thermosetting Resins by One-SidedPanel Exposure” (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).

��2. ASTM C 267 (latest revision), “Test Method forChemical Resistance of Mortars, Grouts, andMonolithic Surfacings” (West Conshohocken, PA:ASTM).

��. ASTM C �� (latest revision), “Test Method forAbsorption of Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Groutsand Monolithic Surfacings” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM).

��. ASTM D �� (latest revision), “Test Method forResistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents” (WestConshohocken, PA: ASTM).

�9



703

��. ASTM C �07 (latest revision), “Test Method forTensile Strength of Chemical-Resistant Mortars,Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings” (WestConshohocken, PA: ASTM).

��6. ASTM D ��2 (latest revision), “Test Methods forRubber Properties in Tension” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM).

��7. ASTM D 6�� (latest revision), “Test Method forthe Tensile Properties of Plastic” (West Con-shohocken, PA: ASTM).

��. ASTM C ��0 (latest revision), “Test Method forFlexural Strength and Modulus of Elasticity ofChemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and MonolithicSurfacings” (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).

��9. ASTM C �79 (latest revision), “Test Method forCompressive Strength of Chemical-Resistant Mor-tars, Grouts, Monolithic Surfacings, and PolymerConcretes” (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).

�20. ASTM D �0�� (latest revision), “Test Method forPlane-Strain Fracture Toughness and Strain EnergyRelease Rate of Plastic Materials” (West Con-shohocken, PA: ASTM).

�2�.ASTM D 279� (latest revision), “Test Method forthe Resistance of Organic Coatings to the Effects ofRapid Deformation (Impact)” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM).

�22. ASTM E 96 (latest revision), “Water VaporTransmission of Materials” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM).

�2�. ASTM C �� (latest revision), “Test Method forLinear Shrinkage and Coefficient of Thermal Ex-pansion of Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, andMonolithic Surfacings” (West Conshohocken, PA:ASTM).

�2�. ASTM C �� (latest revision), “EffectiveShrinkage of Epoxy-Resin Systems Used with Con-crete” (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).

�2�. ASTM C �� (latest revision), “ThermalCompatibility Between Concrete and an Epoxy-ResinOverlay” (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).

�26. ASTM E ��6 (latest revision), “Test Method forGlass Transition Temperature by Differential Scan-ning Calorimetry or Differential Thermal Analysis”(West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM).

�27. ASTM D ��7 (latest revision), “Tests on Paintsand Related Coatings and Materials Using aFluorescent UV-Condensation Light- and Water-Exposure Apparatus” (West Conshohocken, PA:ASTM).

�2�. D.J. De Renzo, ed., Corrosion ResistantMaterials Handbook, �th ed. (Park Ridge, NJ: NoyesData Corporation, �9��).

�29. D.J. De Renzo, ed., Handbook of CorrosionResistant Coatings (Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes DataCorporation, �9�6).

��0. C.H. Hare, Protective Coatings, Fundamentalsof Chemistry and Composition (Pittsburgh, PA:SSPC, �99�).

��. W.S. Sheppard Jr., Chemically Resistant Ma-sonry, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Marcel Dekker,�9�2).

��2. “Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2,Systems and Specifications,” 7th ed. (Pittsburgh, PA:SSPC, �99�).

��. P.H. Anderson, “Polysulfide Coatings inSecondary Containment,” in Innovations for Pre-serving and Protecting Industrial Structures, heldNovember ��-��, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC,�99�), pp.��0-��.

��. A.A. Boova, “Thermoplastic Linings for Pro-tecting Concrete and Steel,” JPCL �, �� (�9��): pp.��-�7.

��. A.A. Boova, “Thermoplastic Linings Mechan-ically Bonded to Concrete,” MP ��, � (�992): pp. ��-��.

��6. R.J. Franco, T.W. Ford, S. Fenwick, “FiberglassLining of a Concrete Neutralization Pit,” in Concrete:Surface Preparation, Coatings and Linings, andInspection Techniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��7. F.S. Gelfant, “A Historical Perspective on theAdvancement of Coating Technology for theProtection of Concrete,” CORROSION/9�, paper no.��, (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��. T.K. Greenfield, “Specifying Coatings forConcrete Surfaces,” MP ��, 7 (�99�): pp. �7-��.

��9. D. Griffin, “Coating of Concrete,” in Concrete:Surface Preparation, Coatings and Linings, andInspection Techniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��0. F. Hazen, “Corrosion Proofing of ConcreteStructures in Pulp and Paper Mills,” in Innovationsfor Preserving and Protecting Industrial Structures,held November ��-��, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC,�99�), pp. �6-��.

��. F. Hazen, “Monolithic Linings and Coatings forChemical Secondary Containment Structures,” inProtective Coatings for Flooring and Other Concrete

�0



704

Surfaces, held November �0-��, �99� (Pittsburgh,PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. 72-92.

��2. F.E. Hazen, “Monolithic Linings and Coatingsfor Chemical Secondary Containment Structures,”MP �0, � (�99�): pp. �6-��.

��. D.J. Herzog, T.B Brown, “Proper Cure of VinylEster Resins,” MP ��, � (�99�): pp. �0-��.

��. W.H. Julius, S.S. McDowell, “ContinuousNeedle Punched Non-Woven Polyester Fabric forImprovement of Corrosion Resistance and ThermalShock of Reinforced Monolithic Coatings for Con-crete,” in Innovations for Preserving and ProtectingIndustrial Structures, held November ��-��, �99�(Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. ��9-�22.

��. M.J. Masciale, R.T. Cash, “Coatings forConcrete Floors,” in Concrete: Surface Preparation,Coatings and Linings, and Inspection Techniques(Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��6. L. Matson, “Improve Secondary Containment,”Hydrocarbon Processing 70, � (�99�): pp. 7�-7�.

��7. T. Millard, “Epoxy and Vinyl Ester Flooring forConcrete,” JPCL �, � (�9��): pp. �6-�7.

��. P.R. Nau, B.S. Fultz, “Coatings and Linings forSecondary Containment in Power Plants,” JPCL 7,�0 (�990): pp. �2-�9.

��9. F. Neville, E.J. Wolf, “Monolithic Linings andFloorings for the Pulp and Paper Industry,” JPCL �, �(�99�): pp. ��-��.

��0. D.T. Nguyen, et al., “Performance of Coatingsfor Concrete Secondary Containment Exposed toPesticides,” in Managing Costs and Risks forEffective and Durable Protection, held November ��-�7, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. �29-��.

��. G. Ramirez, R. McGown, “The Use of SprayableElastomeric Polyurethane as a Secondary Con-tainment Lining on Concrete,” in Concrete: SurfacePreparation, Coatings and Linings, and InspectionTechniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��2. A.H. Roebuck, R.W. Foster, “�00 Percent SolidsPlural Component Urethane Coatings,” JPCL �, 2(�9��): pp. 22-27.

��. R.R. Roesler, W. Cibulas, M.B. Bassi,“Polyurethanes: Low VOC Coatings for Concrete,”presented at Protective Coatings for Flooring andOther Concrete Surfaces, held November �0-��,�99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�),

��. B.F. Schafran, C.W. Armstrong, “Repair andMaintenance of Refrigerated Warehouse Floors,”JPCL �, � (�99�): pp. 60-6�.

��. R. Stavinoha, “Coatings for Secondary Con-tainment,” in Achieving Quality in Coating Work, heldNovember �9, �992 (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �992),pp. �7-9�.

��6. R. Stavinoha, “Protecting Concrete from Expo-sure to Aggressive Chemicals,” JPCL �, 2 (�9��):pp. 2�-�2.

��7. R.W. Washburn, M.J. Galloway, W.R Slama,“Reinforced, Chemical-Resistant, Thermoset Lin-ings,” JPCL 2, �0 (�9��): pp. �0-�2.

��. T.D. Wayt, M.B. Bassi, “Polyurethane Coatingsfor Concrete,” in Concrete: Surface Preparation,Coatings and Linings, and Inspection Techniques(Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��9. M.P. Whitesell, T. Ippoliti, “Concrete SecondaryContainment and Coatings,” in Managing Costs andRisks for Effective and Durable Protection, heldNovember ��-�7, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC,�99�), pp. �7�-�7�.

�60. F.D. Wilson, “The Right Material for the RightJob,” MP 29, 2 (�990): pp. �2-��.

�6�. ACI �0�.� (latest revision), “Producing a SkidResistant Surface on Concrete by the Use of a Multi-Component Epoxy System” (Farmington Hills, MI:ACI).

�62. D.J. Keehan, J.F. McIntyre, “Properties of anInorganic/Organic Protective Coating for Use inSevere Service Environments,” in BalancingEconomics and Compliance for Maintaining Pro-tective Coatings (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp.70-7�.

�6�. M.S. Gilbert, “Novel Siloxane Hybrid Resins forUse in Secondary Containment,” in BalancingEconomics and Compliance for Maintaining Pro-tective Coatings (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp.��-�6�.

�6�. R.L. Iazetti, “Reliable Crack-Bridging SecondaryContainment Linings for Concrete Structures,” SSPC96 (S-�0), Charlotte, NC, Nov. �996.

�6�. Plastics Design Library Handbooks, ChemicalResistance, Volume �: Thermoplastics, (Norwich,NY: Plastics Design Library, �99�).

�66. Plastics Design Library Handbooks, ChemicalResistance, Volume 2: Thermoplastic Elastomers,Thermosets, and Rubbers (Norwich, NY: PlasticsDesign Library, �99�).

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705

�67. P.A. Schweitzer, ed., Corrosion ResistanceTables, �rd ed., Part A (A-I), (New York, NY: MarcelDekker, �99�).

�6�. P.A. Schweitzer, ed., Corrosion ResistanceTables, �rd ed., Part B (J-Z), (New York, NY: MarcelDekker, �99�).

�69. N.L. Hancox, R.M. Mayer, eds., Design Data forReinforced Plastics, A Guide for Engineers andDesigners (New York, NY: Chapman and Hall,�99�).

�70. T. Aldinger, “Concrete Coating Work Pro-cedures” in Achieving Quality in Coating Work, heldNovember �9, �992 (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �992),pp. �0-�6.

�7�. T.I. Aldinger, “The Modern Contractor: WritingEffective Work Procedures for Coating Concrete,”JPCL �0, � (�99�): pp. �6-��.

�72. J. Arnold, “Management Procedures forMaintenance Painting of Industrial Floors,” JPCL 6, �(�9�9): pp. ��-��.

�7�. R. Boyd, “Quality Control in Cleaning andCoating Concrete,” in Protective Coatings for Floor-ing and Other Concrete Surfaces, held November �0-��, �99� (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�), pp. �-7.

�7�. S. G. Pinney, “Preparation, Application, andInspection of Coatings for Concrete,” in Concrete:Surface Preparation, Coatings and Linings, andInspection Techniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

�7�. T.K. Greenfield, “Dehumidification EquipmentReduces Moisture in Concrete During CoatingApplication,” MP ��, � (�99�): pp. �9-�0.

�76. ACI �0�.2 (latest revision), “Repairing Concretewith Epoxy Mortars” (Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

�77. C.J. Steele, “Effective Sealing, Priming andCoating of New and Uncured Concrete,” in Concrete:Surface Preparation, Coatings and Linings, andInspection Techniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

�7�. “Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume �,Good Painting Practice,” 7th ed. (Pittsburgh, PA:SSPC, �99�).

�79. SSPC Publication 9�-�2, “Coating and LiningInspection Manual” (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, �99�).

��0. T.K. Greenfield, “Inspection of Coatings Appliedto Concrete,” MP ��, �0 (�992): pp. �2-��.

��. NACE Standard RP02�� (latest revision),“Inspection of Linings on Steel and Concrete,”(Houston, TX: NACE).

��2. ASTM D �� (latest revision), “Practice forMeasurement of Wet Film Thickness of OrganicCoatings by Notched Gauges,” (West Consho-hocken, PA: ASTM).

��. ASTM D �� (latest revision), “Test Method forMeasurement of Dry Film Thickness of ProtectiveCoating Systems by Destructive Means,” (Phila-delphia, PA: ASTM).

��. “Test Method for Nondestructive Meaurement ofDry Film Thickness of Applied Organic CoatingsUsing an Ultrasonic Gauge” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM). Work in progress by CommitteeD0�.2�.

��. D.D. Byerley, “Electrical Inspection of ProtectiveCoatings Applied to Concrete,” in Concrete: SurfacePreparation, Coatings and Linings, and InspectionTechniques (Houston, TX: NACE, �99�).

��6. ASTM D �7�7 (latest revision), “StandardPractice for Continuity Verification of Liquid or SheetLinings Applied to Concrete Substrates” (WestConshohocken, PA: ASTM).

��7. NACE Standard RP0�� (latest revision),“Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of ProtectiveCoatings” (Houston, TX: NACE).

��. ASTM D 2�� (latest revision), “Test Method forthe Indentation Hardness of Rigid Plastics by Meansof a Barcol Impressor” (West Conshohocken, PA:ASTM).

��9. ASTM D ��02 (latest revision), “Practice forAssessing the Solvent Resistance of OrganicCoatings Using Solvent Rubs” (West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM).

�90. NACE Standard RP0�� (latest revision),“Repair of Lining Systems” (Houston, TX: NACE).

�9�. F. Hazen, “Repair and Resurfacing of Paper MillBleach Plant Floors,” in Protective Coatings forFlooring and Other Concrete Surfaces, held at LongBeach, CA, November �0-��, (Pittsburgh, PA:SSPC, �99�), pp. ��-�67.

�92. ACI ��6 (latest revision), “Cement and ConcreteTerminology” (Farmington Hills, MI: ACI).

�9�. S. LeSota, ed., Coatings Encyclopedic Dic-tionary. (Blue Bell, PA: Federation of Societies forCoatings Technology, �99�).

�9�. “SSPC Guide for Applying Coatings to Con-crete” (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC). Work in progress byCommittee C.�.6.

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706

Appendix A—Chemical Conditions

Table A� gives the typical chemical resistance ofgeneric secondary containment coating systems.This table provides general information only. Thistable is not intended to provide guidelines or serve as

the basis for a specification. The coating manu-facturer can be consulted to determine the appro-priateness of a coating system to a particular appli-cation.

TABLE A1Typical Chemical Resistance of Secondary Containment Coating Systems

ChemicalType(A)

Concentration Temperature ContactTime

Polymer Types Used(B)

Inorganic Acid Up to �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllInorganic Acid Medium Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllInorganic Acid Concentrated Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. AllInorganic Acid Medium �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Concentrated �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Medium 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Concentrated 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. NoneOrganic Acid Up to �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllOrganic Acid �0% to �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllOrganic Acid �0% to �00% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. 2,�,7,�Organic Acid Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. AllOrganic Acid �0% to �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. 2,�,7,�Organic Acid �0% to �00% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. 7,�Organic Acid Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. 2,�,7Organic Acid �0% to �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. 2,�,7Organic Acid �0% to �00% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. 7Oxidizer Up to �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllOxidizer Medium Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,�Oxidizer Concentrated Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. 2,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. 2,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Medium �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. 2,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Concentrated �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. 2,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. 2 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Medium 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. NoneOxidizer Concentrated 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. NoneAlkalis Up to �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllAlkalis �0% to �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllAlkalis Above �0% Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,6,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Alkalis Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. AllAlkalis �0% to �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,6,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Alkalis Above �0% �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,6,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

(A) See Appendix C for examples of chemicals in each classification.(B) � = epoxy; 2 = polyester; � = vinyl ester; � = polyurethane/polyurea; � = polysulfide; 6 = acrylic; 7 = furan; � = epoxy siloxane

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707

ChemicalType(A)

Concentration Temperature ContactTime

Polymer Types Used(B)

Alkalis Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Alkalis �0% to �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Alkalis Above �0% 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)ChlorinatedSolvents

Concentrated Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. All (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

ChlorinatedSolvents

Concentrated �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulasonly)

ChlorinatedSolvents

Concentrated 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. None

OxygenatedSolvents


OxygenatedSolvents

Concentrated �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7,� (Specific chemicals and formulasonly)

OxygenatedSolvents

Concentrated 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

HydrocarbonSolvents


HydrocarbonSolvents

Concentrated �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. All (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

HydrocarbonSolvents

Concentrated 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

Salt Solutions Saturated Up to �0°C 72 hr Max. AllSalt Solutions Saturated �0°C to 70°C 72 hr Max. AllSalt Solutions Saturated 70°C to �00°C 72 hr Max. �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Up to �0% Up to �0°C Continuous AllInorganic Acid Medium Up to �0°C Continuous AllInorganic Acid Concentrated Up to �0°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous AllInorganic Acid Medium �0°C to 70°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Concentrated �0°C to 70°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Medium 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Inorganic Acid Concentrated 70°C to �00°C Continuous NoneOrganic Acid Up to �0% Up to �0°C Continuous AllOrganic Acid �0% to �0% Up to �0°C Continuous AllOrganic Acid �0% to �00% Up to �0°C Continuous 2,�,7Organic Acid Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous AllOrganic Acid �0% to �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous 2,�,7Organic Acid �0% to �00% �0°C to 70°C Continuous NoneOrganic Acid Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous 2,�,7Organic Acid �0% to �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous 2,�,7Organic Acid �0% to �00% 70°C to �00°C Continuous NoneOxidizer Up to �0% Up to �0°C Continuous AllOxidizer Medium Up to �0°C Continuous �,2,�


��



708

ChemicalType(A)

Concentration Temperature Contact Time Polymer Types Used(B)

Oxidizer Concentrated Up to �0°C Continuous 2 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous 2 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Medium �0°C to 70°C Continuous 2 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Concentrated �0°C to 70°C Continuous NoneOxidizer Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous 2 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Oxidizer Medium 70°C to �00°C Continuous NoneOxidizer Concentrated 70°C to �00°C Continuous NoneAlkalis Up to �0% Up to �0°C Continuous AllAlkalis �0% to �0% Up to �0°C Continuous AllAlkalis Above �0% Up to �0°C Continuous �,2,�,6,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas

only)Alkalis Up to �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous AllAlkalis �0% to �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous �,2,�,6,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas

only)Alkalis Above �0% �0°C to 70°C Continuous �,2,�,6,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas

only)Alkalis Up to �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Alkalis �0% to �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)Alkalis Above �0% 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)ChlorinatedSolvents

Concentrated Up to �0°C Continuous All (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

ChlorinatedSolvents

Concentrated �0°C to 70°C Continuous None

ChlorinatedSolvents

Concentrated 70°C to �00°C Continuous None

OxygenatedSolvents


OxygenatedSolvents

Concentrated �0°C to 70°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

OxygenatedSolvents

Concentrated 70°C to �00°C Continuous None

HydrocarbonSolvents


HydrocarbonSolvents

Concentrated �0C to 70°C Continuous All (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

HydrocarbonSolvents

Concentrated 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)

SaltSolutions

Saturated Up to �0°C Continuous All

SaltSolutions

Saturated �0°C to 70°C Continuous All

SaltSolutions

Saturated 70°C to �00°C Continuous �,2,�,7 (Specific chemicals and formulas only)


��



709

Appendix B—Physical Conditions

Table B� lists generic secondary containment coat-ing systems that have been used successfully invarious environmental and service conditions. Thistable provides general information only. This table is

not intended to provide guidelines or serve as thebasis for a specification. The coating manufacturercan be consulted to determine the appropriateness ofa coating system to a particular application.

TABLE B1Typical Conditions of Use of Secondary Containment Systems

Ambient TemperatureRange

Conditions of Use Physical Properties Required System Designs Used

Low (22°C ± �0°C) Occasional Foot AllLow (22°C ± �0°C) Constant Foot Abrasion Resistant AllLow (22°C ± �0°C) Fork Lift Abrasion and Gouge Resistant AllLow (22°C ± �0°C) Drum Storage Creep and Impact Resistant AllLow (22°C ± �0°C) Process Area AllLow (22°C ± �0°C) Tank Storage AllLow (22°C ± �0°C) Heavy Traffic High Strength FilledMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Occasional Foot AllMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Constant Foot Abrasion Resistant AllMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Fork Lift Abrasion and Gouge Resistant AllMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Drum Storage Creep and Impact Resistant AllMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Process Area AllMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Tank Storage AllMedium (22°C ± 20°C) Heavy Traffic High Strength FilledWider (22°C ± �0°C) Occasional Foot Crack Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericWider (22°C ± �0°C) Constant Foot Crack and Abrasion Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericWider (22°C ± �0°C) Fork Lift Crack, Abrasion, Gouge Resistant Filled, ReinforcedWider (22°C ± �0°C) Drum Storage Crack, Creep, Impact Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericWider (22°C ± �0°C) Process Area Crack Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericWider (22°C ± �0°C) Tank Storage Crack Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericWider (22°C ± �0°C) Heavy Traffic High Strength and Crack Resistant Filled, ReinforcedExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Occasional Foot Crack Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Constant Foot Crack and Abrasion Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Fork Lift Crack, Abrasion, Gouge Resistant Filled, ReinforcedExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Drum Storage Crack, Creep, Impact Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Process Area Crack Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Tank Storage Crack Resistant Reinforced or ElastomericExtreme (22°C > ±�0°C) Heavy Traffic High Strength and Crack Resistant Filled, Reinforced

�6



710

Appendix C—Examples of Chemicals Within Each Type

C�.� The following lists provide examples of typicalchemicals in each chemical type in Section 2 andAppendix A.

C�.�.� Mineral Acids

(�) Sulfuric(2) Nitric(�) Hydrochloric(�) Hydrofluoric(�) Phosphoric(6) Chromic

C�.�.2 Organic Acids

(�) Formic(2) Acetic(�) Acrylic(�) Adipic(�) Terephthalic(6) Fatty Acids

C�.�.� Oxidizers and Oxidizing Acids

(�) Nitric Acid(2) Chromic Acid(�) Peroxides(�) Hypochlorites

C�.�.� Alkalis

(�) Sodium Hydroxide(2) Calcium Hydroxide(�) Ammonia

C�.�.� Chlorinated Solvents

(�) Methylene Chloride(2) Ethylene Dichloride

C�.�.6 Oxygenated Solvents (often sub-divided as follows):

C�.�.6.� Alcohols

(�) Methanol(2) Ethanol(�) Ethylene Glycol(�) Phenol

C�.�.6.2 Ethers

(�) Diethyl Ether(2) Glycol Ethers(�) Propylene Oxide

C�.�.6.� Ketones

(�) Acetone(2) Methyl Ethyl Ketone

C�.�.6.� Esters

(�) Vinyl Acetate(2) Butyl Acetate

C�.�.7 Hydrocarbon Solvents (often sub-divided as follows):

C�.�.7.� Aliphatic

(�) Butane(2) Hexane(�) Cyclohexane(�) Butadiene

C�.�.7.2 Aromatic

(�) Benzene(2) Ethylbenzene(�) Styrene(�) Xylene(�) Toluene(6) Cumene

C�.�.� Salt Solutions

C�.�.9 Pesticides and Herbicides

design, installation, and maintenance of coating...

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